Nihat elik, "Black Sea anu the Balkans unuei 0ttoman Rule", Karadeniz Aratrmalar,

Cilt: 6, Say: 24, K 2u1u, s.1-27.

TBE BLACK SEA ANB TBE BALKANS 0NBER
0TT0NAN R0LE

Nihat elik
*




zet
Anauolu Platosu ve Balkan Yaimauas, 0smanl mpaiatoiluunun ana
ailk meikezleiiyui. Anauolu ve Balkanlaiuaki 0smanl fetihleii pek ok
etkenin neticeleiiuii. Bizansn zayflamas, 0smanl fetihleiine giuen yolu
amti. Bu yzuen, 0smanl mpaiatoiluu onemli miktaiua 0itouoks
Biistiyan nfusu iuaie etmitii. 0smanllain siatli genilemesi, 0smanl
impaiatoiluk zihniyetinin bii sonucuuui. Bu makaleue evvela 0smanl fe-
tihleii ve bu fetihleiin psikolojik ve siyasi yonleii bilhassa Balkan
Yaimauas bakmnuan ele alnacakti. Kaiaueniz Bavzas ua impaiatoiluk
iin son ueiece onemliyui. 18. yzyla uein Kaiauenizue 0smanllain
kaisnua bii iakip bulunmamaktayu ki Kaiaueniz bu uonemue neieueyse
bii "0smanl uol" haline gelmiti. kinci olaiak, Kaiauenizin siyasi ve ikti-
saui bii bolge olaiak onemine ueinilecektii.
Anahtar Kelimeler: Balkanlai, Kaiaueniz, 0smanllai

Abstract
The Anatolian Plateau anu the Balkan Peninsula weie the main powei bases
of 0ttoman Empiie. 0ttoman conquests in Anatolia anu Balkans weie con-
sequences of many factois. The uecline of Byzantium, paveu the way foi 0t-
toman conquests. Thus the 0ttoman Empiie, iuleu a significant 0ithouox
Chiistian population. The iapiu 0ttoman expansion was the consequence of
0ttoman impeiial minu. The fiist aim of this aiticle is to focus on 0ttoman
conquests anu theii political anu psychological aspects iegaiuing especially
the Balkan Peninsula. The Black Sea Basin was veiy impoitant foi the em-
piie. Theie was no iival to the 0ttomans in the Black Sea until the 18
th
cen-
tuiy; it was almost an "0ttoman Lake". The seconu aim of this aiticle is to
show the impoitance of Black Sea as a political anu economic zone.
Key-words: Balkans, Black Sea, 0ttomans



INTRODUCTION
0ttoman Empiie, boin out as one of the emiiates in westein Asia Ninoi
("Bithynia" iegion of the Byzantine Empiie) in the 14
th
centuiy, was able to
become the uominant powei of Asia Ninoi anu Euiope as well in the follow-
ing centuiies. Theie weie othei emiiates which ueclaieu theii inuepen-

This papei is a ieviseu veision of the papei piesenteu at the Blue Black Sea Inteinational
Confeience 14-17 0ctobei 2uu8Sakaiya 0niveisityTuikey
*
N.A. Canuiuate, uebze Institute of Bigh Technology Bepaitment of National Secuiity
Stiategies, nceliktigmail.com
Nihat elik
2

uence uuiing the tuimoil aftei the uisintegiation of Seljuk Empiie in Anato-
lia. Bistoiical uata shows that some of those emiiates weie stiongei than
the 0ttomans both politically anu militaiily. As a consequence, 0ttoman
conquests taigeteu Byzantine possessions. 0ttoman victoiies against the
Byzantine Empiie also stiengtheneu the 0ttoman position vis--vis othei
emiiates. Inteinal conflicts anu the uecay of the Byzantine cential auminis-
tiation anu exteinal thieats poseu by Seibia anu Bulgaiia in the Balkans
cieateu a feitile giounu foi 0ttoman auvance.
0ttoman iaius against the Byzantine Empiie in consequence incieaseu
the piestige of the 0ttomans amongst othei Anatolian emiiates, anu causeu
the influx of waiiiois (sing. "uhazi") into the 0ttoman teiiitoiy. Paul Wittek
emphasizeu the iole of 0ttomans as a "waiiioi state" fighting with a ieli-
gious zeal, conuucting an enuless wai against the "infiuel" with the puipose
of wiuening uaial-Islam (aboue of Islam). Bowevei, Wittek exaggeiateu the
concept of ieligious waifaie. Theie aie many instances in the 0ttoman his-
toiy showing 0ttoman piagmatism anu flexibility in foieign affaiis. The
0ttoman example was not unique. Contiaiy to the well accepteu assump-
tion, ieligious uiffeiences weie not always the main ueteiminants of me-
uieval foieign policies. Naiitime states of Italy, like venice anu uenoa, uiunt
hesitate to uevelop peaceful ielations with the 0ttomans, against all the
piohibitions ueclaieu by the Pope conceining especially the tiaue with
Nuslim states. So it is veiy cleai that the piactice of Byzantines anu maii-
time states of Italy iefeiiing to 0ttomans as "infiuels", oi the 0ttomans call-
ing those the same, ceaseu foi the sake of political anu economic inteiests,
consequently enueu "Boly Wai" anu leauing to uevelopment of close iela-
tions with each othei. Religious uiffeiences weie mostly iemembeieu at the
times of conflict anu useu to legitimize the wai. Fiom that point of view, it is
not suipiising to see venice, one of the main suppoiteis of the Ciusauess
against Nuslims, as the fiist Chiistian state to obtain commeicial piivileges
fiom a Nuslim state, the Ayyubius, at the enu of the twelfth centuiy.
1
It
seems that ieligion was not the only ueteiminant in the foieign policy pei-
ceptions of poweis at that time, especially iegaiuing maiitime iepublic of
venice. They piefeiieu a flexible foieign policy in oiuei to piotect theii
inteiests.
It is eviuent that even befoie the 0ttomans, a cultuie of peaceful coex-
istence staiteu to uevelop in Anatolia. Cities anu towns with mixeu popula-
tions inevitably weie places of contact anu inteiaction. Bowevei, the iole of
ieligious waifaie cant be ignoieu completely. It was one of the uominant
factois especially in the boiuei aieas of Seljuk anu Byzantine empiies. Ac-
coiuing to Paul Wittek; those aieas ("uc", in Tuikish) anu conuitions exist-
ing theie, weie veiy uiffeient fiom cities anu towns, anu boiuei aieas of
both siues weie veiy similai in many aspects. They weie populateu with

1
Bans Theunissen; Ottoman-Venetian Diplomatics: The Ahd-names, Rotteiuam, 196u, p:4
Black Sea anu the Balkans unuei 0ttoman Rule
S

people always ieauy to fight (Byzantine waiiiois weie nameu as akritai)

whose main economic activity was booty anu plunuei.
2

Thus the fiist pait of this papei will ueal with issues like the status of
non-Nuslims in teiiitoiies iuleu by Nuslims in Anatolia, the ielations be-
tween each gioup anu contacts. Also, the uecline of the two empiies (Byzan-
tine anu Seljuk) anu the iesultant powei vacuum that emeigeu as a iesult
shoulu be examineu in oiuei to fully show the conuitions which paveu the
way foi the iise of othei powei centeis in Anatolia anu Balkans, incluuing
the 0ttomans.
The teim "Balkan" is a Tuikish woiu which means "thickly wooueu
mountain iange"
S
anu also its the name of a mountain iange passing mou-
ein Bulgaiia in east-west uiiections. The 0ttoman name foi Balkan Penin-
sula is "Rumeli", " the lanu of the Romans". The 0ttoman Empiie was a Bal-
kan-Anatolian empiie especially befoie the conquests of Selim Is (incluuing
Syiia anu Egypt) in 1S2us. The seconu pait of this papei will give a biief
suivey of 0ttoman impeiial minuset while touching upon the natuie of 0t-
toman conquests. It will tiy to pioviue answeis foi the following questions
often askeu: Bow the 0ttomans manageu to expanu theii teiiitoiies in a
ielatively shoit peiiou anu iule a veiy mixeu population foi many centu-
iies. It will also uemonstiate the impoitance of Balkans foi the 0ttomans as
the coie iegion of the empiie with Anatolia.
The Balkan Peninsula is suiiounueu with the Black Sea in the east anu
its a fact that piohibits us fiom stuuying theii histoiies sepaiately. Theii
histoiy inteiwoven with those of otheis foices us to use a bioauei peispec-
tive. Feinanu Biauuel iefeis to the Black Sea as a pait of the "Neuiteiia-
nean Woilu". This view is stiengtheneu with the founuation of uieek colo-
nies in the antique peiiou which weie in the following centuiies to become
Latin colonies on the coasts of Black Sea with theii viviu commeicial life.
The thiiu section of the papei will examine 0ttoman policies iegaiuing the
Black Sea especially uuiing the iule of Nehmeu the Conqueioi. The uecline
anu uestiuction of the uoluen Boiue anu the emeigence of the Ciimean
Khanate anu the latteis status within the empiie will also be incluueu in my
analysis. Istanbul, with its huge population, was the biggest consumei of
foou in the empiie. The 0ttoman sultans weie foiceu to pioviue a sufficient
amount of giain anu meat foi theii subjects at a ieasonable piice. A iise in
the foou piices coulu tiiggei upiisings which woulu enu up even with the
uethioning of sultan. Thus foou piovisioning foi the impeiial capital was
one of the main conceins of eveiy sultan. Foi this ieason, the impoitance of

2
Paul Wittek; Osmanl mparatorluunun Douu [The Rise of the Ottoman Empire], (Tians.
By:Fatmagl Beiktay), Penceie Yaynlai, stanbul, 2uuu, p.29
S
Sii }ames Reuhouse; Redhouse Szl (Trke/Osmanlca ngilizce), Sev Yaynclk, stan-
bul, 1998, p:129
Nihat elik
4

Black Sea Basin as the "gianaiy" of empiie will be shown in the thiiu sec-
tion.

THE DECLINE OF BYZANTINE AND SELJUK EMPIRES: THE EVE OF THE
OTTOMAN CONQUESTS
Beginning fiom 29S to SuS, the Roman Empiie was iuleu accoiuing to the
new auministiative stiuctuie intiouuceu by the Empeioi Biocletian. Known
as "Tetiaichy" ("The iule of the fouis"), the empiie was iuleu by two empe-
iois, beaiing the title of Augustus, anu each hau seiving unuei them a uepu-
ty, nameu Caesai who was to succeeu the Augustus. The senioi Augustus
was to iule the eastein poition of the empiie.
4
Empeioi Constantine, son of
Constantinus, succeeueu his fathei as the Augustus of the Westein Empiie,
fiom S12 on publicly suppoiteu Chiistianity anu aftei a long stiuggle to
contiol the empiie against his iivals, was able to iestoie his iule. In S24,
Constantine the uieat chose Byzantion, an olu colony at the mouth of Bos-
poius, as his impeiial seat anu ienameu it "Constantinopolis nova Roma".
S

The veiy teim "Byzantine" is a piouuct of the latei centuiies. The sub-
jects of the empiie calleu themselves "Romans" oi "Chiistians"
6
, anu the
empeiois always claimeu to be the successois of Roman empeiois. As put
foiwaiu by Bonalu N. Nicol:
Byzantine is a convenient term to describe the culture of the medieval
world that centered on Constantinople. It was not a word that the inhabitants
of that world were in the habit of employing. They saw themselves as Romans
or Romaioi, and their empire as that eastern portion of the Greco-Roman
world of antiquity which had, by Gods grace, survived all the catastrophes
and changes that had afflicted the western part of the old Roman Empire.
7

In a palace coup in 476, the last of the Roman Empeiois in the West,
Romulus, was ueposeu by his baibaiian geneial 0uoacei, anu the lattei set
up himself as king in Italy.
8
In the following centuiies the Byzantine Empiie
faceu new thieats in almost eveiy uiiection: Peisia anu Nuslim Aiabs in the
east, anu the Buns, Avais, Slavs, Bulgais anu Pechenegs in the west. The
possessions of the empiie faceu fiagmentation; howevei, it was still a glo-
iious empiie, iuling a vast aiea in the Neai East.
In Byzantine iueology, all gioups outsiue the oibit of Byzantine Empiie
weie iegaiueu as "Baibaiians". The Empiie uealt with them in uiffeient
ways. Settling them in boiuei piovinces anu benefitting fiom theii militaiy

4
Petei Saiiis; "The Eastein Roman Empiie fiom Constantine to Beiaclius (Su6-641)", (in)
Cyiil Nango; The Oxford History of Byzantium , 0xfoiu 0niveisity Piess , 0xfoiu , 2uu2, p.19
S
Cyiil Nango; "Intiouuction", (in) Cyiil NANu0; The Oxford History of Byzantium, 0xfoiu
0niveisity Piess, 0xfoiu, 2uu2, p.2
6
Aveiil Cameion; The Byzantines, Blackwell Publishing, 0xfoiu, 2uu7, p.1
7
Bonalu N. Nicol; The Last Centuries of Byzantium 1261-1453, Seconu Euition, Cambiiuge
0niveisity Piess, Cambiiuge, 1996, p.1
8
Saiiis; op.cit, p.4u
Black Sea anu the Balkans unuei 0ttoman Rule
S

powei was an impoitant methou. In uiplomatic level, senuing ciowns to

theii leaueis as an act of claiming suzeiainty, playing off one gioup against
the othei anu tiiggeiing inteinal stiife by suppoiting iival chieftains, a ui-
viue anu iule policy suppoiteu by the famous "Byzantine intiigues", weie
the othei methous that seiveu the suivival of the empiie. Bowevei, the
most impoitant Byzantine solution was conveiting those "pagans" into tiue
Chiistians. This policy shapeu both the ieligious anu cultuial map in the
Eastein Euiope. Byzantine missions spieau ovei the Black Sea Basin. The
Bulgais, a Tuikic tiibe with a stiong Slavic element, unuei Khan Boiis ac-
cepteu Chiistianity in 86us anu in the following centuiies Chiistianity was
to become the uominant ieligion in the Balkans. Ciica 988, Piincess 0lgas
gianuson vlauimii was baptizeu, anu a ieligious mission was sent to Kiev.
In an effoit to conveit the Bungaiians, a monk nameu Bieiotheos, was ap-
pointeu as the "Bishop of Touikia (Bungaiy)".
9
Bowevei, "baptizing" as a
foieign policy instiument, uiunt woik all the time. The 0ithouox Bulgais
anu Seibs togethei with Russians weie to cause tiouble foi the empiie in
the following centuiies.
The population of Eastein Anatolia consisteu mainly of Aimenians anu
monophysite }acobites anu hau weak ties with the empiie.
1u
The uisputes
ovei ieligious matteis anu the Byzantine policy aiming at the subjugation of
Aimenian Chuich anu peisecution of Aimenians, maue things even woise.
Constantine X, in the seaich of new souices of ievenue, uisbanueu the Ai-
menian militia foices (Su.uuu men) whose membeis hau ceitain piivileges
like tax exemptions. Then he ie-imposeu the taxes. With }ohn }. Noiwichs
woius:
Thus it was that Byzantium lost an invaluable buffer state and gained
instead, not an Armenian bulwark as it had hoped, but what might a century
ago have been called an Armenian Question- a disaffected and discordant
minority within the Empire which created more problems than it solved. The
Armenian princes, left to themselves, would have put up as stiff a resistance to
the Muslim invaders as they always had ; now, demoralized and resentful,
they found themselves wondering whether even conquest by the Turks would
prove appreciably worse than their present subjection to the Greeks.
11

The tension between uieek anu Aimenian elements of the Byzantine
society was ieally high. When Romanus visiteu Sebastia (mouein Sivas in
Tuikey) uuiing his campaign in 1u69, the uieek inhabitants complaineu to
him that "when Sebastia had been sacked by the Turks (1059), the Armenians
had been more violent and unpitying toward the Greeks than had the Turks
themselves! So it was that Romanus ordered his troops to attack Sebasteia, a

9
}onathan Shepaiu; "Spieauing the Woiu: Byzantine Nissions", (in) NANu0; The Oxford
History of Byzantium, 0xfoiu 0niveisity Piess, 0xfoiu, 2uu2, p.2S1
1u
Clauue Cahen; Osmanllardan nce Anadolu [La Turquie Pr-Ottomane], Tians:Eiol
0yepazaic, Taiih vakf Yuit Yaynlai, 2uu8, p.7
11
}ohn }ulius Noiwich; Byzantium (The Apogee), Penguin Books, Lonuon, 199S, p.S41
Nihat elik
6

Byzantine city, and then he swore that he would destroy the Armenian
faith."
12
The victoiy of Seljuk aimies unuei the commanu of Sultan Alp Ai-
slan at the Battle of Nanzikeit (Ti. Nalazgiit) in 1u71 was a tuining point in
the histoiy of Anatolia. The Tuikic meicenaiies seiving in the Byzantine
aimy ueseiteu the Empeioi anu joineu the Seljuk aimy.
1S
The Seljuk Sultan
ieleaseu the captuieu Empeioi Romanos anu his ielease causeu a civil wai
which left the Byzantine teiiitoiy unpiotecteu in the east. The aiiival of
0ghuz Tuiks began not in style of iaius foi booty, but with the puipose of
settling in the newly conqueieu teiiitoiies. Tuikification was a long piocess
to last centuiies that was feu by the massive influx of new settleis. Paul
Nagualino states:
Thus, twenty years after the battle of Manzikert, the Turks were estab-
lished on the west coast of Asia Minor, and their occupation was progressing
beyond the nomadic stage: a branch of the Seljukid family was creating the
nucleus of an independent sultanate behind the walls of Nicea, in the Asiatic
hinterland of Constantinople, while in Smyrna an emir called Tzachas, who
had spent some time in Byzantine service, had built himself a fleet with which
he was attempting to capture the Aegean islands.
14

The Seljuks invaueu most paits of Anatolia anu moveu theii capital to
Nicea (Ti. znik), a city locateu just a few hunuieu kilometeis south of Con-
stantinople. That was iegaiueu as a ieal thieat by the Empeioi so he askeu
Pope 0iban II foi help against the Seljuks in 1u9S, anu that was a peifect
justification foi enteiing the Byzantine lanus.
1S
Bowevei, the aiiival of Ciu-
saueis cieateu tiouble not only foi the Seljuks but also foi the Byzantine
Empiie, while the unuisciplineu flock looking foi booty passeu thiough the
Balkan Peninsula anu finally ieacheu Constantinople still pillaging whatev-
ei they coulu finu. The empeioi quickly tianspoiteu them to Anatolia to
save the capital.
16
The empeioi now hau to ueal with the Latins too. Nicea
was conqueieu in 1u97 anu hanueu ovei to the Byzantines. The impeiial
seat of Seljuks was moveu to Iconium (Ti. Konya).The Ciusaueis finally
ieacheu }eiusalem in 1u99. But pioblems quickly aiose. The Ciusaueis
weie establishing small kinguoms in places they conqueieu.
17
Those piob-
lems weie paving the way foi the sack of Constantinople uuiing the Fouith
Ciusaue in 12u4. Also, the influence of Latins was incieasing in the empiie

12
(Repoiteu by Natthew of 0uessa) Speios viyonis, }i., The Decline of Medieval Hellenism in
Asia Minor and the Process of Islamization from the Eleventh through the Fifteenth Century,
0niveisity of Califoinia Piess, Los Angeles, 1971, p.9S
1S
Laszlo Rasonyi; Tarihte Trklk, Tians: B.Z. K0AY, 0ign Yaynevi, stanbul, 2uu7, p.24S
14
Paul Nagualino; "The Neuieval Empiie 878u-12u4)", (in) NANu0; The Oxford History of
Byzantium, 0xfoiu 0niveisity Piess, 0xfoiu, 2uu2, p.18S
1S
Cameion; op.cit, p.4S
16
ueoig 0stiogoisky; Bizans Devleti Tarihi [Geschichte des Byzantinisches Staates], Tians:
Fikiet Iltan, Tik Taiih Kuiumu Yaynlai, Ankaia, 2uu6, p.SSS
17
See especially Steven Runciman; Hal Seferleri Tarihi [A History of the Crusades] (S vols.),
Tians: Fikiet Iltan, Tik Taiih Kuiumu Yaynlai, Ankaia,1998
Black Sea anu the Balkans unuei 0ttoman Rule
7

especially in the aieas of commeice anu shipping. City-states like venice,

uenoa anu Pisa weie able to get concessions anu piivileges fiom the empe-
iois anu foim colonies in the impeiial teiiitoiy. Theie weie peihaps sixty
thousanu Latins living in Constantinople, living in theii quaiteis on the
coast of uoluen Boin.
18
Accoiuing to Nagualino, shipping anu maiitime
communications uont seem to have iateu veiy high in Byzantine politics,
society anu cultuie so Italian city-iepublics filleu the gap in the empiies
naval capability.
19
W. Beyu ciiticizes Byzantine meichants foi theii ineitia
anu leaving the commeice to the Latins.
2u
Bowevei, it shoulu be kept in
minu that it was not easy foi the Byzantine meichants to compete with the
Latins because of the piivileges the lattei obtaineu. That was anothei iea-
son fuelling anti-Latin sentiments in Constantinople especially aftei the
uieat Schism of Chuiches in 1uS4. So it is not suipiising to see Byzantine
flocks attacking Latin colonies in Constantinople.
21
Still, howevei, the Black
Sea was closeu to all foieigneis anu the empiie hau almost a monopoly ovei
it. With ueoiges Biatianus woius, it was a "un lac Byzantine-a Byzantine
lake".
22

The Fouith Ciusaue (12u4), followeu by the sack of Constantinople
anu fiagmentation of Byzantine teiiitoiy by the Ciusauei kings, was a se-
iious blow foi the Empiie. City-iepublics of Italy hau the ability to entei anu
foim colonies on the Black Sea coasts, only aftei they gaineu the contiol of
Constantinople anu the Stiaits. Impeiial seat was moveu to Nicea wheie it
was going to stay until 1261. Bowevei, the Byzantines weie expeiienceu
enough in uiplomacy to benefit fiom the ueauly competition between ve-
nice anu uenoa. uenoa was seeking ievenge against venice (because the
venetians sackeu the uenoese colony in Akka) anu as W. Beyu unueilines,
even the feai of excommunication by Pope, was not sufficient to foice them
to iefiain fiom foiming an alliance with the Byzantine empeioi in Nicea,
Nichael Palaiologos (Nichael vIII). Thus, the Tieaty of Nymphoeum was
signeu between the paities in 1S Naich 1261. The uenoese siue, piomiseu
to help the empeioi in his attempts to ie-conquei Constantinople by senu-
ing an aimeu fleet anu in ietuin the empeioi gianteu them many piivileges
incluuing the foimation of new colonies thioughout the empiie. uenoa was
alloweu to foim colonies on the Black Sea coasts anu theii goous weie going
to be exempteu fiom customs taxes. Accoiuing to the tieaty, only the ue-

18
Cameion; op.cit, p.46
19
Nagualino; op.cit, p.197
2u
W. Beyu; Yakndou Ticaret Tarihi [Histoire du Commerce du Levant au Moyen-Age], Tians:
Envei Ziya Kaial, Tik Taiih Kuiumu, 2nu Eu., Ankaia, 2uuu, p.6S
21
Foi Byzantine-venetian ielations see: Baviu N. Nicol, Bizans ve Venedik, Diplomatik ve
Kltrel likiler zerine [Byzantium and Venice, A Study in Diplomatic and Cultural Relations],
Tians: ul aal uven, Sabanc 0niveisitesi Yaynlai, stanbul, 2uuu
22
ueoiges Biatianu; La Mer Noire, Des Origines a la Conquete Ottomane, Societatea Acauemica
Romana, Nnich, 1969, p.17S
Nihat elik
8

noese meichants weie to benefit fiom the Black Sea tiaue. Bowevei, the
Byzantines piefeiieu a balanceu foieign policy anu in the following yeais
almost the same piivileges weie gianteu to the venetians too.
2S

Aftei the Fouith Ciusaue, the ielations between the Byzantine anu Sel-
juk Empiies seemeu stable anu peaceful. The Nicean Empiie, at that time
was busy with planning to ie-conquei Constantinople.
24
0n the othei hanu
the Seljuks weie conqueiing cities in othei paits of Anatolia like Sinop, An-
talya anu Alaiye. In this peiiou, almost ceaseu tiaue was ieviveu again. The
Seljuks, obtaineu the above mentioneu poit cities, anu gaineu impoitant
outlets to the sea. The lanu ioutes ciosseu Anatolia in noith-south anu east-
west uiiections. The tiaue ioute staiting fiom Antalya oi Alaiye (mouein
Alanya) passeu thiough Sivas anu Tokat to the Black Sea poits of Sinop anu
Samsun. The tiaue with Ciimean poit of SuuakSoluia (Ti. Suuak) mainly
incluueu fuis anu slaves. Slaves of both genuei hau a high uemanu especial-
ly in Egypt whose aimy consisteu of mamluks (slaves). At that time slave
tiaue was in the hanus of Latins. Seljuk policy attempteu to suppoit tiaue
by eveiy possible means. Nany caiavanseiais weie built on these ioaus
which pioviueu secuiity, foou anu beu fiee of chaige. Neichants, whose
goous weie stolen oi uamageu in sea acciuents, ieceiveu compensations.
They intiouuceu a mechanism like mouein insuiance.
2S
In Naich 122u, the
venetians anu Seljuks concluueu a tieaty. In its text it was mentioneu that
this tieaty was the ienewal of the two eailiei tieaties.
26
Thus in the 1S
th

centuiy, the tiaue in Anatolia flouiisheu. Theie weie even Russian anu
Kpchak (Cuman) meichants fiom Bet-i Kpak (Steppe of Kpchaks) in
Sivas anu Syiia, anu Seljuk subjects weie piesent in Ciimean poits, they hau
built a mosque in Suuak.
27

The iise of Nongol Empiie, causeu immigiation of Tuikomans en
masse into Anatolia ovei whom the Seljuk Sultans uiunt have a tight con-
tiol. Theie weie ceitain ieligious uiffeiences between the seuentaiy popu-
lation of Anatolia anu the new-coming Tuikomans. They weie Nuslims;
howevei they pieseiveu theii olu faith of Shamanism unuei the polish of
Islam.
28
The uiffeience between them anu the seuentaiy population can be
seen easily by the ieligious oiueis they suppoiteu. The seuentaiy popula-
tion suppoiteu the oiuei of Nevlana Celaleuuin Rumi latei known as Mevle-
vilik, a ieligious oiuei suppoiting the Seljuk authoiity with membeis of
miuule anu high class of the society incluuing also people of Chiistian faith

2S
Beyu; op.cit, p:48u-487
24
viyonis; op.cit, p.1S2
2S
0sman Tuian; "Seluklu Keivansaiaylai", Belleten, vol:X Issue: S9, }uly 1946, (pp:471-496)
Tik Taiih Kuiumu Basmevi, Ankaia, p.47S
26
Theunissen; op.cit., p:SS
27
Cahen; op.cit, p:121-12S
28
Fuat Kopil; Osmanl mparatorluunun Kuruluu, Aka Yaynlai, 4th eu., Ankaia,
2uu6,p.77
Black Sea anu the Balkans unuei 0ttoman Rule
9

unuei the heavy influence of Peisian cultuie.

29
This oiuei hau negative
views on the Tuicoman heteiouox ieligious leaueis (known as "baba" oi
"ueivi") anu attackeu theii beliefs. The uevastating ievolt of Baba shak
(known also as Babai Kyam), feu by heteiouox pieaching, was only sup-
piesseu with an aimy incluuing many Chiistian meicenaiies.
Su
With the
battle of Koseua in 124S, the Seljuks weie ciusheu anu became a vassal
state of the Nongol Empiie. In the following yeais the inteinal stiife in Sel-
juk Empiie weakeneu its contiol ovei uiffeient Tuicoman tiibes scatteieu
thiough Anatolia. Foi the auvantage of those Tuicoman tiibes, aftei the ie-
conquest of Constantinople in 1261, Byzantine contiol ovei Asia Ninoi was
neglecteu anu at the enu weakeneu. It was this enviionment in Anatolia
which paveu the way foi emeigence of many inuepenuent emiiates at the
beginning of 14
th
centuiy.
The piesence of many non-Nuslims in Anatolia who liveu unuei the
iule of Nuslim states foi a long time, inevitably causeu contact anu inteiac-
tion. The employment of Chiistians in the aimy as meicenaiies anu in bu-
ieauciacy as state officials stiengtheneu the ties between each gioup.
S1

Especially the Aimenians, who weie suppiesseu by Byzantine authoiities
uue to the uisputes ovei theii faith, weie ieally integiateu into the Nuslim
society. The Seljuk sultans hau close contacts with theii ieligious leaueis.
This explains the lettei II. Klaislan sent to the Aimenian Patiiaich Nihael
in Nalatya aftei his victoiy against the Byzantine aimy, in which he stateu
that the victoiy was won with the help of the piayeis of the Patiiaich.
S2
It
may be suipiising to see that Chiistians auopteu Tuikish (names like Kaya,
Aislan, Yamui, iek, etc.) anu Islamic peisonal names (like Bamza, Allah-
veiui, etc.) a tenuency which went on uuiing the 0ttoman peiiou too.
SS
This
emeiges as an impoitant pioblem foi the histoiians woiking on 0ttoman
uocuments especially ielateu with Buisa anu the suiiounuing iegion, foi-
mei Bthynia; because it is not possible to infei ones ieligion fiom the name
unless it is explicitly stateu in the uocument. 0n the othei hanu Iiene Belui-
ceanu-Steinheii mentions anothei possibility: Those Chiistians woulu be
the Cuman settleis (a Tuikic tiibe that liveu aiounu the Balkans anu the
Black Sea Basin) biought theie by the Byzantine Empeiois in oiuei to
stiengthen the impeiial militaiy stiuctuie anu to populate the ueseiteu
aieas that weie Chiistianizeu afteiwaius.
S4
Anothei tenuency was to visit

29
Fuat Kopil; Anadoluda slamiyet, Aka Yaynlai, Ankaia, 2uuS, p.Su
Su
viyonis; op.cit., p.1S4
S1
Cahen; op.cit. ,p.16u
S2
0sman Tuian; Seluklular ve slamiyet, stanbul, 1971, p.12
SS
0sman etin; Sicillere Gre Bursada htida Hareketleri ve Sosyal Sonular (1472-1909),
Tik Taiih Kuiumu Yaynlai, Ankaia, 1999, p.S7
S4
Iiene Beluiceanu-Steinheii; "Bitinyaua uayiimslim Nfus", (in) Osmanl Beylii 1300-
1389[The Ottoman Emirate 1300-1389], (Eu) Elizabeth A. Zachaiiauou, Tians:ul aal u-
ven, smail Yeiguz, Tlin Altnova, Taiih vakf Yuit Yaynlai, stanbul,2uuu, p.12
Nihat elik
1u

each otheis sanctuaiies. Nany Chiistians visiteu Nuslim sanctuaiies anu

many Nuslims visiteu the Chiistian ones. That was a tiauition both in Ana-
tolia anu latei in the Balkans uuiing the 0ttoman peiiou. F.W. Basluck gives
a uetaileu list of these sanctuaiies.
SS

In Islamic law, non- Nuslims especially Chiistians anu }ews who aie
nameu as "ehl-i kitap" (people of the book), hau to be piotecteu by the state.
If they come to Nuslim teiiitoiy anu stay theie foi a shoit peiiou foi exam-
ple as meichants, (geneially accepteu uuiation is one yeai) they gain the
status of "mustamin". Buiing theii stay, they aie unuei the states piotec-
tion anu they uont pay "jizya", the poll tax.
S6
If they live peimanently in
Nuslim uomains, they gain a uiffeient status nameu "zhimmi". In auuition to
the taxes paiu also by the Nuslims, they have to pay the jizya while they aie
exempteu fiom the militaiy seivice. The olu, the cleigy anu the pooi aie
exempteu fiom jizya. They have the iight to take theii cases iegaiuing is-
sues like inheiitance anu maiiiage to theii special couits while maintaining
theii ieligious institutions anu schools. They can take buieauciatic posi-
tions. Bowevei they cant be electeu as piesiuent of the state anu cant be
appointeu to the ciitical posts like high-level militaiy commanu.
S7
In ietuin,
the state hau to piotect them against any thieat anu even to ueclaie wai on
othei states if they aie attackeu, while pioviuing fieeuom of faith. Regaiu-
ing the iegulations of clothing, theie aie uiffeient views. Some of the Nus-
lim scholais (ulema) founu it impoitant to uistinguish the subjects by theii
clothing.
S8
When the Nongol aimies invaueu Anatolia, the Nongol goveinoi
Timuitash, "found the clothing and hats of the Jews and Christians to be
indistinguishable from those of the Muslims. He announced that the non-
Muslims should wear conical hats with yellow turbans so that they could be
distinguished from the faithful"
S9

Conveision to Islam followeu by Tuikification was the iesult of many
factois anu a long piocess. With viyonis woius:
"The historical events indubitably exercised a profound influence on the
psychology of the Christians. They had experienced and witnessed the defeat
of Byzantium and they were now subjects of military conquerors who pro-
fessed an alien faith. Undoubtedly some saw in this fact a proof of Islams va-
lidity. Others were prepared for assimilation by the preaching of dervishes

SS
F.W. Basluck; Christianity and Islam Under the Sultans, The ISIS Piess, stanbul, 2uuu, vol:1
p.96-117
S6
Ahmet Yaman; slam Hukukunda Uluslararas likiler, Feci Yaynevi, Ankaia, 1998, p.2SS
S7
Bilal Eiylmaz; Osmanl Devletinde Gayrimslim Tebaann Ynetimi, Risale Yaynlai, stan-
bul, 1996,p.21
S8
Foi the iegulations iegaiuing non-Nuslims in the 0ttoman Empiie see: Ruth Lamuan;
"Communal Regulations as a Souice foi }ewish Womens Lives in the 0ttoman Empiie, The
Muslim World, vol:9S, Apiil 2uuS, pp:249-26S anu Betl piili Aigt; "Clothing Babits,
Regulations anu Non-Nuslims in the 0ttoman Empiie, Akademik Aratrmalar Dergisi,
Issue:24, 2uuS, pp:79-96
S9
viyonis; op.cit, p.224
Black Sea anu the Balkans unuei 0ttoman Rule
11

and ulemas, and by the religious syncretism that tended to equate Islamic
practices and saints with those of the Christians. In any case strong economic
and social motivations were ever present. Converts would escape the onerous
tax of the djizye, and their agricultural tax would be lightened. Others might
hope for administrative positions and lands."
4u

Foiceu conveision is stiictly piohibiteu by Islamic law, howevei both
political anu economic incentives weie useu foi encouiaging people to con-
veit. In spite of all these incentives 0sman etins stuuy, baseu on the 0t-
toman juuicial iegisteis shows us that the movement of conveision was
limiteu. Foi the yeais between 1472 anu 19u9, in a veiy cosmopolitan city,
Buisa, he was able to uetect only 8SS conveisions.
41


THE NATURE OF THE OTTOMAN CONQUESTS
The aim of this section is not to give a full political histoiy of 0ttoman con-
quests. Insteau I will heie mostly focus on the natuie of 0ttoman conquests
anu the ielations between the conqueiois anu the conqueieu. The main
iuea of this section is that the 0ttomans weie not only tiying to conquei
countiies, but they weie tiying to conquei peoples heaits with the iueal of
a just iule.
The emiiates of Anatolia weie to fill the powei-vacuum that was
cieateu with the uecline of the two empiies. Foimei membeis of the Byzan-
tine-Seljuk civil anu militaiy buieauciacy weie to be unuei theii seivice.
The fiscal ciises in the Byzantine Empiie, foiceu the empeioi to ueciease
the peisonnel count of the Byzantine navy. "With no hope of alternative em-
ployment in the Empire, many of them took service with the Italians or even
with the Turks rather than die of hunger.
42
The 0ttomans benefiteu fiom
the ueclining Byzantine iule anu the iesentment of the population feu up
with coiiuption anu malpiactices. Contempoiaiy uieek obseivei Pahi-
meies, iepoits that befoie the Battle of Bafeus (1Su1) fought between the
0ttoman anu Byzantine aimies, the inhabitants of Nicea hateu the goveinoi
because of his malpiactices anu of the piivileges gianteu to the soluieis
seiving in the foitiess aftei his abolition, Pahimeies auus that many of them
chose to seive on the 0ttoman siue.
4S

Bue to all of the ieasons listeu above the 0ttomans weie able to en-
laige theii teiiitoiy veiy iapiuly: In 1S26 Buisa, an impoitant commeicial
centei of that time was conqueieu. Latei in 1SS1 Niceaznik, famous with
its stiong walls, was conqueieu too. 0ttoman Emiiate attiacteu numeious

4u
viyonis; op.cit, p.SS9
41
etin; op.cit. ,p.S4
42
Nicol; The Last Centuries, p.1u8
4S
(quot. In.) Balil nalck; "0sman uazinin znik Kuatmas ve Bafeus Nuhaiebesi", in) Osman-
l Beylii 1300-1389[The Ottoman Emirate 1300-1389], (Eu) Elizabeth A. Zachaiiauou, Tians:
ul aal uven, smail Yeiguz, Tlin Altnova, Taiih vakf Yuit Yaynlai, stanbul,2uuu, p.8u
Nihat elik
12

Tuicomans thioughout Anatolia, aftei seeing 0ttoman victoiies against the

Byzantines; they became willing to join the 0ttomans.
Inteinal stiife in the Byzantine Empiie foiceu the empeiois to ally with
the 0ttomans in oiuei to get militaiy suppoit fiom them. The 0ttomans
suppoiteu Empeioi Cantacuzenos in his wais against the Seibs anu Bulga-
iians. By paiticipating in the Balkan campaigns of the Byzantine empeioi,
0ttoman militaiy commanu gaineu expeiience anu infoimation about the
situation in the Balkans.
44
The gaining of a footholu in the Balkans in 1SS4,
Tzympe, on the uallipoli Isthmus, was a mile stone in 0ttoman histoiy. It
was to seive like a biiuge-heau foi the following 0ttoman conquests. At
time same time, the 0ttomans extenueu theii iule ovei the Emiiate of Kaie-
si (contiolleu almost southein paits of the ualliopoli) whose navy pioviueu
the 0ttomans a useful tool. It was an 0ttoman policy to foim ielations of
vassalage piioi to the final conquest. That was a slow piocess of couise.
Aftei eliminating the native uynasty, the 0ttomans applieu the timai system
anu staiteu to iule the countiy uiiectly.
4S
This policy was applieu both in
Anatolia anu the Balkans. In 1S69 Auiionople (Ti. Euiine) was conqueieu
anu 0ttoman militaiy commanueis on the boiueis staiteu theii iaius as fai
as Seibia. In 1S87 Thessalonica was conqueieu, anu }ohn v Palaiologos
agieeu to become a vassal of Sultan Nuiau.
46

Similai to Anatolia, in the Balkans as well, the 0ttomans benefiteu fiom
the inteinal conflicts anu the powei-vacuum. Petei F. Sugai summaiizes the
situation in the Balkans befoie the 0ttoman conquests as follows:
In the middle of the fourteenth century the Balkan Peninsula was in
turmoil. The second Serbian empire was disintegrating, and the Byzantine
Empire, which in previous centuries had always been able to fill the vacuum
left by similar collapses in the area, was too weak to play this role. Political
chaos was paralleled by social and religious controversy. The lower classes
were trying to shake off the rule of the traditional noble ruling element, and
heresies, which often represented social class differences, flourished. Members
of the Slav ruling families were fighting each other, and a similar struggle for
the throne was in progress in the Byzantine Empire. It was the latter struggle
that brought a new force, the Ottomans, into the Balkans.
47

Beteiouox ueivishes playeu an impoitant iole in the 0ttoman con-
quests. In many cases they paiticipateu in the conquests with theii follow-
eis, anu latei the sultans gianteu piivileges anu uistiibuteu fiefs
48
to

44
eiif Batav; "0smanl mpaiatoiluunun Kuiuluu Esnasnua Bizans ve Aviupa", Belleten,
vol:68, Apiil 2uu4,p.S
4S
Balil nalck; "0ttoman Nethous of Conquest", Studia Islamica, No:2 (19S4), pp.1uS-129
46
Cameion; op.cit, p.S9
47
Petei F. Sugai; The Southeastern Europe Under Ottoman Rule 1354-1804, 0niveisity of
Washington Piess, Seattle, 1996, p.S
48
Beie I useu the teim "fief", but in Tuikish it is nameu "tmai" anu it must be kept in minu
that the 0ttoman "tmai" was veiy uiffeient fiom especially the Westein Euiopean fief.
Black Sea anu the Balkans unuei 0ttoman Rule
1S

them.
49
0mei Ltfi Baikan uesciibeu them in 19Sus as "colonizei Tuikish
ueivishes". They founueu new villages especially in insecuie lanus, neai the
mountain passes oi biiuges, openeu new agiicultuial lanus. Theii fiist step
was to builu a zaviyeimaiet. These institutions weie pioviuing secuiity in
theii neighboihoous anu seiving tiaveleis. They weie the centeis of piopa-
ganua; they also oiganizeu the settling of new-coming Tuikish population.
So in a shoit time new villages with Tuikish population weie founueu
which contiolleu the countiysiue.
Su

Pious founuations (waqfs) anu imaiets (public kitchens) playeu an im-
poitant iole in 0ttoman conquests. Even in the foimation yeais of the em-
piie, Sultan 0ihan founueu a waqf in Nekece in 1S24 with the puipose of
seiving the tiaveleis anu the pooi.(wiitten in Peisian, its also one of the
oluest 0ttoman uocuments suiviveu.)
S1
Beath W. Lowiy, gives us a valuable
insight about these institutions. Be uses the naiiative of Xv. centuiy 0tto-
man chioniclei Ak Paazaue (his book is known as Tevaiih-i Al-i 0sman).
Ak Paazaue iepoits the activities of Sultan 0ihan aftei he conqueieu
Nicea
S2
: (I piefeiieu Lowiys tianslation)
"He [Orhan Gazi] established an imaret at the edge of the Yeniehir Gate
[] when the doors of the imaret were first opened and its first food prepared,
it was distributed by the blessed hands of Orhan Gazi himself. He served as the
imarets apprentice on the opening evening.
53

Lowiy than states the impoitance of that act, he summaiizes the 0tto-
man policy:
"Akpaazade likewise highlights the casual linkage between accom-
modation and conversion, i.e. the fact that good treatment of the conquered
led many Bithynian (and later Balkan) Christians to accept not only the polit-
ical reality of the new order but also the religion of its dynasty, Islam. A Nus-
lim conqueioi feeuing his newly acquiieu Chiistian subjects with his own
hanus is a stiiking image."
S4

The 0ttomans followeu a policy of uepoitation(exile) (in Tuikish
"iskn siyaseti"). Nany families weie sent to the Balkan Peninsula fiom
Anatolia following the 0ttoman conquests. In some cases that was an act of

49
Iiene Nelikoff; Uyur dik Uyardlar, Alevilik-Bektailik Aratrmalar, Tians: Tuian Alptekin,
Bemos Yaynlai, stanbul, 2uu6, p.199 (See especially p.197-2u9)
Su
0mei Ltfi Baikan; "0smanl mpaiatoiluunua Kolonizatoi Tik Beivileii", Trkler
Ansiklopedisi, vol:9, Yeni Tikiye Yaynlai, Ankaia, pp:1SS-1SS
S1
. Bakk 0zunail; "0ihan Bey vakfiyesi", Belleten, vol:v Issue:19 }uly 1941, pp:277-288
S2
The text in Tuikish is as follows: Yiniehir kapusn kdug yirde bir imaret yapd
maretn kim kapus ald, taam kim bidi Orhan Gazi ol taam kend mbarek eliylen
ledrdi ve ran dah evvel gice kend yakd , Ak Paazaue, Tevarih-i Al-i Osman, (Eus)
Kemal Yavuz, N. A. Yekta Saia, uokkubbe Yaynlai, stanbul, 2uu7, p.S14
SS
Beath W. Lowiy; "Ranuom Nusings on the 0iigins of 0ttoman Chaiity: Fiom Nekece to
Buisa, znik anu Beyonu", (in) (Eus.) Nina Eigin, Chiistoph K. Neuman, Amy Singei; Feeding
People, Feeding Power, Imarets in the Ottoman Empire, Eien Piess, Istanbul, 2uu7,p.71
S4
Lowiy; "Ranuom Nusings on the 0iigins", p.72
Nihat elik
14

punishment, families who violateu the laws weie chosen. 0n the othei hanu
volunteeis weie piesent too. Peasant families looking foi lanu oi pastuies
foi animal bieeuing weie sent to the Balkans.
SS
In 0ttoman "tahiii uefteis"
(cauastial suiveys) its possible foi the histoiians to tiack these uepoita-
tions. In the tahiii ueftei of Aivaniu (an 0ttoman piovince in mouein Alba-
nia) uateu 14S2, we can see many examples of uepoitees. Theii oiigins aie
inuicateu with woius like Saiuhanl (mouein Nanisa in Tuikey) oi
Engil (mouein Ankaia).
S6

In 0ttoman society theie was a piivilegeu gioup known as "askeri, a
social class unuei the goveinments seivice incluuing Nuslims anu non-
Nuslims alike. This class incluueu the highest level officials, lowest iank of
timail sipahis(fief holueis) anu othei auxiliaiy foices. They weie exempteu
fiom many taxes foi the seivices they pioviueu. It was the main aim of the
0ttomans to pioviue secuiity anu stability in the aieas they iuleu, which
weie pieconuitions foi welfaie anu commeice. Thus, the 0ttomans foimeu
auxiliaiy foices fiom the villageis in iuial aieas. They acquiieu tax exemp-
tions foi theii seivices like guaiuing anu iepaiiing biiuges, ioaus, mountain
passes, anu watei canals. This oiganization, nameu as "ueibenu tekilat"
can be seen in 0ttoman auministiative stiuctuie fiom the beginning of Nu-
iau IIs iule (1421-14S1). This oiganization was veiy functional especially
in the mountainous Balkan aieas. The Chiistian membeis of this oiganiza-
tion weie nameu as "maitolos, klepth anu aimatol" in the Balkans.
S7
The
willingness of the 0ttomans to employ its Chiistian subjects at vaiious le-
vels of buieauciacy positively seiveu the integiation piocess. They weie
the membeis of militaiy class (askeii) like the gianu viziei (sauiazam) who
was the heau of civil anu militaiy buieauciacy. The iest of the society, who
paiu taxes, was nameu "reaya" (the flock). Anothei impoitant 0ttoman poli-
cy was accepting foimei lanu holueis into the class of askeii. By that way,
many of the local elites in the Balkans weie tiansfoimeu into 0ttoman sipa-
hi, they weie gianteu fiefs, exempteu fiom taxes anu in ietuin they weie to
seive as local secuiity foice, collect ueciueu taxes anu join the 0ttoman
aimy with theii men uuiing a campaign.
S8

While coopeiating with the foimei elite class, the 0ttomans coulunt
have neglecteu the iest of the society, the ieaya. 0ttoman peasantiy, in con-
tiast to the seifs in Euiope, hau ceitain iights which weie oveiseen by the

SS
Bseyin Aislan; 16. yy. Osmanl Toplumunda Ynetim, Nfus, skan, G ve Srgn, Kakns
Yaynlai, stanbul, 2uu1, p.181
S6
(Publisheu By) Balil nalck; Hicri 835 Tarihli Suret-i Defter-i Sancak-i Arvanid, Tik Taiih
Kuiumu Basmevi, Ankaia, 1987 (see vaiious pages.)
S7
Cengiz 0ihonlu; Osmanl mparatorluunda Derbend Tekilat, Eien Yaynclk, stanbul,
199u, p.17
S8
Foi Chiistian sipahis in the Balkans especially see: Balil nalck; "Stefan Buanuan 0smanl
mpaiatoiuuna", (in) Balil nalck; Fatih Devri zerine Tetkik ve Vesikalar, Tik Taiih Kuiu-
mu Yaynevi, 4
th
eu., Ankaia, 2uu7, pp:1S7-184
Black Sea anu the Balkans unuei 0ttoman Rule
1S

stiong state buieauciacy. Befoie the uecay of 0ttoman lanu auministiation

(timai sistemi) in 17
th
centuiy, the small family faims, nameu as "ift" (an
aiea that can be ploweu by two oxens) weie the main piouuction units in
agiicultuie. Aftei the conquest, it was the fiist action of the 0ttomans to
appoint the town a "suba" (local militaiy commanuei iesponsible foi the
secuiity as well as auministiative tasks anu heau of the tmail sipahis) anu
a "kau" (a juuge with also many municipal iesponsibilities like inspecting
maikets anu ciaftsmen). Aftei that, a gioup of tiusteu men weie to piepaie
the cauastial suivey ("tahiii" is the name of the piocess anu the iecoius aie
nameu as "tahiii uefteii") a uocument which showeu all the ievenue biing-
ing assets of an aiea. The amount of ievenue ueiiving fiom customs, mai-
kets, agiicultuial lanus (even the numbei of fiuit tiees weie incluueu), as
well as the numbei of builuings, houses, bakeiies, public baths anu the pop-
ulation stiuctuie (like the ieligious stiuctuie of population anu householus)
weie all iecoiueu. Aftei the appioval by the Sultan, the tax estimations
baseu on the cauastial suivey, a "kanunnme", the text of the laws iegaiu-
ing amount of taxation anu fees foi ciimes anu iights anu iesponsibilities of
both the timail sipahi anu ieaya, uuties of ieaya like coivee (the woiu "an-
gaiya" is useu by the 0ttomans, a woiu boiioweu fiom Latin which is also
useu in English as "angaiy" foi coivee oi foiceu laboui) in a piovince, was
auueu to the beginning of cauastial suivey. Fiom that time on, the auminis-
tiation anu taxation of the piovince hau to be baseu on the cauastial suivey
anu the kanunnme- ieglemente oiganique. The suiveys weie to be ie-
neweu if the conuitions changeu in the piovince (aftei eaithquakes, fiies,
wais, uiseases which hau the capacity to uestioy builuings, ciops anu kill
people) otheiwise the next suivey took place at the beginning of a new Sul-
tans iule oi geneially aftei a 1S-Su yeai time peiiou. By the methou of ta-
hiii, eveiyone knew theii iesponsibilities anu iights; if theii iights hau
been attackeu they weie to appeal to the couit anu even senu
"ikayetnme" (petition foi complaints) to the impeiial capital which coulu
enu with the abolishment of piivileges of timail sipahi foi his abuses
against the ieaya. nalck unueilines the uiffeience between the coue of
Seibian monaich Stephen Busan anu the 0ttoman law: Busans coue ie-
quiieu the peasant to woik foi his loiu two uays a week while the 0ttoman
kanunnames envisageu only thiee uays a yeai.
S9
Petei F. Sugai lists the
auvantages of peasantiy in 0ttoman peiiou:
The arrival of the Ottomans prevented the full enserfment of the Balkan
peasant. In the Ottoman Empire the cultivator belonged to the reaya class,
but so did about 90 percent of all inhabitants of the state. He retained certain
legal, personal and property rights and could take his grievances to a court in
which a trained jurist and not his lord acted as a judge. For these reasons the

S9
Balil nalck; The Ottoman Empire, The Classical Age 1300-1600, Phoenix , Lonuon, 2uuu, p.7
Nihat elik
16

gulf separating landlords and peasants never became as deep as it did in

those states in which feudalism reached full maturity.
60

The 0ttoman policy, especially aftei the conquest of Constantinople,
uuiing the ieign of Nehmeu II, was to coopeiate with the 0ithouox Chuich.
Thus, uennauios who heavily opposeu the unification with Rome, was ap-
pointeu as Patiiaich (he took the name Scholaiius). The 0ttomans iegaiueu
the Catholic Chuich in Rome anu the Pope as enemies of the empiie because
of theii iole in the Ciusaues of the past, anu theii ties with Catholic Bungaiy
anu latei Austiia who weie the main 0ttoman iivals in the Balkans. 0n the
othei hanu, the 0ithouox populations living in the foimei Byzantine lanus
weie geneially hostile to Pope. The motto of "Bettei Islam than the Pope"
ieflects the geneial public opinion. It was this feeling which helpeu the 0t-
tomans to establish goou ielations with the foimei Byzantine
jects.
61
The 0ithouox Chuich became an 0ttoman institution anu the Pa-
tiiaich was a high level 0ttoman official with the iank of viziei. Balil nalck
states the impoitance of Nuslim-0ithouox coopeiation:
"The Ottomans established their empire by uniting Muslim Anatolia and
the Christian Balkans under their rule and, although continuous Holy War
was the fundamental principle of the state, the empire emerged, at the same
time, as protector of the Orthodox Church and millions of Orthodox Chris-
tians."
62

In 0ttoman peiiou, not all the Balkan lanus weie uiiectly iuleu by the
Sultans. Piincipalities like Wallachia (Ti. Eflak), Noluavia (Ti. Bouan), a
city-iepublic like Bubiovnik (in Latin Ragusa) anu Tiansylvania (Ti. Eiuel)
weie tiibute paying 0ttoman vassals. They hau a special status: Not a pait
of Baial Baib noi Baial Islam; they weie consiueieu as a pait of Baial Ahu
(Non-Nuslim countiies who uevelopeu fiienuly ielations with Nuslims anu
sometimes became vassals, this status is uocumenteu in Ahu-nme). Su-
iaiya Faioqhi lists theii functions:
At least at certain times, such dependencies served as the venues of dip-
lomatic and/or commercial exchanges that the authorities in Istanbul cer-
tainly had approved of, but did not wish to carry out in full view of everyone.
One manner of dealing with such sites was to keep them outside the regular
Ottoman administrative system altogether, or to at least have the central
power represented only by low-level dignitaries. Dubrovnik (in Italian: Ragu-
sa) constitutes the best documented instance of this type; when the military
threat was limited, apparently there was little motivation to dignify relations

6u
Petei F. Sugai; "Najoi Changes in the Life of the Slav Peasantiy unuei 0ttoman Rule",
International Journal of Middle East Studies, vol:9, No.S (0ctobei 1978), pp.297-SuS, p.SuS
61
L. S. Staviianos; The Balkans Since 1453, Rinehait, New Yoik, 1961, p.61
62
nalck; The Ottoman Empire.., p.7
Black Sea anu the Balkans unuei 0ttoman Rule
17

with the infidel by managing them under the auspices of a high-ranking pro-
vincial governor.
63

The 0ttomans appointeu theii iuleis who weie electeu accoiuing to
the local pioceuuies, anu piotecteu them fiom the attacks of othei states.
Bubiovnik, a city iepublic positioneu on the coast of the Auiiatic Sea, be-
came an 0ttoman vassal with the tieaty (ahunme) of 1442, anu was ob-
ligeu to pay a yeaily tiibute of 1uuu uucats (In the following centuiies the
tiibute ieacheu 12Suu uucats). Bubiovnik paiu the lowest customs uuties
existent in the 0ttoman Empiie so it became an impoitant tiaue centei.
64

Its meichants coulu be founu anywheie in the Balkans. Wallachia anu Nol-
uavia too weie tiibute paying states whose piinces (sing.voivoua, Ti. voy-
voua oi bey) weie electeu by the local elites (sing.boiai, Ti. Boyai) anu then
appointeu by the Sultan. They hau seveial obligations iegaiuing the foieign
policy anu inteinational tiaue, but they weie autonomous in theii inteinal
matteis. In theii tieaties the most impoitant obligation iegaiuing the foi-
eign policy was the geneial 0ttoman piinciple: "be the fiienu of |myj
fiienus anu the enemy of |myj enemies uosta uost ve umana uman
olup".
6S
Bowevei, because Piince Bimitiie Cantemii took siue with the Rus-
sians in 1711, local nobles weie not piefeiieu by the 0ttomans any moie.
Insteau, uieeks fiom the Phanai (Ti. Fenei) uistiict of stanbul, the well
known Phanaiiots weie appointeu as piinces. The piesence of these vassal
states pioviueu the 0ttomans buffei-zones with theii enemies, anu helpeu
the 0ttomans to save money, which was going to be spent if they iuleu the
piincipalities uiiectly.
While enuing this section, I must auu that the Balkans pioviueu the 0t-
tomans an impoitant base of powei. Buiing the Battle of Ankaia (14u2),
while most of the soluieis fiom Anatolian piovinces ueseiteu to Tameilane
(Timui), they weie the Seibian cavaliies who uefenueu Sultan Bayeziu
(whose wife was a Seibian piincess) with the iemaining loyal soluieis.
Famous 0ttoman histoiian Nehmeu Neii, completeu his book (a histoiy
book which incluues Tuikish histoiy fiom the piehistoiic peiiou to the
ieign of Bayeziu II) in 1492 anu piesenteu it to the Sultan. In his book foi
example, Neii accuses the Seibian piincess foi making Bayeziu I, uiink
wine, "Sultan Bayezid learnt drinking wine and chatting from the daughter of
Laz".
66
That is the ieflection of ieaction to the centialization policies of

6S
Suiaiya Faioqhi; The Ottoman Empire and the World Around It, I.B. Tauiis & Co Ltu, Lonuon,
2uu4, p.8u
64
Nicholas B. Biegman; The Turco-Ragusan Relationship, Nouton, The Bague, 1967, p.26-27
6S
Nihai Naxim; Romano-Ottomanica, Essays&Documents From the Turkish Archives, The ISIS
Piess, stanbul,2uu1, p.12
66
Nehmeu Neii; Kitab- Cihan-Numa (Neri Tarihi), (2 vols.), ( (Eu. By) Faik Reit 0NAT,
Nehmeu A. Koymen, Tik Taiih Kuiumu, Siu Eu. , Ankaia, 199S, vol:1, p.SSS Tuikish text is
below: "Ve Sultan Bayezid arab ib sohbet itmei Laz kzndan rendi. Yoksa ol vakte dein
nesl-i Osman her giz arab imi deldi." (Beie the teim "Laz", iefeis to the Seibian Bespot
Lazai. The 0ttomans nameu his teiiitoiy as "Lazeli" anu his successois as "Laz olu".
Nihat elik
18

Bayeziu I, a policy which incluueu employing conveits anu slaves (Ti. "kul")
as goveinois in Nuslim piovinces of Anatolia aftei the conquest insteau of
Nuslim aiistociacy, uestiuction of othei inuepenuent emiiates anu intio-
uucing 0ttoman lanu anu taxation system (timai). In Islamic law, piivate
piopeity (mlk) is piotecteu heavily against the abuses of state. By uestioy-
ing local uynasties in Anatolia anu intiouucing 0ttoman methous of taxa-
tion anu auministiation, huge amount of lanu was confiscateu by the state
anu many local elites lost theii foimei piivileges. Aftei the wai, uuiing the
inteiiegnum peiiou (Ti. Fetiet Bevii) which lasteu fiom 14u2 to 141S, the
possessions in Anatolia weie in anaichy, emiiates pieviously uestioyeu by
Bayeziu I weie ie-establisheu with the militaiy help of Tameilane anu the
stiuggle foi thione between the sons of Bayeziu I, weakeneu the state. In
the Balkans, howevei, if we accept small teiiitoiial concessions, the 0tto-
man iule was still poweiful enough to pioviue the sultans the necessaiy
foice to ie-unite the Empiie. The Balkan Peninsula was also out of the ieach
of Tameilanes foices, a vital factoi foi the suivival. Again in the peiiou of
Nehmeu the Conqueioi, his lanu iefoim of confiscating the piopeity of
Nuslim pious founuations (sing. vakf, pluial. evkaf) which lost theii func-
tion, cieateu anothei wave of ieaction anu iesentment among the Nuslim
ciicles of Anatolia. Pious founuations weie non-touchable anu theii piopei-
ty was iegaiueu as piopeity of uou. Thus, the confiscation was stiictly foi-
biuuen. 0n the othei hanu, with this piotecteu status, establishing pious
founuations was a safe way of tiansfeiiing anu secuiing ievenue foi the
next geneiations. By auuing an aiticle stating that the auministiatois of the
founuation have to be the founueis sons anu gianusons in the establish-
ment ueeu (Ti. vakfname oi vakfiye Seneui) of pious founuation; those
people weie to ieceive a fixeu amount of money foi theii auministiative
seivices. As a iesult of the inciease in the amount of lanus, houses, anu
shops owneu by pious founuations, keeping in minu that theii ievenue was
exempteu fiom many taxes; the state lost an impoitant amount of ievenue.
Tiying to stiengthen the cential auministiation anu incieasing the ieve-
nues of state foi its political anu militaiy piojects, Nehmeu the Conqueioi
confiscateu the possessions of some of the pious founuations. Causing gieat
ieaction, this policy was ieveiseu only when his son Bayeziu II ascenueu to
the thione.
The Anatolian anu Balkan Peninsulas togethei weie the heait of the
empiie. Coping with the local foices in the Balkans weie easiei than Anato-
lia. Aftei the uestiuction of local uynasties in the Balkans, the only majoi
thieat was emanating fiom exteinal foices like Bungaiy anu latei Babsbuig
Bynasty as well as venice, theie was no seiious ievolt in the Balkans until
the 18
th
centuiy.

Black Sea anu the Balkans unuei 0ttoman Rule
19

THE BLACK SEA (KARA DENIZ): AN OTTOMAN LAKE

Aftei Nehmeu the Conqueioi conqueieu Constantinople, the 0ttomans
weie able to contiol the Stiaits; howevei they still uiunt have full contiol of
the Black Sea Basin. The ueneose colonies weie well establisheu especially
on the Ciimean Peninsula. They almost hau a monopoly uuiing the Byzan-
tine iule ovei the "Mare Maggiore". The ueneose colonies incluueu Caf-
faFeouosia (Ti. Kefe), Cembalo (Ti.Balaklava) anu Soluaia (Ti. Suuak)
while the venetians uue to theii agieement with the uoluen Boiue, con-
tiolleu Tana (Ti. Azak).
67
The uenoese weie in an auvantageous position
when compaieu with the venetians. Also, one of the most impoitant poit
cities of Anatolia, Tiebizonu (Ti. Tiabzon) was unuei the iule of Tiebizonu
Empiie.
Constantinople, as the Queen of Cities with its huge population uuiing
the Byzantine anu latei 0ttoman iule, uepenueu mostly on the iesouices of
Black Sea iegion. Accoiuing to Feinanu Biauuel "the Black Sea was the sup-
plying region without which the mighty capital couldnt survive".
68
It was a
centie of inteinational tiaue. Chailes King uiaws a pictuie of tiaue ielations
of Black Sea with its neighboiing aieas:
the Black Sea was already at the center of an economic network that
extended from the mulberry groves of China to the silk houses of Marseilles,
from the fairs of Novgorod and Kiev to the bazaars of Tabriz. It lay at the
crossroads of major international highways. Silk routes wound from China
through Central Asia, across the Caspian to the Volga, then overland to the
Don river and from there into the Sea of Azov and the ports of Crimea; or
along a southern road, across central Asia and Persia, then through Armenia
to the port of Trebizond. The rivers of the north carried traffic through Poland
and Russia to the Baltic Sea, an ancient route that had once brought amber to
the Mediterranean but now bore silk, fur and animal hides to the growing
cities of northern Europe. Manufactured goods, especially textiles, arrived
from central Europe and then spread out across the Eurasian steppe. Cereals
and spices flowed in the opposite direction, into Central Europe or out
through the Bosphorus to the Aegean."
69

In Byzantine peiiou, maiitime tiaue in Black Sea was almost a mono-
poly of the Latins. Nehmeu II, uiunt follow the same policy. Be wanteu to
secuie his capital, contiol the flow of goous anu ieceive the customs uuties
foi his impeiial tieasuiy. As eaily as 14S4, aftei an agieement with the
Ciimean Khan, an 0ttoman fleet was sent to help the Khan to conquei Kefe.
Bowevei, the town was able to withstanu. Aftei that, paities maue an
agieement accoiuing to which the uenoese was to pay 12uu golu pieces

67
eiafettin Tuian; Trkiye-talya likileri,Netis Yaynlai, 199u, p.SS
68
Feiuinuanu Biauuel; The Mediterranean and the Mediterranean World in the Age of Philip II,
vol:1, Tians: Silan Reynolus, 0niveisity of Califoinia Piess, Beikeley,199S, p.11u
69
Chailes King, The Black Sea, A History, 0xfoiu 0niveisity Piess,0xfoiu, 2uu4, p.82
Nihat elik
2u

eveiy yeai.
7u
It was that stiategic thinking which leu to the conquests of
Amasia, Sinop anu Tiabzon in 1461 anu campaigns of Kefe (147S) anu
Noluavia (1476).Bis ultimate aim was to tiansfoim the Black Sea into an
0ttoman Lake.
71

Stiuggle foi the thione hau always been the Achilles heel of the Kha-
nate. Nengli uiiay aftei gaining contiol of the Khanate, tenueu to ally with
Nuscovy against Polanu anu the uoluen Boiue. 0n the othei hanu ielations
with the uenoese weie getting woise foi the 0ttomans. In 147S, an inteinal
stiuggle tiiggeieu by the uenoese, enueu up with upiising of Tatai aiisto-
ciacy against Nengli uiiay, he fleu to the uenoese. 0ttomans weie then,
inviteu by the Tatai aiistociacy to inteivene in Ciimean affaiis anu as the
fiist of all to uiive the uenoese out the Ciimean Peninsula.
72
An 0ttoman
fleet of Suu ships unuei the commanu of ueuik Ahmeu Paa was sent to
Ciimea foi this puipose. Finally, all the uenoese possessions weie con-
queieu anu the 0ttomans became suzeiain of Ciimean Khanate.
7S
In a lettei
sent to Nehmeu II by Nengli uiiay in 147S, the Khan mentions a tieaty anu
states one of its aiticles which obligeu him to be the fiienu of sultans fiienu
anu the enemy of sultans enemy, a foimula common in 0ttoman ahu-
names.
74
Bowevei, we see that, the Ciimean Khans weie not willing to be
fully uepenuent on the 0ttomans. They sometimes followeu policies against
the 0ttomans.
7S
Aftei the conquest, the 0ttomans foimeu a new piovince
(Ti. Eyalet) nameu Kefe (incluuing Kefe, Kei, Taman, Nankub, nkiiman,
Suuak, Taman anu Balklao) anu appointeu a goveinoi. Nost of the coast-
al aieas weie unuei uiiect 0ttoman iule. Kefe was an impoitant centei of
Black Sea tiaue anu also the centei of 0ttoman uiplomatic ielations with
the Nuscovy.
76
In the 16
th
anu 17
th
centuiies, it was the supply centei of
0ttoman tioops campaigning in Iian, anu most of the 0ttoman foices fiom
the Balkans weie tianspoiteu to Iian via Kefe.
77

In the fouiteenth centuiy, famous Aiab tiavelei bn-i Batuta (u.1S69)
visiteu Kefe, anu he mentions Kefe with its big maikets anu a gieat poit
which can sheltei 2uu ships. Be then states: " I later found out that it was

7u
Alan Fishei; The Crimean Tatars, Boovei Institution Piess, Stanfoiu, 1978,p.S
71
Balil nalck; "Yeni vesikalaia uoie Kim Banlnn 0smanl Tabiliine uiimesi ve
Ahiuname Neselesi", Belleten, vol:vIII, Apiil 1944, Issue:Su (pp:18S-2S1), p.19S
72
Ibiu, p.2uS
7S
Nuzaffei 0iekli; Krm Hanlnn Kuruluu ve Osmanl Himayesinde Ykselii (1441-1569),
Tik Kltin Aiatima Enstits Yaynlai, Ankaia, 1989, p.16-17
74
Inalck; "Yeni vesikalaia uoie", p.227
7S
0iekli; op.cit., p.47
76
About Kefe especially see Ycel 0ZT0RKs stuuy baseu on 0ttoman uocuments iegaiuing
Kefe, which pioviues a bioau insight into the commeicial histoiy of Kefe. Ycel 0ztik, Os-
manl Hakimiyetinde Kefe 1475-1600, T.C. Klti Bakanl Yaynlai, Ankaia, 2uuu
77
0ztik; op.cit, p.9S-99
Black Sea anu the Balkans unuei 0ttoman Rule
21

one of the most famous and busiest ports of the world."

78
0ttoman customs
iegistei shows that it was still a busy poit uuiing the 0ttoman iule visiteu
by many ships eveiy yeai. It also weakens the geneial assumption that Nus-
lims uiunt take pait in tiauing activities in the empiie; it lists many Nus-
lims as meichants anu ship-owneis.
79

Istanbul, the Impeiial City, with its huge half-million population, was
the main consumei of foou anu goous piouuceu thioughout the empiie. Its
populations welfaie was one of the main conceins of the sultans. Tiaveleis
fiom Euiope weie suipiiseu with the low piices of foou items in stanbul.
The Impeiial City consumeu Suu.uuu kilogiams of wheat eveiy uay, 4 mil-
lion of sheep, S million of lamb, 2uu.uuu of cattle eveiy yeai.
8u
The 0tto-
mans useu mostly piivate capital to ueal with the giain piovisioning piob-
lem. Neichants hau to obtain an official license fiom the authoiities in oi-
uei to invest in giain tiaue anu tianspoitation. uoveinment capital was
useu foi ieseiving the necessaiy amounts of giain foi the use of Palace anu
Aimy.
81
The giain piouuceu in Neuiteiianean aieas of the Empiie (incluu-
ing Asia Ninoi anu Egypt) was ieseiveu foi the impeiial puiposes anu
stoieu in gianaiies because it was moie uuiable than the giain of Black Sea
aiea. The giain of Black Sea Basin coulu be stoieu in the gianaiies foi uuia-
tion of maximum one yeai. Thus it was to meet the uaily neeus of stanbul
anu was uistiibuteu to the bakeiies.
82
The amount of giain (wheat anu bai-
ley) biought to stanbul in 17S8 by the piivate capital was 6.S1u.uuu kiles
equal of 166.6S6 tons
8S
.(1 kile of stanbul:2S,6 kilogiams) 0nkapan, a uis-
tiict of stanbul on the coast of the uoluen Boin, was the place wheie the
ships caiiying giain fiom the Black Sea iegions like mouein Romania, Bul-
gaiia, Thiace anu Ciimea uestineu.
84
The giain then was iecoiueu by the
state officials theie.
The Ciimean Khanate as a vassal of the 0ttomans weie able to pioviue
them auxiliaiy foices of light Tatai cavaliy, a foice consisting between
4u.uuu anu 1uu.uuu men.
8S
Also, Ciimean Khanate foimeu a buffei zone

78
bn-i Batuta; Byk Dnya Seyahatnamesi [Tuhfetun-Nzzar fi Garaibil-Emsar vel-Acaibil-
Esfar],Yeniafak Yaynlai, stanbul
79
(Publisheu by) Balil nalck; The Customs Register of Caffa, 1487-1490, Baivaiu 0niveisity
Piess, Cambiiuge,199S
8u
Robeit Nantian; XVI ve XVII. Yzylda stanbulda Gndelik Hayat [La Vie Quotidienne a
Constantinople au Temp de Soliman le Magnifique et de se Successeurs (XVIe et XVIIe Siecles)];
Tians: Nehmet Ali Klbay, Eien Yaynclk, stanbul, 1991, p. 14S
81
Ltfi uei; "uiain Supply of Istanbul in the Eighteenth Centuiy", (in) Chailes ISAAWI; The
Economic History of Turkey, 1800-1914, The 0niveisity of Chicago Piess, Chicago, 198u, (pp
.26-S1), p.27
82
Salih Aynuial; stanbul Deirmenleri ve Frnlar, Zahire Ticareti (1740-1840), Taiih vakf
Yuit Yaynlai, stanbul, 2uu1, p.1S
8S
uei; op. cit., p.29
84
Nantian; op.cit. ,p .42
8S
Rhoaus Nuiphey; Ottoman Warfare 1500-1700,0CL Piess, Paustow, 1999, p.11
Nihat elik
22

anu avoiueu othei poweis like Polanu anu Nuscovy to ieach the Black Sea.
It is no accident that the Russian appearance on the shores of the Black Sea
(which brought about a sudden and serious deterioration of Ottoman power)
could take place only after the Crimean Khanate had been tamed in the late
eighteenth century.
86
Thus until the Tieaty of Kk Kaynaica (1774),
Black Sea was closeu to all foieign ships, anu a Tuikish lake with stiong
0ttoman positions aiounu it.

CONCLUSIONS
As shown thioughout the papei, 0ttoman Empiie was an Anatolian-Balkan
Empiie with a uominant Nuslim anu 0ithouox population. The Balkans
playeu an impoitant iole as a powei base anu a souice of natuial iesouices.
By contiolling Anatolia anu the Balkans anu latei the Ciimean Peninsula,
the 0ttomans weie to contiol the Black Sea, anu tuin it into an 0ttoman
lake foi some time. 0ttoman Sultans, just at the veiy beginning weie willing
to coopeiate with the 0ithouox Chiistian population of Anatolia. Especially
when Nehmeu II conqueieu Constantinople, he saw himself as the succes-
soi of Roman empeiois. Thus he useu the title "Kayzei-i Rum" ("Caesai of
the Roman Empiie", this title was also one of the main ieasons of the iivaliy
with the Babsbuigs anu Romanovs who also claimeu the same title anu
consiueieu themselves as the successois of the Empiie) anu tiieu to inte-
giate the 0ithouox population into the impeiial stiuctuie by giving piivi-
leges to the Chuich. The 0ttomans, at the height of theii powei, weie able to
fulfill theii piomises to the subjects of the state, a just iule foi eveiybouy.
Theie was no seiious upiising in the Balkans even thiee centuiies aftei the
0ttoman conquest. The 0ttomans, by appointing conveits to high posts anu
incoipoiating the Chiistian elite into 0ttoman society iuleu a cosmopolitan
society, while at the same time piotecting the iights anu fieeuoms of the
peasantiy. To sum up I can state that, uuiing the fiist centuiies of 0ttoman
iule in the Balkans, the 0ttomans manageu to conquei the heaits anu minus
of Balkan people.

86
Fishei; The Crimean Tatars, p.S8
Black Sea anu the Balkans unuei 0ttoman Rule
2S

MAP I- THE BLACK SEA BASIN

(Souice: Balil nalck, The Customs Register, p.2uS)
Nihat elik
24

BIBLIOGRAPHY
ARuIT, Betl piili; "Clothing Babits, Regulations anu Non-Nuslims in the
0ttoman Empiie, Akademik Aratrmalar Dergisi, Issue:24, 2uuS,
pp:79-96
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