Sewage, or wastewater, is composed of all the material that flows from household plumbing systems,

including washing and bathing water and toilet wastes. Municipal wastewater also includes industrial
wastes. In many cities, storm water runoff that flows into street drains enters the sewage system as
well.
The most obvious reason that sewage must be treated before discharge is that pathogenic microbes can
be transmitted in feces, including those that cause diarrheal diseases and hepatitis. If untreated sewage
is released into a river or lake, the receiving water, that is then used as a source of drinking water,
disease can easily spread. In a similar manner, if marine waters become contaminated with untreated
sewage, consumption of the fish grown there can result in disease.
A less obvious problem is the impact that the high nutrient content of sewage has on the receiving
water. When any nutrient-rich substance is added to an aqueous environment, microorganisms quickly
utilize the compounds as energy sources, employing metabolic pathways such as glycolysis and the TCA
cycle .As a result, microbes that use aerobic respiration consume available O2 in the water, using it as a
terminal electron acceptor. The amount of dissolved O2 is limited and can easily be depleted during the
microbial breakdown of nutrients. Fish and other aquatic animals in the environment die because they
require O2 for respiration. Thus, effective treatment of sewage must decrease the level of organic
compounds substantially, in addition to eliminating pathogens, toxic materials, and other pollutants.
Reduction of Biochemical Oxygen Demand
An important goal of sewage treatment is to lessen the environmental impact of sewage by reducing the
biochemical oxygen demand (BOD), the amount of O2 required for the microbial decomposition of
organic matter in a given sample. The BOD is roughly proportional to the amount of degradable organic
material present in a sample. To determine the BOD, the O2 level in a well-aerated sample of microbe-
containing test water is measured. The sample is then incubated in a sealed container in the dark under
standard conditions of time and temperature, usually 5 days at 20C. The O2 level is then determined
again. The difference between the dissolved O2 at the beginning of the test and at the end reflects the
BOD of the sample.
In many cases the sample must be diluted in order to accurately determine the BOD. High BOD values
indicate that large amounts of degradable materials were present in the test water, resulting in
correspondingly large amounts of O2 being used during its biological degradation. The BOD of raw
sewage is approximately 300 to 400 mg/liter, which could easily deplete the dissolved O2 in the
receiving water. The dissolved O2 content of natural waters is generally 5 to 10 mg/liter.
The methods used to reduce the BOD of sewage employ controlled environments that accelerate
natural processes. Aerobic treatments allow microbes to oxidize organic compounds in the presence of
O2, yielding carbon dioxide and various other inorganic compounds. The processes occur rapidly, but the methods
are relatively expensive because they must be engineered to maintain sufficient O2 levels. Anaerobic treatments
involve a succession of microbial populations. First, microbes ferment the organic compounds.
Then, methanogens utilize the small breakdown products including acetate, CO2, and hydrogen, forming CH4
(methane).
The methane can be either discarded, conserved for fuel, or oxidized to CO2 by the methane-oxidizing bacteria


Municipal Sewage Treatment Methods

Large-scale sewage treatment plants in the United States use a series of two processes, primary and secondary
treatment, as mandated by the 1972 Federal Water Pollution Control Act, now known as the Clean Water Act. Once
treated, the liquid portion, or effluent, may be discharged into a body of water. Increasingly, that effluent is given
additional processing, tertiary treatment, before release. The solid portion, or sludge, is further treated in an
anaerobic digester.
Primary Treatment
Primary treatment of sewage is a physical process designed to remove materials that will settle or sediment out,
removing approximately 50% of the solids and 25% of the BOD. During this step, raw sewage is first passed through
a series of screens to remove large objects such as sticks, rags, and trash (figure ) . .
Skimmers then remove scum and other floating materials.The sewage is allowed to settle in a sedimentation tank,
facilitating removal of the solids. Once the settling period is complete, the sludge is removed and the primary treated
sewage that remains is sent for secondary treatment.
Secondary Treatment
Secondary treatment is chiefly a biological process designed to convert most of the suspended solids in sewage to
inorganic compounds and cell mass that can be removed, eliminating as much as 95% of the BOD. Microbial growth
is actively encouraged during secondary treatment, allowing aerobic organisms to oxidize the biologically degradable
organic material to CO2 and H2O.
Note that because secondary treatment relies on the metabolic activities of microorganisms, the processes could be
devastated if sufficient toxic industrial wastes or hazardous household materials were dumped into sewage systems,
killing the microbial population.
Methods used for secondary treatment of sewage include:
1. Activated sludge process. This common system employs mixed aerobic microbes that are adapted to
utilize the nutrients available in sewage and grow as suspended biofilms, or flocs. Although the organisms
are often naturally present in sewage, large numbers are inoculated into the wastes by introducing a small
portion of leftover sludge from the previous load of treated wastes (see figure 31.1b). An abundance of O2 is
supplied by mixing the sewage in an aerator. As the microbes proliferate, the organic matter is converted
into both biomass and waste products such as CO2. Following the aeration, the sewage is again sent to a
sedimentation tank. There, most of the flocs settle and the resulting sludge is removed; a portion of this
sludge is introduced to a new load of wastewater to act as an inoculum. A complication of the activated
sludge process occurs when filamentous bacteria such as Thiothrix species overgrow in the sewage during
treatment, creating a buoyant mass that does not settle. This problem, bulking, interferes with the
separation of the solid sludge from the liquid effluent.

2. Trickling filter system. This method is frequently used for smaller sewage treatment plants. A
rotating arm sprays sewage over a bed of coarse gravel and rocks, which become coated with a biofilm of microbes
that aerobically degrade the sewage (figure). The film, about 2 mm thick, consists of a heterogeneous mix of
bacteria, fungi, algae, protozoa, and nematodes. The rate of sewage flow over the rocks can be adjusted so that
waste materials are maximally degraded.

3 Lagoons. The sewage is channeled into shallow ponds,or lagoons, where it remains for several
days to a month or more, depending on the design of the lagoon. Algae and cyanobacteria that
grow at the surface provide O2, enabling aerobic organisms in the ponds to degrade the sewage.
4 Artificial wetlands. These employ the same principles as lagoons, but their more advanced designs
not only offer a means to treat sewage, but also provide a habitat for birds and other. For example, the
sewage treatment processes in Arcata, California, use a series of marshes that now attract a variety of shorebirds
and serve as a wildlife sanctuary. Before discharge into the receiving water, the effluent is disinfected with chlorine,
ozone, or UV light to decrease the numbers of microorganisms and viruses. The disinfected wastewater may then be
dechlorinated to avoid releasing excessive amounts of the toxic chemical into the environment. Even without
disinfection few pathogenic bacteria survive secondary treatment because they are rapidly overgrown by other
organisms that are adapted to grow best at the temperature and conditions provided. Viruses and
protozoan cysts and oocysts might remain, however, because the treatment process does not
necessarily destroy them.
Tertiary Treatment : Tertiary treatment encompasses any purification process beyond
secondary treatment; it may involve physical, chemical, or biological processes, or any combination of
these. The treatment is generally designed to remove nitrates and phosphates, compounds that foster
the growth of algae and cyanobacteria in the receiving waters. The concentrations of these nutrients,
which are very low in unpolluted waters, normally limit the growth of photosynthetic organisms.
Consequently, addition of nitrates and phosphates allows the overgrowth of photosynthetic organisms,
eventually leading to an odiferous scum called a nuisance bloom (see figure 11.8). In addition, the
photosynthetic organisms provide a source of organic carbon for other microorganisms, increasing the
BOD and, consequently, threatening other forms of aquatic life. Tertiary treatment processes are
expensive and have not been common in the past. However, as water supplies are becoming scarce, and
in order to comply with discharge standards designed to protect surface and ground waters, an
increasing number of communities are finding them necessary.
The treated water can be used to irrigate parks and playfields. Nitrates are often removed by exploiting
the activities of denitrifying bacteria. These organisms use oxidized nitrogen compounds such as nitrate
(NO3 ) as terminal electron acceptors during anaerobic respiration, ultimately reducing them to form nitrogen
gas (N2) The nitrogen gas is inert, non-toxic, and easily removed. Phosphates are generally removed using
chemicals that combine with phosphates, causing them to precipitate. Microbial processes can also be
used, however. For example, bacteria that take up phosphate in a medium and accumulate the excess in
intracellular storage granules can be used to extract the compound. The bacteria, along with their
polyphosphate granules (volutin), can easily be removed.
Anaerobic Digestion
Within the anaerobic digester, anaerobic microorganisms act on the solids removed during the
sedimentation steps of primary and secondary treatment. Various populations act sequentially,
ultimately converting much of the organic material to methane:
Organic compounds -- organic acids, CO2, H2
Organic acids - acetate, CO2, H2
Acetate, CO2, H2 - methane (CH4)
Many sewage treatment plants are equipped to use the methane that is generated, thereby avoiding
the cost of other sources of energy to run their equipment.



Drinking Water Treatment
and Testing
Large cities generally obtain their drinking water from surface waters such as lakes or rivers. Because surface water
may serve as the receiving water for another citys sewage effluent, drinking water treatment is intimately connected
to sewage treatment.
The quality of the surface water is also affected by the characteristics of the watershed, the land over which water
flows into river or lake. Even pristine rivers are likely contaminated with feces of animals that inhabit the watershed.
Smaller communities often use groundwater, pumped from a well, as a source of drinking water .This water occurs in
aquifers, water-containing layers of rock, sand,and gravel, that is replenished as water from various sources seeps
through the soil. Because aquifers are not directly exposed to rain, animals, and the atmosphere, they are somewhat
protected from contamination. However, poorly located or maintained septic tanks and sewer lines, as well as sludge
or other fertilizer can lead to groundwater contamination.








Water Treatment Processes
The treatment of metropolitan water supplies is designed to provide a safe water supply by eliminating pathogenic
microbes as well as harmful chemicals .First, water flows into a reservoir and is allowed to stand long enough for the
particulate matter to settle. The water is then transferred to a tank where it is mixed with a flocculent chemical, such
as aluminum potassium phosphate, or alum. Alum causes materials still suspended in the liquid to coagulate, forming
aggregates that slowly sink to the bottom.


As the clumps settle, they remove unwanted materials from the water, including some bacteria and viruses.
Following the flocculation, the water is filtered, often through a thick bed of sand and gravel, to remove various
microorganisms including bacteria and protozoan cysts and oocysts.Organic chemicals that may be harmful or impart
undesirable tastes and odors can be removed by additional filtration through an activated charcoal filter, which
adsorbs dissolved chemicals. Not only does filtration physically remove various particles, but microorganisms growing
in biofilms on the filter materials use carbon from the water as it passes. This lowers the organic carbon content of the
water, resulting in less microbial growth in pipes delivering the water. Finally, the water is treated with chlorine
or other disinfectants to kill harmful bacteria, protozoa and viruses that might remain. A concern with
using chlorine, however, is that some of the by-products formed when chlorine reacts with organic
material may be carcinogenic. In response to this concern, ultraviolet irradiation and ozone are
increasingly being used as alternatives, but a small amount of chlorine must still be added to prevent
problems associated with post-treatment contamination. Note that disinfection of waters with a high
organic content requires more chlorine because organic compounds consume free chlorine.

Water Testing
A primary concern regarding the safety of drinking water is the possibility that it might be contaminated with any of a
wide variety of intestinal pathogens, such as those discussed in chapter 24. It is not feasible to test for all of the
pathogens, however, so indicator organisms function as a surrogates. These are microbes that are routinely found
in feces, survive longer than intestinal pathogens, and are relatively easy to detect and enumerate. The most
common group of bacteria used as indicator organisms in the United States are total coliforms, lactose-fermenting
members of the family Enterobacteriaceae, including E. coli. The group is functionally defined as facultatively
anaerobic Gram-negative,rod-shaped, non-spore-forming bacteria that ferment lactose, forming acid and
gas within 48 hours at 35C. Although these organisms are routinely present in the intestinal contents of
warm-blooded animals, certain species can also thrive in soils and on plant material. Thus, the presence
of coliforms does not necessarily imply fecal pollution. To compensate for this shortcoming, fecal
coliforms, a subset of total coliforms more likely to be of intestinal origin, are also used as indicator
organisms. The most common fecal coliform is E. coli. Note that although some strains of E. coli can
cause intestinal disease, the organism is used in water testing merely to indicate fecal pollution.
Methods used to detect total coliforms in a water sample include:
Most probable number (MPN) method. This is a statistical assay of cell numbers. It employs
successive dilutions of a water sample in tubes of lactose-containing broth that have a vial to trap gas
(see figure )
Tubes in which gas is produced are tested to confirm the presence of coliforms .
Membrane filtration. A water sample is passed through a filter that retains bacteria (see figure 4.14),
concentrating the bacteria in a known volume of water before they are plated. The bacteria are then
plated on a lactose-containing selective and differential agar medium allowing identification of coliform
colonies
A water sample is added to a minimal medium containing two relevant substrates, ONPG (o-
nitrophenylb-D-galactopyranoside) and MUG (4-methylumbelliferyl-b-D-glucuronide). Organisms that
can degrade lactose hydrolyze ONPG, yielding a yellow-colored compound; thus, all coliforms turn the
medium yellow. E. coli produces an enzyme that hydrolyzes MUG, generating a fluorescent compound.
Thus, a sample can be assayed simultaneously for the presence of both total coliforms and E. coli.
Presence/absence test. This uses a medium similar to that of the MPN method, but no attempt is
made to estimate the number of total coliforms in the sample. Instead, a 100 ml water sample is added
to a concentrated, lactose-containing broth that contains a vial to trap gas. If gas is produced, the broth
is then tested to confirm the presence of coliforms.
The goal for the number of total coliforms in drinking water is zero. The total coliform rule establishes a
maximum number of positive samples (100 ml) permitted. That maximum relates to the number of
samples routinely collected by the water system. This ranges from 1 to 480 samples per month,
depending on the size of the population served by the system. Systems that collect at least 40 samples
per month are in violation if more than 5% are total coliform-positive in a month. Systems that collect
fewer samples are in violation if more than one sample tests positive per month. If a sample tests
positive, repeat samples within 24 hours are mandated. Total coliform positive samples are also tested
for either fecal coliforms or E. coli. If a water system exceeds the monthly total coliform limit, the
system must notify the state and the public. Notification is also required if either of two sequential
samples that test positive for total coliforms also test positive for fecal coliforms or E. coli. Because of
limitations of total coliform and fecal coliform assays in predicting contamination with protozoan cysts
and oocysts, alternatives are being explored. Other microbes that may be used as indicators of fecal
pollution include enterococci, some Clostridium species, and certain types of bacteriophages. Work is
under way to develop nucleic acid probes and polymerase chain reaction (PCR) methods to detect
pathogens, including viruses, in water.