DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

Parallel Operation of Generator with Utility Power

Supply and Automatic Load Sharing and Load
Shedding using PLC
A PROJECT REPORT
Session 2012
Submitted by
M. BILAL IRFAN (BEE-FA06-068)
ADNAN MASEEH (BEE-FA08-065)
M. HUSSNAIN RAZA (BEE-FA08-073)
M. FAAZ SHARIF (BEE-SP08-001)

PROJECT SUPERVISOR
PROF. DR. SYED ALI MOHSIN


THE UNIVERSITY OF FAISALABAD, FAISALABAD

P
a
r
a
l
l
e
l

O
p
e
r
a
t
i
o
n

o
f

G
e
n
e
r
a
t
o
r

w
i
t
h

U
t
i
l
i
t
y

P
o
w
e
r

S
u
p
p
l
y

a
n
d

A
u
t
o
m
a
t
i
c

L
o
a
d

S
h
a
r
i
n
g

a
n
d

L
o
a
d

S
h
e
d
d
i
n
g

u
s
i
n
g

P
L
C

Y
E
A
R

2
0
1
2

I

DECLARATION
We hereby declare that no portion of the work referred to in this Project Report has been
submitted in support of an application for another degree or qualification to any other
university or other institute of learning. If any act of plagiarism found, we are fully
responsible for every disciplinary action against us depending upon the seriousness of the
proven offence, even the cancellation of our degree by the Disciplinary Committee.
COPYRIGHT STATEMENT
Copyright in text of this report rests with the student authors. Copies (by any
process) either in full, or of extracts, may be made only in accordance with the
instructions given by the authors and lodged in the Library of The University of
Faisalabad. Details may be obtained from the Librarian. This page must form part
of any such copies made. Further copies (by any process) of copies made in
accordance with such instructions may not be made without the permission (in
writing) of the authors.
The ownership of any intellectual property rights which may be described in this
report is vested in the Department of Electrical Engineering, The University of
Faisalabad, subject to any prior agreement to the contrary, and may not be made
available for use by third parties without the written permission of the Department
of Electrical Engineering, The University of Faisalabad, which will prescribe the
terms and conditions of any such agreement.
Further information on the conditions under which disclosures and exploitation
may take place is available in the Library of The University of Faisalabad,
Faisalabad.

II

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
All glory to Almighty Allah, the creator of this universe, The Gracious and
compassionate whose bounteous blessings gave us potential thoughts, talented teachers,
helping friends, loving parents, co-operative sisters and brothers and opportunity to make
this humble contribution and all praises to, respect and Darood-O-Salam are due to His
Holy Prophet(P.B.U.H) Whose blessings and exaltations flourished my thoughts and
thrived my ambition to have cherished fruit of my modest effort in form of this write-up.
We offer our sincerest words of thanks to our teacher Prof. Dr. Syed Ali Mohsin, from
his inspiring guidance, affectionate supervision and valuable suggestion during the entire
study period. We also like to thank Faisal Fabrics Ltd. and Ahmad Engineering for
helping and supporting us throughout the whole project.

III

ABSTRACT
In this project we use AC-DC and DC-AC converters for parallel operation of generator
with utility power supply and PLC will control automatic load sharing between generator
and utility power supply. This project is about uninterrupted and reliable power supply
and to increase the cost efficiency of power. This project is basically related to large scale
industries which have their own power generation system in addition they have utility
power supply. This project provides the parallel operation of generator with utility power
supply. It also provides user to set how much load should be put on generator. If there is a
fault in generator and it is producing less power than required then the extra load is
automatically shifted on utility power supply, uninterrupted. On the other hand if grid is
overloaded or there is a fault then the extra load is automatically shifted on generator,
uninterrupted. If the load becomes greater than the available supply then PLC will
automatically shed the load according to the set priority to avoid total shutdown of entire
load.

IV

TABLE OF CONTENTS
DECLARATION ..................................................................................................................I
COPYRIGHT STATEMENT ...............................................................................................I
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ................................................................................................ II
ABSTRACT ....................................................................................................................... III
TABLE OF CONTENTS ................................................................................................... IV
LIST OF FIGURES ............................................................................................................ V

CHAPTER NO. 1 INTRODUCTION ............................................................................. 1
1.1 BACKGROUND ........................................................................................................................ 1
1.2 PROBLEMS .............................................................................................................................. 1
1.3 REQUIREMENTS ...................................................................................................................... 1
1.4 OBJECTIVE ............................................................................................................................... 1
1.5 BLOCK DIAGRAM .................................................................................................................... 2
1.6 HARDWARE COMPONENTS .................................................................................................... 3
1.7 SOFTWARES ............................................................................................................................ 3
CHAPTER NO. 2 AC TO DC CONVERSION .............................................................. 4
2.1 HOW AC TO DC CONVERSION IS DONE? ................................................................................ 4
2.2 HARDWARE COMPONENTS .................................................................................................... 7
CHAPTER NO. 3 CURRENT LIMITER ........................................................................ 8
3.1 HOW CURRENT IS LIMITED? ................................................................................................... 8
3.2 FLOWCHART ......................................................................................................................... 10
3.3 HOW LOAD IS SHARED BY PLC? ............................................................................................ 10
3.4 LOAD SHEDDING ................................................................................................................... 13
CHAPTER NO. 4 DC TO AC CONVERSION ............................................................ 14
4.1 12VDC TO 220VDC CONVERSION ......................................................................................... 14
4.2 DESIGN .................................................................................................................................. 15
4.3 220VDC TO 220VAC CONVERSION ....................................................................................... 20
CHAPTER NO. 5 FUTURE ENHANCEMENTS ........................................................ 26
5.1 LIMITATIONS IN THE EXISTING CIRCUITS ............................................................................. 26
5.2 ENHANCEMENTS CAN BE MADE .......................................................................................... 26

REFERENCES .................................................................................................................. 27

V

LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 1.1 : Block diagram of entire project. ....................................................................... 2
Figure 2.1 : AC to DC Supply Circuit ................................................................................. 6
Figure 3.1 : Current Limiter ................................................................................................. 8
Figure 3.2 : Flowchart of PLC Operation .......................................................................... 10
Figure 3.3 : Current limiter operated with PLC ................................................................. 11
Figure 4.1 : DC To AC Conversion ................................................................................... 14
Figure 4.2 : Basic layout of boost regulator ....................................................................... 15
Figure 4.3 : Current flow through the converter, depending on the state of the switch .... 16
Figure 4.4 : Inductor current and duty cycle vs. time ........................................................ 16
Figure 4.5 :MAX5026 implementation of a boost converter. ............................................ 18
Figure 4.6 : Duty Cycle ...................................................................................................... 19
Figure 4.7 : Simple Inverter ............................................................................................... 21
Figure 4.8 :Equivalent Circuit............................................................................................ 21
Figure 4.9 : S1,S2 ON; S3,S4 OFF .................................................................................... 22
Figure 4.10 : Positive Half Cycle ....................................................................................... 22
Figure 4.11 : S3,S4 ON; S1,S2 OFF .................................................................................. 23
Figure 4.12 : Negative Half Cycle ..................................................................................... 23
Figure 4.13 : Invertor Output ............................................................................................. 24
Figure 4.14 : Pulse Width Modulation ............................................................................... 25

CHAPTER NO.1 - INTRODUCTION
1

CHAPTER NO. 1 INTRODUCTION
1.1 BACKGROUND
In large scale industries, utility power supply and industrys own power generation
systems are used in parallel. According to current circumstances industries decide that on
which power supply load should be transferred and in what proportion. For this purpose
industries use load sharing modules. These modules also synchronize both power systems
in order to use both power systems in parallel.
1.2 PROBLEMS
Modules used in industries are very expensive and use very expensive equipments in
order to achieve synchronization and load sharing. These systems are very complicated.
Slightest problem occurring in generation system will make the whole system out of sync
and total system shuts down due to overload.
1.3 REQUIREMENTS
Monitoring the total load in amperes and controlling the current from both sources using
current limiting circuits. In order to operate both power sources in parallel we need two
AC to DC converters and a DC to AC converter.
1.4 OBJECTIVE
To develop a parallel operation, load sharing, and load shedding system which has less
complication, more reliability, and robustness in order to avoid total system shutdown.






CHAPTER NO.1 - INTRODUCTION
2

1.5 BLOCK DIAGRAM

Figure 1.1: Block diagram of entire project
CHAPTER NO.1 - INTRODUCTION
3

1.6 HARDWARE COMPONENTS
Following are the hardware components used in project:
1. Siemens SIMATIC S7-300 CPU 316-2 DP
2. Siemens SIMATIC S7-300 Analog Input Module SM 331
3. Siemens SIMATIC S7-300 Digital Input Module SM 321
4. Siemens SIMATIC S7-300 Digital Output Module SM 322
5. AC to DC converters
6. DC to AC converter
7. Power Transistors
8. Switching Transistors
9. DC Relays
10. AC Relays
11. Shunt Resistors
12. Resistors
13. Diodes
14. LEDs
15. Push Buttons
16. Switches
1.7 SOFTWARES
Following software:
1. Siemens SIMATIC Step 7
2. Proteus
CHAPTER NO. 2 AC TO DC CONVERSION
4

CHAPTER NO. 2 AC TO DC CONVERSION
2.1 HOW AC TO DC CONVERSION IS DONE?
All electronic systems and equipment regardless of their size or function have one thing
in common: they all need a power supply unit (PSU) that converts input voltage into a
voltage or voltages suitable for their circuits. The most common type of today's PSU is
the switch mode power supply (SMPS). There is a wide variety of SMPS topologies and
their practical implementations used by PSU manufacturers. However they all use the
same basic concepts. This explains the principals of operation of a switching mode power
supply. [1]
The required DC power supply is usually obtained by means of a transformer. It is also
possible to have transformer less power supplies. Though the elimination of the
transformer makes the circuit compact, economical and simple, also facilitating quick
assembly and built in short circuit protection, certain drawbacks creep in. These power
supplies are useful only for low current applications. Special safety precautions are to be
followed while using them. Physical contact should be strictly avoided, since the output
terminals are not isolated from AC mains supply. [1]
By suitable modification it is possible to obtain multiple/ fractional dual voltages from a
transformer. Different not-so obvious voltage values can also be obtained from the
transformer by rectification circuits. The output so obtained from a transformer secondary
is unregulated. For good load regulation, the internal impedance of any power supply
should be as low as possible. The regulation can be improved either by resistor zener
method or series regulator method. [1]
However, the three-terminal regulators greatly simplify the power regulation problem.
These regulators need no external components. They employ internal current limiting and
thermal shutdown which make them tough. For simplicity, compactness, convenience and
accuracy the use of three- terminal regulators is ideal. These IC voltage regulators are
freely available in various ranges both positive and negative. A functional schematic of a
three terminal regulator is shown in the datasheet. It can be seen that the device is a
complete regulator, with built-in reference, error amplifier, and series pass transistor and
protection circuits. The protection circuits include current limiting, safe area protection to
CHAPTER NO. 2 AC TO DC CONVERSION
5

limit dissipation in the series pass transistor and thermal shut down to limit temperature.
[1]
Low power IC voltage regulators of the 78L series used in our measuring instrument are
now so cheap that they represent an economic alternative to simple zener-NPN
stabilizers. In addition they offer the advantages of better regulation, current
limiting/short circuit protection at 1000 mA and thermal shunt down in the event of
excessive power dissipation. In fact, virtually the only way in which these regulators can
be damaged is by incorrect polarity or by an excessive input voltage. Regulators in the
78L series up to the 8V type will withstand input voltages up to about 35v, whilst the 24v
type will withstand 40V. Normally, of course, the regulators would not be operated with
such a large input-output differential as this would lead to excess power dissipation. All
the regulators in the 78L series will deliver a maximum current of 1000mA provided the
input--output voltage differential does not exceed 7V. Otherwise excessive power
dissipation will result, causing thermal shutdown. [1]
Two transformers have been used to step down the voltage from 230-250VAC mains
input. One of the transformers produces an output of 6-0-6V at the secondary terminals.
This output is fed to a full wave rectifier and a capacitive filter. The filtered output is fed
to IC6 which is a 3 pin voltage regulator which gives a regulated output of + 5V. This is
used to activate the DPM circuit. It is also fed to the temperature network as a precision
voltage reference source. [1]
The other transformer produces an output of 12-0-12V at its secondary terminals. The
center tap is grounded like in the previous case. The other two terminals of the secondary
are fed to a bridge rectifier constructed using diodes. The rectified output is filtered by
using capacitor C5 and C6 fed to IC7 and IC. The IC7-8 which is 3 pin voltage regulators
gives an output of 8V. These two voltages are fed to the signal generator. The -8V
source output is fed to the temperature network, also as voltage reference. It is also
necessary to produce a +12V and -12V supply for application to operational amplifiers.
This can be conveniently done by means of 12V zener diodes. The output of the bridge
rectifier is clamped to +12V and -12V respectively using two zener diodes. The zener
output is fed to the operational amplifier supply terminals. Since, the supply to the
operational amplifier needed not be very efficiently regulated to + 12V, the use of zener
diodes proves economical. [1]
CHAPTER NO. 2 AC TO DC CONVERSION
6

For the testing of electronic components a voltage of above 50V is required. This can be
achieved by means of a voltage quadrupler circuit. It consists of four diodes and four
electrolytic capacitors. The secondary ungrounded terminal of the 12-0-12V is connected
to the quadrupler circuit. The output of the quadrupler circuit is 68V with respect to
ground. [1]
The two transformers can be controlled by the power supply switch PS 1. The switch also
controls a neon lamp, which lights up once the transformer supply is on. The instrument
is prevented against short circuits-excessive voltages by fuses. When the AC power
supply exceeds beyond 250V results in any overload or damage, the fuse F1 blows out
thus saving the rest of the circuit within the instrument. [1]













Figure 2.1 : AC to DC Supply Circuit


CHAPTER NO. 2 AC TO DC CONVERSION
7

2.2 HARDWARE COMPONENTS
1: EMI (Electromagnetic Interference) Filter
2: Fuse 13A
3: Rectifier Bridge
4: Transformer T1, T2
5: Resistor (Rs)
6: Capacitor (C1-C7)
7: Diode (D1-D11)
8: Transistors (Q1-Q5)
9: Inductors (L1-L6)
CHAPTER NO. 3 CURRENT LIMITER
8

CHAPTER NO. 3 CURRENT LIMITER
Current is limited so that the load on utility and generator can be shared. In our project we
can do load sharing by current limiter. This section explains the working of current
limiter operated with PLC.
3.1 HOW CURRENT IS LIMITED?
A current limiting circuit is use for this purpose. This circuit provides automatic current
limiting up to 8.4A. Unlike current limiter that uses only a resistor, this current limiting
circuit doesnt drop the voltage, or at least keep the voltage drop at minimum, until a
certain current amount is exceeded. This current amount limit is adjustable from 1.4A to
8.4A using a potentiometer. You can modify the component value to give different
current limiting range. Here is the circuits schematic diagram: [4]










Figure 3.1: Current Limiter


CHAPTER NO. 3 CURRENT LIMITER
9

The resistor R1 is there to sense the current. At R2 potentiometer at minimum resistance
(the center tap connected to R1), if the current drawn by the load reach 1.2A then the
voltage across R1 reach 0.6V and Q2 begin conducting, thus shorting the base voltage of
Q4 to ground. These shorting actions reduce the base current and therefore reduce the
output voltage sensed by the load, and prevent the current to flow further. If you need the
current limiter to limit at lower threshold range, you can change the R1 to 1R and youll
get about 0.7A to 4.2A adjustment range. [4]
Because of the power dissipation capability of 2N3055 transistor, at the
worst case that the load is shorted to ground (zero resistance), if you limit the current to
8.4 A then the circuit can handle maximum source voltage of 14V, while limiting the
current at 4.2A can handle up to 27V source voltage. The maximum voltage can be
handled by this circuit is 60 volt, but at that maximum voltage you can only safely set the
current limit at 1.9A in the extreme condition, when the load is shorted to ground. Please
make sure the Q1 transistor has sufficient heat sink. [4]













CHAPTER NO. 3 CURRENT LIMITER
10

3.2 FLOWCHART

Figure 3.2: Flowchart of PLC Operation
3.3 HOW LOAD IS SHARED BY PLC?
The circuit shown above is modified for operation with PLC. The modifications are:
Three TIP3055 can be connected in parallel for increasing the power
handling capability.
CHAPTER NO. 3 CURRENT LIMITER
11

The resistor R2 is excluded and base of Q2 is directly connected to emitter
of TIP3055 and R sense.
The output is connected with diodes as freewheeling diode for protection.
R sense can divided into 10 parts to made taps and can be operate when
the signal from PLC is given the relay is activated and resistance is
increased as more relays can be operated from PLC as shown in circuit
below:
Figure 3.3: Current limiter operated with PLC


CHAPTER NO. 3 CURRENT LIMITER
12

3.3.2 Working of current limiter circuit with PLC
The basic working of current limiter is discussed above. The operation with PLC is
discussed here.
As the signal is given on the base of the transistor Q8-Q11from PLC then
the relay operates and it will add the resistance in parallel to increase the
current limit.
We have 10 relays and one relay can be operated for limit half ampere
approximately. If 5 relays are operated it means the circuit can limit up to
2.5 amperes.
10W 0.1 Ohm shunt resistance is used as current sensor for PLC. Sensor
value is given to the analog input of PLC. On the bases of current sensors
value PLC operates the relays to share load between two sources.
There are two current limiters used for the parallel operation of utility and
generator.
Priority based current limiting can be done. We can either use generator or
utility as our priority.
If load exceed the limit of priority source then the rest of the load is
transferred on the second priority source.








CHAPTER NO. 3 CURRENT LIMITER
13

3.3.3 Hardware Used
12VDC Operated Relays
TIP3055 Power Transistor
BD139 Transistor
BC546 Transistor
BC639 Transistor
2W 0.5 Ohm Resistors
4.7K Resistors
10W 0.1 Ohm Resistors

3.4 LOAD SHEDDING
In our project we have set priority based load shedding. We have set the priority of all
departments with respect to the load they are using. When overall load is too much high
and is above from available supply then departments of less priority are shed to avoid
total shutdown and our high priority departments can work uninterrupted.
CHAPTER NO. 4 DC TO AC CONVERSION
14

CHAPTER NO. 4 DC TO AC CONVERSION
Converting DC to AC power by switching the DC input voltage (or current) in a pre-
determined sequence so as to generate AC voltage (or current) output.
The DC to AC can be converted into two steps:
12VDC to 220VDC conversion(CHOPPER)
220VDC to 220AC conversion(INVERTER)






Figure 4.1: DC To AC Conversion
4.1 12VDC TO 220VDC CONVERSION
DC to DC converters offer a method of generating multiple controlled voltages from a
single battery voltage, thereby saving space instead of using multiple batteries to supply
different parts of the device.
A boost converter is simply is a particular type of power converter with an output DC
voltage greater than the input DC voltage. This type of circuit is used to step-up a
source voltage to a higher, regulated voltage, allowing one power supply to provide
different driving voltages.
A basic design will be discussed along with a specific application of an integrated circuit
(IC) solution.



CHAPTER NO. 4 DC TO AC CONVERSION
15

4.2 DESIGN
A boost converter is part of a subset of DC-DC converters called switch-mode converters.
They generally perform the conversion by applying a DC voltage across an inductor or
transformer for a period of time (usually in the 100 kHz to 5 MHz range) which causes
current to flow through it and store energy magnetically, then switching this voltage off
and causing the stored energy to be transferred to the voltage output in a controlled
manner. The output voltage is regulated by adjusting the ratio of on/off time. As this
subset does not use resistive components to dissipate extra power, the efficiencies are
seen in the 80-95% range. This is clearly desirable, as it increases the running time of
battery-operated devices. [5]
The basic boost converter circuit consists of only a switch (typically a transistor), a diode,
an inductor, and a capacitor. The specific connections are shown in Figure.

Figure 4.2: Basic layout of boost regulator
CHAPTER NO. 4 DC TO AC CONVERSION
16

4.2.1 Analysis
Examining the circuit for two cases (switch open and switch closed) is fairly
straightforward, assuming ideal components, and provided that there is constant current
flow through the inductor. This case is referred to as continuous mode operation. [5]


Figure 4.3: Current flow through the converter, depending on the state of the switch

Applying Kirchhoffs rules around the loops and rearranging terms yields an intuitive
Result:

That is to say, the gain from the boost converter is directly proportional to the duty cycle
(K), or the time the switch is on each cycle. Figure graphically demonstrates this. [5]






Figure 4.4: Inductor current and duty cycle vs. time

CHAPTER NO. 4 DC TO AC CONVERSION
17

In some cases, the amount of energy required by the load is small enough to be
transferred in a time smaller than the cycle length. In this case, the current through the
inductor falls to zero during part of the period. This is called discontinuous operation.
The only difference, then, is that the inductor is completely discharged at the end of the
cycle. Although slight, the difference has a strong effect on the output voltage equation.
Compared to the expression of the output voltage for the continuous mode, this
expression is much more complicated. Furthermore, in discontinuous operation, the
output voltage not only depends on the duty cycle, but also on the inductor value, the
input voltage, and the output current. [5]
4.2.2 IC Implementation
In order to implement the switching necessary for the converter to work, it is desirable to
find an IC solution. The 5026 chip, from MAXIM, is one such solution. The typical
circuit from the MAX5026 data sheet is shown in Figure 4. In this circuit, the output
voltage, VOUT, is determined by the ratio of fixed resistors R1 and R2. These two
resistors form a voltage divider that feeds a fraction of the output voltage back to the
feedback (FB) pin, creating a closed-loop system. The system is at equilibrium when
VOUT is generating the desired output voltage and the R1 and R2 voltage divider feeds
back 1.25Vto the FB pin. When VOUT is lower than the desired output voltage (the
voltage fed back to FB is below 1.25V), the DC-DC converter IC attempts to deliver
additional power until FB reaches 1.25V. [6]

)
Equation 1 is directly from the MAX5026 data sheet. Solving Equation 1 for VOUT
yields Equation 2 where VREF, the FB Set Point, is 1.25V for the MAX5026.


CHAPTER NO. 4 DC TO AC CONVERSION
18

Figure 4.5:MAX5026 implementation of a boost converter.
4.2.3 Results
The output voltage obtained during this study was not a full 220V. The actual output was
approximately 218V. The discrepancy is most likely due to losses in the board, as well as
to non-ideal devices (most notably the inductor). [6]
In the analysis above, all components were assumed ideal. It was assumed that the power
is transmitted without losses from the input voltage source to the load. However,
parasitic resistances exist in all circuits, due to the resistivity of the materials they are
made from. Therefore, a fraction of the power managed by the converter is dissipated by
these parasitic resistances. This is why the efficiencies are not at a perfect 100%.For the
sake of simplicity, the inductor is assumed the only non-ideal component, and that it is
equivalent to an inductor and a resistor in series. This is reasonable because an inductor is
made of one long wound piece of wire, so it is likely to exhibit a non-negligible parasitic
resistance. Furthermore, current flows through the inductor both in the on and the off
states, so any non-ideal effects will be more pronounced. Reworking the earlier equations
with the added inductor resistance (RL) changes the gain equation to the following: [6]

()


Even without the full derivation, the equation makes intuitive sense. If the inductor
resistance is zero (an ideal inductor), the equation above becomes equal to the ideal case;
however, as RL increases, the voltage gain of the converter decreases compared to the
ideal case. Also, the effect of RL increases with the duty cycle, K.
CHAPTER NO. 4 DC TO AC CONVERSION
19

Figure displays these effects graphically. As the inductor becomes less ideal, the possible
gain drops off sharply from the theoretical value, especially as the duty cycle grows
above 50%. [6]

Figure 4.6: Duty Cycle
4.2.4 Conclusions
DC-DC converters are an excellent way to get the most use out of a single power supply.
Though the total power must remain constant, one can efficiently tradeoff between
current strength and voltage levels to power a variety of sub-circuits without costly extra
batteries. [6]

CHAPTER NO. 4 DC TO AC CONVERSION
20

4.3 220VDC TO 220VAC CONVERSION
A power inverter, or inverter, is an electrical device that changes direct current (DC) to
alternating current (AC); the converted AC can be at any required voltage and frequency
with the use of appropriate transformers, switching, and control circuits.
The conversion of a high DC source to an AC waveform using pulse-width modulation.
Power inverters are devices which can convert electrical energy of DC form into that of
AC. They come in all shapes and sizes, from low power functions such as powering a car
radio to that of backing up a building in case of power outage. Inverters can come in
many different varieties, differing in price, power, efficiency and purpose. The purpose
of a DC/AC power inverter is typically to take DC power supplied by battery, and
transform it into a 220 volt AC power source operating at 50 Hz, emulating the power
available at an ordinary household electrical out let. [7]
4.3.1 DC power source utilization
An inverter converts the DC electricity from sources such as batteries, solar panels, or
fuel cells to AC electricity. The electricity can be at any required voltage; in particular it
can operate AC equipment designed for mains operation, or rectified to produce DC at
any desired voltage.
4.3.2 Basic designs
A normal ac inverter has three parts:
1. An input converter to rectify ac power to dc power. It is normally called the source
bridge.
2. An energy storage device which separates the input from the output and allows each to
operate independently from the other. It is usually called a link filter.
3. A dc-to-ac inverter in the output stage. It is called an inverter. It generates the desired
ac output voltage and frequency. [12]
CHAPTER NO. 4 DC TO AC CONVERSION
21

4.3.3 Operation of simple square-wave inverter
To illustrate the concept of AC waveform generation:






Figure 4.7: Simple Inverter
This can be shown in the equivalent circuit form as









Figure 4.8:Equivalent Circuit
This circuit has two modes of operation:
When S1 and S2 is ON AND S3 and S4 is OFF
When S3 And S4 is ON AND S1 and S2 is OFF

CHAPTER NO. 4 DC TO AC CONVERSION
22


When S1 and S2 is ON AND S3 and S4 is OFF











Figure 4.9: S1,S2 ON; S3,S4 OFF
The output voltage waveform is










Figure 4.10: Positive Half Cycle

CHAPTER NO. 4 DC TO AC CONVERSION
23

When S3 and S4 is ON AND S1 and S2 is OFF








Figure 4.11: S3,S4 ON; S1,S2 OFF
The output voltage waveform is
For t2<t<t3








Figure 4.12: Negative Half Cycle

CHAPTER NO. 4 DC TO AC CONVERSION
24

The Combine output voltage wave form is
Figure 4.13: Invertor Output
The output voltage wave form of full bridge is shown above with the peak value of 200V.
[12]
4.3.4 Pulse-Width-Modulated Inverters
Pulse-Width-Modulated Inverters (PWM) is referred to as time ratio control. From a
constant DC input voltage, we get a variable output voltage and frequency by varying the
percentage of time that the power control switch is closed. The output voltage will
increase by increasing the percentage of time the switch is closed. The switch is either
open or closed. PWM is used extensively as a means of powering alternating current
(AC) devices with an available direct current (DC) source or for advanced DC/AC
conversion. Variation of duty cycle in the PWM is gnarl to provide a DC voltage across
the load in a specific pattern will appear to the load as an AC signal, or can control the
speed of motors that would otherwise run only at full speed or off. This is further
explained in this section. The pattern at which the duty cycle of a PWM signal varies can
be created through simple analog components, a digital microcontroller, or specific PWM
integrated circuits. Analog PWM control requires the generation of both reference and
carrier signals that feed in to a comparator which creates output signals based on the
difference between the signals. The reference signal is sinusoidal and at the frequency of
the desired output signal, while the carrier signal is often either a saw tooth or triangular
wave at a frequency significantly greater than the reference. When the carrier signal
exceeds the reference, the comparator output signal is at one state, and when the reference
CHAPTER NO. 4 DC TO AC CONVERSION
25

is at higher voltage, the output is at its second state. This process is shown in with the
triangular carrier wave in red, sinusoidal reference wave in blue and modulated and UN
modulated sine pulse. [12]






Figure 4.14: Pulse Width Modulation

CHAPTER NO. 5 FUTURE ENHANCEMENTS
26

CHAPTER NO. 5 FUTURE ENHANCEMENTS
5.1 LIMITATIONS IN THE EXISTING CIRCUITS
In the existing circuits there are some power losses. Transistors used can work only on
low voltage (60VDC maximum) which means more amperes and more power dissipation
in the circuit. These circuits are not capable handling high power.
5.2 ENHANCEMENTS CAN BE MADE
We can replace bipolar transistors with MOSFETs in current limiter circuit which can
operate at higher voltages and they have high switching speed which can make the circuit
more efficient in limiting the current. We can use 400VDC rated MOSFETS and desired
power rating can be choose according to power requirements.
The AC-DC and DC-AC converters use voltage step down and step up circuits which can
be removed in order to make project more efficient and less complicated. Without
stepping down the voltages in AC-DC converter will give us 311VDC approximately.
These voltages will be given to current limiter circuit which will be now being using
MOSFETs. After passing the current limiter circuit voltages are fed to DC-AC converter
and without the need of any stepping up the voltages the converter will make 220VAC at
output.
These enhancements will reduce the power losses in the project and project will be more
cost effective. The project will become less complicated and more efficient and capable
of handling high power applications.

27

REFERENCES
[1] http://www.smpspowersupply.com/power-supply.html
[2] http://electroschematics.blogspot.com/2011/05/12vdc-to-220v-ac-500w-
inverter-circuit.html
[3] http://www.electronics-circuits.com/tech/2006/10/multi-output-instrument-
power-supply/
[4] http://freecircuitdiagram.com/2008/08/27/variable-adjustable-current-
limiter-circuit/
[5] http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boost_converter
[6] http://www.ortodoxism.ro/datasheets/maxim/MAX5025-MAX5028.pdf
[7] http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Power_inverterhttp://www.powerdesigners.com/
InfoWeb/design_center/articles/DC-DC/converter.shtm
[8] http://www.interq.or.jp/japan/se-inoue/e_ckt28.htm
[9] http://www.elexp.com/t_dc-dc.htm
[10] http://www.jaycar.com.au/images_uploaded/dcdcconv.pdf
[11] http://www.futurlec.com/News/National/DC_Converter.shtml
[12] http://encon.fke.utm.my/notes/inverter-2002.pdf
[13] ocw.mit.edu/courses/electrical-engineering-and-computer-science/6-334-
power-electronics-spring-2007/lecture-notes/ch9.pdf
[14] Modified Sine-Wave Inverter Enhanced Page of". Powerelectronics.com.
Retrieved 2011-01-10.