Pergamon

Minerals Engineering. Vol. 11, No. 5. pp. 397421, 1998

0 1998 Elstvier Science Ltd
0892687S(98)00020-X
All rights reserved. Printed in Great Britain
0892-6875/98 $19.OOtO.00
REVIEW OF FROTH MODELLING IN
STEADY STATE FLOTATION SYSTEMS
Z.T. MATHE, M.C. HARRIS*, C.T. OCONNOR and J-P. FRANZIDIS+
$ Department of Chemical Engineering, University of Cape Town,
Private Bag Rondebosch, 7701 South Africa. E-mail: ctoc@chemeng.uct.ac.za
t Julius Kruttschnitt Mineral Research Centre, University of Queensland, Australia
(Received 26 November 1997; accepted 3 J anuary 1998)
ABSTRACT
Froth models proposed in the literature are reviewed with the aim of identifying their
significance and usefulness in the modelling and scale-up of thefroth phase in steady state
flotation systems. Literature indicates thatfroth phase performance is better understood
in terms of froth recovery, the fraction of material presented at the pulp-froth intelface
that reports to the concentrate. This review suggests that froth recovery is a strong
function of drainage rate of particles from the froth phase to the slurry phase. Drainage
rate, in turn, is determined by physical factors, such as froth removal technique, geometry
of the flotation cell, flux and distribution of air at the pulp-froth interface, the water
content, particle size and solids content, and chemical factors, such as froth stability and
froth loading. These factors infruence the froth residence time, which has been ident$ed
as a key froth parameter.
Finally, it is proposed that future work should focus largely on the development of a
methodology to investigate froth performance based on the froth recovery in different
flotation systems. This will enable generic relationships between the froth recovery and
froth sub-processes and key froth parameters to be established, and make it possible to
relate froth performance in different flotation systems. 0 1998 Elsevier Science Ltd. All
rights reserved
Keywords
Froth flotation; flotation froths; modelling; flotation kinetics
INTRODUCTION
The froth flotation process is one of the least well understood engineering unit operations today. It is
believed that a poor understanding of the processes occurring in the froth phase contributes significantly to
the incomplete understanding of the flotation process as a whole. This is evident in the inability of flotation
correlations and kinetic models, which lump together the pulp and froth phases, to accurately model
complex flotation systems. It is widely acknowledged, however, that froth flotation involves the recovery
of minerals in two distinct phases (see Figure 1). The pulp phase is adequately described by first-order
kinetics, whereas no appropriate model of a general nature exists for the froth phase. As a result, a first-
order kinetic equation is usually imposed on the overall flotation process.
397
398 2. T. Mathe et (11.
In the early days of froth modelling, the emphasis was on developing a mathematical description of the froth
phase based on the assumption that both froth and pulp phases are completely mixed [ 1, 21. This approach
was subsequently used by Ring [3] and Woodburn et al. [4] to estimate flowsheet parameters for circuit
modelling, with limited success. Thereafter the emphasis shifted towards studying the phenomena which take
place in the froth phase [5-81. From these investigations, it emerged that froth stability, froth mobility,
entrainment and drainage of particles are the most important factors which affect mineral recovery and
grade. However, the interactive nature of these factors makes it extremely difficult to quantify the effect of
froth on the overall flotation process. Consequently, the froth recovery factor was seen.as a valuable
practical parameter to describe the influence of the froth phase in flotation. Froth recovery refers to the
recovery to the launders of floatable and entrained ore particles entering the froth zone from the collection
zone. A typical example of the effect of froth recovery on the flotation process is illustrated by Figure 2.
Feed j
Tails +-i-
Drainage
I
water +
floatable and entrained particles
.___........___.._......
Fig. 1 Two-phase flotation process. R, = collection zone recovery; R, =
residence time in the pulp zone; 2, = froth residence time.
Concentrate
b
% = fOL,RL)
(entrained + floatable)
froth recovery; r,= mean
1
0 1 2 3 4
Mean Residence lime (mins)
Fig.2 The effect of froth recovery on the overall flotation process.
Although several froth models have been used successfully to describe froth behaviour in specially designed
flotation cells, the results have seldom been useful in predicting the froth recovery and the overall recovery
Review of froth modelling
399
in a cell, and hence in the modelling of flotation circuits. Studies carried out in these cells, however, have
contributed significantly to the current understanding of frothing phenomena and the behaviour of mineral
particles in froths. Due to the complex and diverse nature of froth modelling, the significance and usefulness
of these investigations is either not known or confusing to most researchers. To review these studies, the
present paper proposes that froth models, in general, may be divided into two broad categories, viz. steady
and non-steady state models. Steady state models refer to froth models derived from systems where the froth
characteristics do not change with time for fixed operating conditions, such as in equilibrium and continuous
flotation cells. The non-steady state models, on the other hand, are models derived from systems such as
batch cells, where the froth characteristics are changing with time.
The aim of this paper, therefore, is to review the current understanding and modelling of the froth phase
in steady-state systems. Subsequent review will deal with non-steady state systems. The material in this
paper is organised according to the transfer processes involved in the transportation of particles out of the
flotation cell. It further highlights the significance of froth investigations based on froth recovery. Future
research areas which can significantly contribute to the current understanding of froth modelling are also
proposed.
MODELLING OF FROTHS
The steady-state models found in the literature are derived from equilibrium cells (defined below), column
cells and conventional cells. Froth phase modelling, in general, involves a number of transfer processes:
selective transfer of material from slurry to the froth by particle-bubble attachment; non-selective transfer
of material from the slurry to the froth by entrainment; drop back (both selective and non-selective) of
material from the froth to the slurry; and mechanical or hydraulic transfer of material from the froth into
the concentrate (see Figure 3). The models presented here either treat some of these transfer processes
individually, or lump them into a single equivalent process described by the froth recovery factor.
Feed
Fr ot h
phase
Pul p phase
I
1,;:
=Qfl
. .il
. ..:
w
Tails
Fig.3 Froth transfer process (after Laplante et al. [ 161). 1. true flotation; 2. entrainment; 3. drop-back
action; 4. froth transfer.
Quantification of the individual transfer processes is difficult, especially in industrial froths. As a result, the
performance of the froth phase is sometimes inferred from the appearance of the froth at the surface. Image
analysis has proved to be very useful in the analysis of the froth based on its appearance. In addition to the
review of froth models, a very brief review of the work involving this technique in steady state systems is
provided at the end of this section.
400 Z. T. Mathe et ul.
Material Transfer Processes
Equilibrium Cell
The equilibrium cell was developed by Warren Spring Laboratories [9] to study froth by bringing the froth
stability under more direct experimental observation. The sides of an equilibrium cell are built up so as not
to allow continuous froth removal. This allows effects due to the rate of froth collapse to be separated from
the rates of pulp-froth transfer processes. Furthermore, it allows separation of froth and pulp zones by
interposing slide(s) between the froth and the pulp for assay purposes.
Transfer within the froth
Moys [7] developed a plug-flow model to describe equilibrium froth behaviour given by the equation:
dm,(h) mJh)+ me i(h) mr Jh)
-= +
dh
v(h) u(h)
I
(1)
where ml(h) is the mass of a particular mineral at froth height h, m&h) is the entrained mass flow rate at
froth height h, mei is the mass flowrate of species i attached to bubbles at froth height h, m,i(h) is the
mass flowrate of particles diffusing from the upward-flowing stream to the downward-tlowing stream, u(h)
is the velocity of downward-flowing streams, and v(h) is the velocity of the bubble films.
This equation is based on the following postulates:
6)
The rate of detachment of particles of component i is proportional to their concentration within the
froth.
(ii) Both floatable and entrained particles (class i) rise at the velocity of the bubble films v(h) towards
the top of the froth column.
(iii) The net upward flowrate of water is constant and equal to the concentrate water flowrate.
(iv>
The solid particles diffusing from the upward-flowing stream enter the downward-flowing stream
at velocity u and rate m,l(h).
Although this model worked very well for a complex Zn-Cu-Fe sulphide ore (as seen in Figures 4 and S),
it does not quantify froth structure in terms of typical froth properties, such as drainage velocity, viscosity
and bubble film thickness. Furthermore, the possibility of re-attachment of particles was neglected.
Therefore, the general applicability of this model to deep froths, where re-attachment of particles is most
likely to occur, may be limited.
Drainage mechanism in equilibrium froths
Drainage of material is mainly associated with mobility of froth in the vertical direction as opposed to the
horizontal direction. In equilibrium cells the significance of froth mobility in the horizontal direction is
minimal. Cutting et al. [lo] suggested that the effects of vertical froth mobility within the froth in the
equilibrium cell can be classified into two modes:
(9
Film drainage, which refers to water and solids draining around the air bubbles.
(ii) Column drainage, which refers to unstable conditions, such as solids accumulation in the froth,
resulting in collapse and downward movement of fluid.
Review of froth modelling 401
Fig.4
I
20 40 60 80
GRADE OR CONCENTRATION, %
Froth structure showing inflation in the pyrite-grade curve. Batch float with pyrite depressed
steady state conditions (i.e. no removal of concentrate) (Moys [7]).
under
20 4.0 60
GRAOE OR CONCENTRATION, %
Fig.5 Simulated froth structure showing inflation in the pyrite-grade curve. Based on the plug-flow model
(Moys [71).
They then proposed the following equation:
(2)
where C, is the material concentration of froth constituent n, y is the column drainage coefficient, j3 is the
402 Z. T. Mathe et d.
film drainage coefficient, and L2 is the froth removal coefficient.
Integrating the above equation, assuming the froth removal factor is negligible, yields:
(3)
where C, is the concentration of particles at the froth-pulp interface.
Equation (3) can be used to estimate the probability of transfer of froth/material to the top of the froth by
the expression:
P(h) = C(h)/C[
(4)
The above expression has a similar meaning to the froth recovery factor to be discussed later in this paper.
Other coefficients and probabilities for interpreting the recovery of minerals within the froth have also been
proposed [ 11, 121. The advantage of using eq. (4) is that the recovery of mineral/s within the froth can be
studied as a function of froth height without independently varying the froth depth.
Ross [ 131 estimated the separate contributions of water and mineral particles to the thickness of the bubble
film above the interface and then used the resulting total thickness to determine the drainage rate constants
to describe the rate at which entrained particles and water diffuse from the upward-flowing entrained stream
of slurry. Based on the above approach, it was possible to calculate the drainage velocities of the various
mineral species and water from the froth. Using Moyss approach to entrainment of species i (i.e., rate of
drainage of an entrained species i is proportional to its concentration in the froth), Ross [14] showed that
the total mass flowrate of that species ascending to a height h above the pulp-froth interface is given by:
(5)
where kd, i is the drainage rate constant for entrained particles of species i.
It was further postulated that the total thickness of the bubble films at any height h, above the interface, is
a function of both entrained water and particles immersed in the film. This model combines various factors
that affect the behaviour of mineral particles and water in flotation froths, such as the size of the bubbles,
the mass of particles and water floated and entrained, and the rates and velocities at which they drain from
the froth. Based on small values of the fractional bubble-surface coverage (described in Ross [13]), the
detachment of floating particles by displacement from the bubble surfaces was taken to be negligible. The
observed decrease in concentration of floated particles with increasing height was therefore associated with
washing of the bubble surfaces by the draining slurry. From Figure 6, it can be seen that the drainage of
water decreases with an increase in air flowrate. Figure 7 indicates an initial increase in drainage rate
constants (kd, i) with an increase in froth height during flotation of coarse particles of pyritic ore at
different aeration rates. This illustrates the importance of the influence of water and air content and
entrainment on the drainage mechanism within the froth which is not well documented in the literature.
Entrainment in an equilibrium cell
Moys [7] developed an expression for entrainment of particles which he used successfully in developing
a plug-flow model for studying flotation froth behaviour. The expression indicates that the mass of entrained
particles decreases exponentially with increase in froth height.
Review of froth modelling
403
mJh> - me,i(0)exp - Id
( J&y
(6)
Equation (6) is expected to work well in froth regions where plug-flow conditions exist. However, this is
rarely the case in most flotation systems.
Fig.6
Fig.7
t 1
ii
3
0.5
1
--a-4
--s-4
1
--A-6
-0-E
0 1 2 3
Froth Height (cm)
4 5
Variation of the drainage rate constant for water during flotation of the -150+75 urn fraction of
the pyrite ore (Ross [13]). Airflow 4 Ilmin for Test 1 & 3; airfiow 8 Umin for Tests 4 and 6.
Airibw (litres/min)
0 1 2 3
Froth Height (cm)
4 5
Variation of the drainage rate constant for the -150+75 pm fraction of the pyrite ore
Airflow 4 Umin for Tests 1 & 3; airflow 8 llmin for Tests 4 & 6.
(Ross [13]).
404 Z. T. Mathe et (II.
Continuous Mechanical Cells
The froth phase found in mechanical cells is also influenced by a number of transfer processes, viz. selective
transfer of material from slurry to the froth by true flotation; transfer of material from the slurry to the froth
by entrainment; drop back (both selective and non-selective) of material from the froth to the slurry; and
mechanical or hydraulic transfer of material from the froth into the concentrate. Likewise the froth models
developed for this system can be classified in terms of these transfer processes.
Transfer of material from slurry to froth
By floating with almost no froth layer, it is generally assumed that the flotation rate constant obtained
represents flotation of minerals in the collection zone. Alternatively, the collection zone flotation rate
constant (k,) is determined by extrapolating , to zero froth height, a line or curve relating the overall
flotation rate constant to froth height [12, 15-171. This rate constant (k,) is, by definition, highly influenced
by processes occurring in the pulp or collection phase.
Recently, Gorain et al. [ 181 proposed that a linear relationship exists between the overall flotation rate
constant (obtained at very shallow froth depth) and the bubble surface area flux St,. This could be a very
useful relationship for use in flotation modelling, optimisation and scale-up. The presence of the froth layer,
however, has a significant influence on this relationship [19] since the overall rate constant, k, (i.e., in the
presence of a froth phase), will not equal the collection zone rate constant, k,. To predict k, from St,, it is
necessary to understand the sub-processes occurring within the froth zone, and how they relate to the overall
froth performance.
Entrainment
Correlations between gangue and water recoveries have been studied both in batch and continuous systems
[5, 20-231. Smith and Warren [24] reviewed the available work on entrainment in conventional flotation
cells. They highlighted the effect of particle size on the degree of entrainment, which was studied by
Engelbrecht and Woodbum [5], on a continuous pilot plant system of finely ground silica and finely ground
pyrite. The latter authors developed an expression for gangue recovery by an equation of the form:
Rg= eig ( R, - R,,,,o J
where R, is the gangue recovery of species i, R, is the water recovery, R,,o is the recovery of water in
the absence of gangue material, and eig is the entrainment factor for gangue of size i.
The major conclusion reached by Engelbrecht and Woodbum was that a linear relationship exists between
gangue recovery and water recovery for fine particles. For coarse particles, a parabolic relationship exists
between gangue and water recovery. It is believed that the settling velocity of coarser particles is the factor
which creates a difference between the recovery of gangue versus the recovery of water curves for coarse
and fine particles.
Recently, Kirjavainen [25] proposed a method to evaluate the entrainment of gangue material in flotation
circuits. The semi-empirical method relates the entrainment factor (P) to the variables in the Newtonian
region (described in Kirjavainen [26]) given by the following equation:
P=
w 0.7
w 0.7+ b,,,h - O.%,!m O.C%++
(8)
where w is the water recovery rate (kg/m%), b is a constant, m is the average mass of the particles, w is
the dynamic shape factor, and q is the slurry viscosity.
S, = 6 Jdd, where J, is the superficial gas velocity and d, is the bubble size
Review of froth modelling 405
It should be noted, however, that eq. (8) was derived for a system without any hydrophobic species present
(only quartz and phlogopite were used), so the usefulness of this entrainment model in real ore systems may
be questionable.
Froth transfer within the froth
The design of mechanical cells is such that not all material in the froth zone has a chance of freely flowing
out of the cell to the concentrate launder. Under these circumstances, it is sometimes necessary to use
mechanical scrapers to remove the froth. The physical removal of froth induces disturbances within the froth
phase. This action also affects the behaviour of particles within the froth phase.
In conventional cells, three flow regimes have been identified [lo, 27, 281, viz. the stagnant flow regime
next to the cell backplate, where particles have a very low probability of being transferred to the launder,
the centre zone where plug-flow behaviour of particles prevails, and the region just below the paddles,
where there is a considerable mixing activity and which, according to Moys [27], is the main path followed
by entrained material. The three regions within the froth volume are shown in Figure 8. The three zones
were characterised from studies of froth behaviour at pilot-scale in a continuously operated flotation bank
[ 81 and observations of froth mobility and structure in large scale flotation cells. Interesting results from this
work indicated that no significant concentration gradient existed in the froth at low froth heights (O-4 cm
for cleaner cells, and O-2.5 cm for rougher cells: Wemco No. 20, 80 1). From this it is therefore expected
that the froth will behave like a completely mixed system with respect to solids for mechanical cells
operating at shallow froths. This approach has been used with some success by both Ring [3] and
Woodburn et al. [4] in circuit modelling studies.
h 1
Froth
i
3
I
Fig,8 Froth volume regions (after Ross [28]). 1. Plug flow equilibrium; 2. Lateral movement in the
direction of the concentrate weir; 3. Path followed by entrainment particles; 4. Plug-flow.
Moys [27] proposed a two-dimensional streamline behaviour of froths. This approach was based on the
Laplace equation-similar to the approach taken by Murphy et al. [29] in a two-phase system. To use the
Laplace equation, however, one has to assume that the froth is well drained with no frictional forces. The
applicability of this assumption to three-phase froths is somewhat doubtful.
More recently, Ross [28] studied the behaviour of particles and water in the froth phase of rougher and
cleaner cells in a large-scale pyrite flotation plant. This work utilised the findings discussed earlier that three
regions exist in froths found in mechanical cells, and that deep froths can be modelled as plug-flow systems.
Ross improved Moys plug-flow model of drainage by considering variation of particle and water drainage
rates with respect to froth height.
406 Z. T. Mathe et al.
Froth transfer out of the cell
Upon arrival of the particles in the froth phase, froth removal techniques determine the fraction of particles
successfully recovered. Froth removal induces drainage of particles by breaking bubbles. Froth removal is
also strongly believed to be the rate controlling step in froth flotation in many instances, as has been
demonstrated by Meyer and Klimpel [30]. With longer residence times the entrained particles drop back to
the pulp phase thus yielding a high grade concentrate, whereas the opposite is expected for shorter residence
times [31].
Laplante et al. [ 161 studied the effect of air flowrate and froth thickness on the froth transfer rate in a small
continuous mechanical cell. This was carried out using an unclassified and classified (0-12pm; 12-22 pm
and 22-4Opm) galena ore. This work showed that the froth transfer rate increases with an increase in gas
rate, and decreases with an increase in particle size. It also showed a decrease in froth transfer rate with an
increase in froth thickness and hence with an increase in froth residence time. A decrease in froth transfer
rate would then result in a lower froth recovery and hence a lower overall recovery.
Drop back of particles
The recovery of material within the froth is determined by what fraction of material arriving at the interface
returns to the pulp zone by drainage mechanisms. Particle drainage has been studied mostly in column and
equilibrium flotation cells [32, 7, 131. Laplante et al. [16] studied dropback of particles in a small (5 I)
mechanical cell using unclassified and classified galena ore. It was found that particles have a high
probability of returning from the froth zone to the pulp zone when deep froths are used. Most of these
studies, however, did not account for the contribution of entrained material to the overall drainage rate of
particles.
For a continuous flow in a two-phase system (i.e. inflow of feed, removal of concentrate, removal of
tailings, and transfer of concentrate from the pulp to the froth and from froth to pulp), Arbiter and Harris
[l] developed a dimensionless equation:
ICP
- -
V, Qc
SCf
kcVp+ k&
(9)
where r is the ratio of pulp volumes (with air/without air), s is the ratio of froth volumes (with air/without
air), C, is the concentration of particles in the pulp phase, C, is the concentration of particles in the froth,
V, is the pulp phase volume, V, is the volume of froth, Q, is the mass flow rate from pulp to the interface,
and kd is the drainage rate constant of particles.
By changing the feed to the cell, and measuring C,, C, and Qc, the constants k, and k, can be obtained
from the linear plot of (rC++) against QjVp . This method has been used successfully by Greaves and
Allan [33] who determined material transfer rates from the pulp to froth zone and dropback constants from
the froth to the pulp zone in a single mechanical flotation cell.
Woodbum [34] and later Lynch et al. 1231 showed that for a two-phase continuous system (assuming a
perfectly mixed froth region) the overall flotation rate constant (slurry and froth) can be expressed as:
(10)
where zf is the froth residence time, the precise definition of which will be discussed later in this paper.
Equation (10) is probably only suitable for flotation at relatively shallow froth heights, as it is under these
conditions that the froth can be regarded as perfectly mixed. For very shallow froths (i.e. negligible froth
Review of froth modelling 407
residence time), the overall rate constant will approach the collection zone rate constant.
Column Cells
It is relatively easier to investigate processes occurring in column flotation cell froths compared to
mechanical cell froths because of the well-defined flow patterns in column froths as a result of the absence
of moving parts. However, the addition of wash water creates some turbulence within these froths which
nullifies the assumption of plug-flow froth behaviour. In addition, there is a significant difference between
concentrate quality collected when wash water is added below the cell lip and when wash water is added
above the cell lip [35]. Nevertheless, it has been shown that the behaviour of particles within the froth zone
can be adequately described by plug-flow models [36].
Detachment and Drainage of particles in column froths
Finch and Dobby [38] postulated an expression to describe the overall recovery in a column flotation system
by treating the drop back of particles from the froth to the pulp zone as a recycle stream which is mixed
with the fresh feed (see Figure 9). This leads to the expression:
R, =
RcRr
1- R,+ R$$
where R, is the collection zone recovery and Rf is the froth recovery.
(11)
Wl-w
Froth Zone
4
R,
1
Collection Zone
v
*
Feed
( I_-* 1-K
Fig.9 Interaction between froth and collection zone (after Falutsu and Dobby [32]).
Falutsu and Dobby [32] used a modified laboratory column, which isolates the froth zone from the
collection zone, for direct measurement of froth drop back [32]. Pure silica with a dso particle size of
approximately 35 pm was used for all tests. They then determined froth recovery, using eq. (1 l), at
different flotation conditions. Results indicated that froth recovery is (i) dependent on particle size,
increasing as particle size decreases, (ii) dependent on froth bias velocity, decreasing as froth bias velocity
increases (i.e. more wash water added); (iii) not strongly froth height dependent, suggesting the possibility
of particle re-attachment or negligible particle detachment within the froth. This is consistent with the view
that detachment of particles from bubbles occurs primarily at the pulp-froth interface.
408 2. T. Mathe et al.
The problem with this technique of directly measuring froth drop back is that the two zones (i.e. collection
and froth) are modelled separately. The drop back is recycled back to the feed line, or discarded. This
allows for no interaction of the froth zone and collection zone. Also, the geometry of the column is different
from that of the regular column flotation cell. It is, however, a useful approach with regard to understanding
the role played by drop back in the froth phase.
Falutsu [37] later presented a fundamental analysis of the stability of the bubble-particle aggregate in
column froths. The approach involved identifying forces acting on the bubble-particle system at equilibrium,
during detachment, and during reattachment. Forces involved at equilibrium include: (a) the gravity force;
(b) the static buoyancy of the immersed particle; (c) the hydrostatic pressure of the liquid column of height
Z on the contact area; (d) the capillary force at the three-phase interface; and (e) the capillary pressure.
Destructive forces identified during detachment were: (i) liquid flow (drag force); (ii) slippage (combination
of a centrifugal force and the gravity force); (iii) bubble deceleration; and (iv) bubble oscillation.
To assess the importance of these forces, fixed conditions for flotation cell variables were assumed. It was
found that estimations of liquid flow and slippage forces were significantly lower than the force of surface
tension. These results indicated that the drag force exerted by the draining liquid or wash water addition,
even at higher rates, cannot be responsible for particle detachment. Slippage of particles along the bubble
surface was also considered unlikely to initiate detachment of particles in the froth. The results strongly
suggested that a significant proportion of detachment was caused by deceleration and impact of
particle-bubble aggregates upon arrival at the interface, which supports the finding by Falutsu and Dobby
WI .
Based on this work, it can be inferred that instability of the froth system is caused by breakage of bubbles
in the bed structure which causes deformation of the froth (bubble coalescence). The limitations of this work
however, are the assumptions on which the calculations were based. Particle diameter, bubble diameter in
froth, bubble velocity in the froth, froth density, and bias velocity were all assumed to be the same for all
calculations. However, it has been shown in many studies that all these parameters vary with froth height.
Entrainment in column froths
Entrainment is usually assumed to be insignificant in a column froth when wash water is used. Yianatos et
al. [39] suggested that entrained particles are rejected very close to the pulp-froth interface in column cells
when froth washing is employed. However, a number of studies have been conducted on column froths in
the absence of wash water to investigate entrainment. Tuteja et al. [40] looked at the influence of column
parameters (i.e. collection zone height, superficial air rate, superficial feed rate, and feed grade) on
entrainment in froth using a gold bearing sulphide ore. Their work showed that an increase in superficial
feed rate and feed grade results in an increase in concentrate grade without significantly affecting recovery
of gangue minerals. This suggests that entrainment in column froths is indeed negligible even in the absence
of wash water.
Froth Recovery
Consideration of only the overall flotation rate constant, or individual transfer processes, in the determination
of the kinetic response of an ore to flotation is inadequate and misleading, particularly when modelling
flotation cells with deep froths. This is true for both laboratory and plant scale flotation cells. For very deep
froths, the overall flotation rate constant is highly influenced by processes occurring within the froth phase.
Presently, the poor understanding of the behaviour of the froth phase makes it difficult to interpret the
overall flotation rate constant in terms of froth sub-processes. A more promising and practical approach is
to represent the processes occurring within the froth-phase collectively in terms of froth recovery. Froth
recovery refers to the recovery to the concentrate of floatable and entrained ore particles entering the froth
zone from the collection zone. Although this concept has been explored extensively in column flotation
cells, it has largely been neglected with respect to the analysis of froth performance in mechanical cells
(particularly in batch flotation cells). This section reviews the different expressions for froth recovery found
in the literature.
Review of froth modelling 409
Froth recovery modelling
Mathematically, froth recovery is described by the ratio of the overall flotation rate constant to the collection
zone rate constant:
!f = k/k,
(12)
where k, is the overall flotation rate constant (i.e. in the presence of froth and pulp phases).
If certain assumptions are made, eq. (12) can be expressed in terms of the overall flotation recovery and
the collection zone recovery. Furthermore, it can be shown that eq. (11) and eq. (12) are mathematically
equivalent.
Perfect Mixing
If the collection zone is assumed to be perfectly mixed with a mean residence time t, then the collection
zone recovery is given by:
R, = I -(l+k,z)- (13)
and the overall recovery, including the froth zone, is given by:
R, = 1 -(I +k#l (14)
Solving for k, and k, in equations (13) and (14), and substituting them into eq. (12) leads to eq. (11).
Plug Flow
Where transport of material in the collection zone is described by plug flow with residence time 2, the
collection zone recovery is given by:
R, = I -exp(-k,z) (15)
and the overall recovery, including the froth zone, is given by:
R, = 1-exp(-k,T)
(16)
Solving for k, and k, in equations (15) and (16), and substituting them into eq. (12) leads to the expression:
R, = 1 - ( l-RJRf
(17)
Whereas eq. (12) can be useful in terms of modelling recovery data from simple and complex flotation
systems, the assumption on which it is based, viz. that the behaviour of the froth zone is directly related
to the kinetics of the collection zone, is questionable. Furthermore, it does not distinguish between floatable
and entrained ore particles.
The approach of Laplante et al. [ 161 treats the froth phase as a separate unit from the collection zone, with
the pulp/froth interface as their common link. Using this approach leads to an alternative definition of the
froth recovery factor, namely:
l?f =kl( K+kJ
(18)
where k is the froth transfer rate.
410 Z. T. Mathe et ul.
The advantage of this approach is that one can study froth recovery with respect to processes occurring only
within the froth phase.
The other useful approach to froth flotation modelling uses air recovery or enhancement factors as opposed
to particle recovery to account for froth effects in flotation models [41, 421. Since most of this work was
carried out in non-steady state batch flotation systems, further results will be discussed in the subsequent
review paper on non-steady state systems. Recent work by Gorain et al. [ 191 indicates that bubble surface
area flux, or St.,, is a better parameter than air flowrate in this type of analysis. Given the present
understanding of the k,-St, relationship, it might be necessary to look at the use of air recovery correction
factors in flotation circuit modelling from this perspective.
Froth recovery investigations
Column cells
Contini et al. [43] used ground silica (80% passing 35pm) in a laboratory column cell capable of operating
either countercurrently or cocurrently to investigate froth recovery. The difference between the two operating
modes was mainly that particles which dropped out of the froth in cocurrent mode were immediately lost
to tailings, whereas in counter-current mode, these particles were subject to recollection. Each operating
mode was divided into three zones: froth zone, secondary collection zone, and primary collection zone.
Expressions for the rate constant and froth recovery were developed for each operating mode based on a
first-order kinetic model describing the particle removal in the primary and secondary collection zones. The
rate constant and froth recovery was then determined by simultaneous solutions of the two expressions. In
this system Rf varied between 27% and 65%, increasing with decrease in particle size (Figure 10). This
modelling approach was based on the following assumptions:
(9
(ii)
(iii)
the rate constant for the primary collection zone was assumed to be constant for both operating
modes, as the gas holdup in cocurrent flow was only slightly less than in countercurrent flow;
the rate constant in the primary collection zone was assumed to be the same as in the secondary
collection zone; and
froth recovery in the counter-current mode was assumed to be the same as in the cocurrent mode,
as the solids content of the froth was the same for both operating modes.
It is questionable whether the third assumption is likely to be satisfied.
0. 8
t
t- FmUwdose = 40 mgtlii
tfmtherdose = 30 mgtlii
[:\r--.:-.
0.2 .-
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
Awage particle size @II)
Fig.10 Rate constant and froth recovery versus particle size (Contini et al. [43]).
Review of froth modelling 411
Falutsu and Dobby [32] using a specially designed laboratory column cell operating at 15% solids content
(80% passing 35 pm of silica) also observed that Rf varied between 20 and 60%. Rf increased slightly with
an increase in solids flux at the interface, and decreased slightly with increase in froth height. At low wash
water bias velocities (co.3 cm/set), it was found that Rfremained fairly constant. However, Rf was observed
to decrease at higher bias velocities. For the particle size range tested, froth recovery was observed not to
be a strong function of particle size, except for very fine particles (Figure 11). The problem with this
technique, however, is that the collection and froth zones do not interact because the drop back is recycled
to the feed line or discarded. Therefore, extrapolation of these observations of Rf behaviour to regular
column cells could be questionable.
20 --
0,
0 10 20 30 40 50
Particle size, d, (pm)
Fig.1 1 Froth recovery versus particle size (Falutsu and Dobby [32]). Test 1: froth height = 116 cm and
feed slurry = 244 mllmin; Test 2: froth height = 56 cm and feed slurry = 153 mllmin.
Burger [44] proposed a model which described the composition of the pulp, at a specific level in a pilot-
scale column cell, in terms of interstitial concentrations of species, bubble loading, overall concentration
of species and gas hold-up. The interstitial concentration of species i is described as:
Ci =( (Total mass)i - (Mass floating)i}/{ Mass of Overall S1t.1~ - Total MSS Floating}
(19)
This expression relates the bubble loading and the interstitial concentration of a species at a specific level
in the column cell to the overall concentration of species at that level. Knowing the recovery in the pulp
phase at the level directly below the pulp/froth interface, Finch and Dobbys expression (eq. 11) was used
to determine froth recovery. This work (conducted using Cr,O, ore and SiO, in a 15 cm diameter column
cell) indicated that froth recovery varied between 40 and 80% for Cr,O,, and between 20 and 40% for SiO,.
Contrary to a suggestion made by Falutsu and Dobby [32] that froth recovery increased with decreasing
particle size, Burgers results surprisingly showed an increase in froth recovery with increasing particle
size. It is very unlikely, however, that the froth recovery will increase with an increase in particle size.
Nevertheless, his work highlighted the interactive nature of flotation parameters such as rate of aeration,
reagent dosages, bubble size, air hold-up, pulp viscosity, wash water addition, and froth depth. It also
412 Z. T. Mathe et al.
showed that the size, shape and density of a particle have a strong effect on the drainage rate and possible
detachment of particles from air bubbles. Finally, the work highlighted the strong dependence of
particle-bubble detachment on the floatability or hydrophobicity of the mineral species.
Recently, Vera [45] used Continis approach to test the effect of operating conditions such as air flowrate
and froth depth on the collection rate constant and froth recovery. A zinc cleaner feed stream (80% passing
14 to 20 pm) consisting of sphalerite (50% by mass) and pyrite (42% by mass) was used for all tests. Froth
recovery was found to vary between 6 and 20%, and increase with an increase in solids flux at the interface.
This work confirmed to some extent the independence of the collection zone flotation rate constant with
respect to froth height, suggesting that for this system the processes occurring within the froth phase had
no influence whatsoever on the collection zone processes. It also supported the conclusion by Falutsu and
Dobby [32] that froth recovery is not a strong function of froth height. However, when the secondary
collection zone length was varied, froth recovery was strongly affected by froth depth, indicating that there
are still many unresolved issues in our understanding of the behaviour of this type of system.
Mechanical cells
Recently, Harris [46] following earlier work by Gorain et al. [ 191, used industrial data obtained at different
froth depths to analyse the effect of the froth phase on the relationship between bubble surface area flux
and the flotation rate constant. The results showed that the slope of a line relating the overall flotation rate
constant and bubble surface area flux decreased with an increase in froth depth. Most significantly, it was
observed that the relationship between k, and S, transforms into a non-linear relationship as froth depth
increased. This suggests that k,-S, relationship depends strongly on the froth residence time. Consequently,
the k,-S, relationship was modified to incorporate the froth recovery factor:
where P represents the mineral floatability.
The froth recovery factor by itself is not useful, unless it is correlated with key froth parameters such as
froth residence time. However, it is difficult to measure the true residence time in flotation froths. Currently,
froth residence time is inferred by the use of froth retention time (FRT) which can be defined in a number
of ways. One definition is given by:
(FRT),, = NJ,
To account for different cell sizes, Gorain et al. [47] proposed the use of a specific froth retention time
given by:
FW
specific = (h/Jg)/L
where L is the distance from the center of a flotation cell to the launder.
The other definition (proposed by Lynch et al. [23]) is based on the slurry flow through the froth:
(FRV,,,, = Vf/Qf
where Qf is the concentrate flowrate.
(23)
Froth retention time based on the concentrate flowrate represents the consequence of the difference between
the water flowrate into the froth phase and water flowrate back into the slurry phase. This parameter is not
the froth residence time in the true sense of the classical residence time 7. However, eq. (23) is very useful
for modelling the froth phase in flotation systems. This is supported by the recent work on the effect froth
residence time on the kinetics of flotation [47] which indicated that froth recovery decreases exponentially
with an increase in froth retention time (Figure 12). Expressed mathematically,
Review of froth modelling 413
I$= I- (I -exp (-h * FRT)}
(24)
where h is the exponential parameter which could depend on the physical and chemical froth factors.
??
0
0 loo0 zoo0 3ooo 4ooo 5ooo WOJ 7ooo axfl9oal
Froth retention time (set)
Fig.12 Variation of the froth recovery factor with froth retention time (Gorain et al. [47]).
Image Processing
As discussed above, a useful fundamental mechanistic description of the behaviour of the froth phase has
not yet been proposed. This is mainly due to the ill-defined and fragile nature of froth structure. The visual
appearance of froth has been used to determine and possibly even control the performance of the froth
phase. Moolman et al. [48], however, pointed out that different sets of metallurgical parameters may result
in similar visual appearances of the froth. Nevertheless, research based on machine vision systems for the
characterisation of froth is currently an active endeavour.
Moolman et al. [49] classified the features of the froth structure by using spatial grey level dependence
matrix (SGLDM) methods and neighbouring grey level dependence matrix methods. It is reported that a
combination of the two methods can improve the accuracy of froth structure identification to approximately
90%. It has been shown that froth structures can also be classified accurately by using learning vector
quantization neural networks for discrete-time classification of surface froth features extracted by means of
image processing [48]. Attempts have also been made to relate image features to flotation control and output
variables, and to identify the most important froth characteristics [50]. In froth structures found in industrial
flotation cells, three distinct classes of froths were distinguished. The froths in class 1 had intermediate
bubble sizes, mobility and stability (associated with a high degree of mineralization); in class 2 the froths
were highly mobile and unstable with small bubbles (associated with poorly mineralised loosely packed
bubbles); and in class 3 the froths were stable with large bubbles and low mobility (associated with
overloaded minerals). This agrees well with results obtained in a batch pyrite system [51] which showed
that froth mobility and stability have the most significant effect on the overall recovery. In addition,
Hargrave et al. [52] recently demonstrated, also using a neural network approach, that froth instability in
industrial flotation cells decreases along a cell bank-indicating less floatable material down the bank of
cells.
414 Z. T. Mathe et ~1.
Furthermore, on-line and off-line image processing techniques have been used to link froth structure with
drainage and kinetics [41, 531. For instance, Woodbum et al. [53] proposed a kinetic model based on the
specific surface of the bubbles estimated by off-line image processing of the froth. This work will be
discussed further in the next review paper on non-steady systems, as most of the tests were carried out in
a batch flotation cell.
DISCUSSION
Just as the process of froth flotation is often labelled as complex and difficult to understand, the froth
investigations presented here are similarly complex and difficult. However, in spite of all these difficulties,
a considerable amount of fundamental knowledge about the behaviour of mineralised froths has been
established. The important aspects of froth modelling provided above can be categorised into three main
research areas, viz. the investigation of froth transfer processes, froth characterisation and froth recovery
modelling.
Froth Transfer Processes
The transfer of floatable material from the collection to the froth zone is largely governed by processes
occurring in the pulp phase such as aeration, agitation and the chemical treatment of the ore. The kinetics
of processes in the collection zone may be globally reflected by the collection zone rate constant which is
estimated by extrapolation of a curve relating the overall flotation rate constant and froth depth to zero froth
depth, or by floating with a very shallow froth. It has been found that this rate constant is directly
proportional to the bubble surface area flux within the pulp phase. Although these studies do not distinguish
between entrained and truly floatable material arriving at the pulp-froth interface, the k,-St, relationship
could be very useful in flotation modelling, optimisation and scale-up.
Furthermore, it has been shown that an increase in water content within the froth phase induces detachment
and drainage of particles. The drainage rate constants for water and solids increase when the rate of aeration
increases. Also, the drainage rate constant for coarse particles in particular, has been found to decrease only
slightly with increasing froth height. This suggests that detachment of loosely attached particles occurs
mainly at the pulp-froth interface. It should be kept in mind, however, that the drainage mechanism has
been studied mostly in column and equilibrium flotation cells, mainly because these systems have well
defined froth flow regions within the froth phase. Results obtained from the equilibrium cell, however,
cannot be used to interpret the behaviour of particles in all regions found in industrial froths. This is due
to the difference in froth flow patterns that exist in froths in conventional industrial cells. Although it is
possible to study the behaviour of entrained and floatable particles in this type of system, the manner in
which it is operated limits its potential for interpreting continuously overtlowing froth systems. Therefore
the use of the models based on results obtained from equilibrium cells is probably very limited.
The recovery of fine particles by entrainment is governed by the thickness of liquid lamella which strongly
depends on the water content within the froth. It is therefore clear that by controlling the variables which
affect the recovery of water-such as air flowrate and bubble size-improvements in the recovery and grade
of desired particles could be achieved. Furthermore, a very important observation from Moys work, that
entrained particles in mechanical flotation cells follow the path just below the paddles (Figure S), is an
indication of the importance of froth residence time.
Froth transfer and behaviour of particles within the froth is often determined by the design of the flotation
cell. From the literature, it can be concluded that at high gas rates and low froth depth, the transfer of
material from pulp phase to the pulp-froth interface is rate limiting. Under these conditions, the overall rate
constant approaches the collection zone flotation rate constant. At low gas rates and high froth height,
however, transfer of the material out of the cell is rate limiting, and the overall rate constant approaches
the froth transfer constant. At industrial scale, froths are thicker and the horizontal transport distances that
particles have to travel to reach the concentrate launder are longer. Higher froth residence times lead to high
probability of particle drop-back within the froth which results in low froth recoveries.
Review of froth modelling 415
Froth Characterisation
Significant progress has been made in froth characterisation and understanding of the frothing phenomena
occurring within the froth phase. These advances are due to devices and tools (such as the equilibrium cell
and image analysis) that have been developed to study froth structure and behaviour of floating and
entrained mineral particles in the froth phase. The information obtained from these studies, however, has
a very limited use in flotation circuit design, modelling and optimisation. In addition, these studies do not
identify the appropriate froth parameters that can be used to relate froth performance in different flotation
systems.
Furthermore, literature indicates that the difficulty in sampling of the froth phase is one of the problems that
hinders the successful understanding of this aspect of the flotation process. Image analysis methods may
well provide a viable solution to this problem. This approach should be very useful if it proves possible to
relate the visual images of froth to the sub-processes occurring within the froth and collection zones.
The decrease in bubble-film thickness with increase in froth height, as shown by Ross [ 131, is an indication
that the bubble size is a strong function of froth height. The decrease in bubble-film thickness leads to
bubble coalescence. This process is believed to be governed by the entrainment and drainage of particles.
Under these conditions, the frequently used approach of using the average bubble size to determine froth
parameters can lead to significant errors and misleading conclusions.
Froth Recovery
Froth recovery studies have injected new hope into the modelling of the froth phase. The froth recovery
factor globally represents the froth transfer processes and their interaction with each other. This parameter
has been studied extensively in laboratory column flotation cells, but there is a need to investigate it further
in mechanical cells. Moreover, no froth recovery study has decoupled Rf into the contributions from
floatable and entrained material. Such a study can be very useful in flotation circuit design and modelling.
Recent work done in mechanical flotation cells has shown a very strong dependence of the froth recovery
on the froth residence time [47]. The measurement of the froth residence time, however, is not easy and
as a result, froth retention time (eq. (23)) is currently being used to infer froth residence time. As shown
earlier, an exponential decrease of the froth recovery factor with an increase in froth residence time has been
observed. This Rt-FRT relationship is expected to be influenced by a number of process variables which
can be classified into chemical and physical factors (Figure 13).
Chemical factors
Although the influence of chemical factors on flotation systems is a major topic on its own, it is imperative
to mention here that chemical reagents (particularly frothers) play a major role in determining froth stability
and flotation kinetics in general. Frothers are surface-active and usually non-ionic reagents which provide
a stable air-water interface to ensure that floated particles do not drop back into the flotation pulp from the
froth zone. The use of frothers is further complicated by differences in machine designs which lead to
operational differences. No research has been performed which has incorporated the effect of chemical
factors into froth models.
Furthermore, reagents used to condition pulp (particularly collectors) influence the bubble surface coverage
by mineral particles. Loosely attached particles are susceptible to drop back action in the froth phase. Some
useful information on reagents and how they may affect flotation kinetics, in general, has been reported by
a number of workers [54-581, but as yet there is no practical way in which this information can be used
in the modelling, and, in particular, the scale-up of flotation froths. Consequently more work is needed in
this regard.
416 2. T. Mathe et (11.
key froth parameter
. . . .._.._._.._________
Froth residence time, of i
Macro level
Transfer nrccesses:
froth transfer (l?)
drop back ob)
pulp to froth transfer (kJ
(selective and non-selective)
T
Micro level
Sub-Droccsses:
entrainment
Fk
, drainage
detachment
reattachment
- hther composition and
1
Physical factors
Hydrodynamic factors
bubble oscillation
bubble deceleration
liquid flow (drag force)
Operation components
cell bank configuration
cell bank control
Fig.13 Schematic diagram indicating the processes (macro and micro level) which influence the froth
recovery, and how physical and chemical froth factors are linked to the froth recovery. Arrows
indicate the various factors contributing to a particular classification of factors/processes involved
in the froth phase.
Physical factors
Physical factors that influence froth performance can be classified into operational and hydrodynamic
components (Figure 13). Operational components include cell geometry, cell bank configuration, cell bank
control and froth removal methods. Hydrodynamic factors, on the other hand, are factors that affect
turbulence within the froth phase. For fixed chemical conditions and operation mode, froth hydrodynamics
will affect the water recovery. Water recovery, in turn, affects froth sub-processes such as entrainment,
drainage and detachment of particles. From the work on Rf found in the literature, one can generally
conclude that Rt will decrease with an increase in particle size, and increase with an increase in solids and
gas flux at the pulp-froth interface (Figure 14). However, no studies involving direct correlation of these
physical factors with froth recovery versus froth residence time have been reported in the literature, and this
represents a key area for future research efforts.
Review of froth modelling 417
Froth Residence Time
Fig.14 Qualitative effect of froth parameters on froth recovery.
CONCLUSIONS
This review shows that froth phase has a very pronounced influence on the overall flotation kinetics in any
steady state system. Because of the complexity and interactive nature of processes occurring within the froth
phase, the key to understanding the influence of froth depends on determining those froth parameters, such
as froth recovery factor, which can be correlated with measurable flotation parameters (e.g. froth residence
time) irrespective of the flotation system. The froth recovery factor presents a useful and practical way of
modelling froth performance. In general, column flotation studies report that froth recovery varies between
20 and 80% depending on the gas flux at the interface and that froth recovery is not a strong function of
froth height.
A relationship between froth recovery and froth retention time, which indicates an exponential decrease in
froth recovery with increase in froth retention time, represents the latest development in the modelling of
the froth phase in mechanical flotation cells. In the discussion of this relationship the interactive nature of
chemical and physical factors that influence froth recovery was highlighted, based on their influence on the
various froth sub-processes. The Rr--FRT relationship forms the basis upon which the investigations of
froths found in bench-scale flotation cells can be related to the froth phase in large-scale flotation systems.
Not much is known, however, about the contribution of entrained and truly floatable mineral particles to
this froth recovery factor.
As a result of the findings highlighted by this review, the following general observations can be made:
1. Studies in laboratory-scale flotation cells (where most of the current flotation investigations are
being carried out to understand and optimise flotation processes) should be conducted to establish
the effect of the key froth parameters (such as froth retention time) on the froth recovery. The
determination of froth recovery in bench-scale conventional cells will present a significant
improvement in the interpretation of laboratory data and will possibly serve as a basis for scale-up
with respect to the froth phase. In addition, froth recovery studies in laboratory mechanical cells
can enhance the understanding of the effect of froth on the use of bubble surface area flux to
predict the overall flotation rate constant.
418
2.
Z. T. Mathe er al.
Further research is needed to study the phenomena of the froth sub-processes such as the drainage
rate of particles on a size-by-size basis, drainage rate of water, and the influence of entrained
particles on drainage. This will help in establishing the key froth parameters and their influence
on the froth recovery factor.
3. It is also imperative that a quantitative analysis of the influence of chemical factors on froth
recovery is established. Presently, there is no measurable parameter within the froth that can be
associated with the influence of chemistry.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
Financial support from Impala Platinum Ltd is gratefully acknowledged.
c f
COO
CI
cll
CP
db
eig
FRT
h
J,
k,
kd
kde i
kc2
k
m
mi(h)
me&h)
mr,i(h)
mr,i(h)
mt,i
:c
Qf
r
Rc
Rf
R,
Ro
%
R
w,u
:b
u(h)
v f
vc
vP
NOMENCLATURE
concentration of particles in the froth
concentration of particles at height h in the froth
concentration of particles at the froth-pulp interface
material concentration of froth constituent n
concentration of particles in the pulp phase
bubble diameter
entrainment factor for gangue of size i
froth retention time
froth depth
superficial gas velocity
collection zone flotation rate constant of species i
froth drainage rate constant
froth drainage rate constant for entrained particles of class i
overall flotation rate constant (slurry + froth)
froth transfer rate constant
average particle mass
mass of mineral i at froth height h
entrained mass flow rate at froth height h
mass flowrate of species i attached to bubbles at froth height h
mass flowrate of particles diffusing from the upward-flowing stream to the downward-flowing
stream
total mass flowrate of component i ascending at a height h above the pulp-froth interface
floatability constant
mass flow rate from pulp to the interface
concentrate flowrate
ratio of pulp volumes (with air/without air)
recovery of particles in the collection zone
froth zone recovery
gangue recovery
overall flotation recovery
water recovery
recovery of water in the absence of gangue material
ratio of froth volumes (with air/without air)
bubble surface area flux
velocity of downward-flowing streams
volume of froth
volume of floatable material in the collection zone
pulp phase volume
Review of froth modelling
v(h)
velocity of the bubble films
W water recovery rate, kg/m%
Greek symbols
419
z mean residence time
Y
column drainage coefficient
P
film drainage coefficient
R froth removal coefficient
w
dynamic shape factor
rl
slurry viscosity, mPa s
h exponential parameter
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