EE 562 Intro to Solid State Physics Notes Fall 00

Prof. AndrewMason Handout 1 1

Introduction to Solid State Physics

Solid State Physics Basics

Band Theory and Band Diagrams
Recall from physics that electron energy is quantitized; electrons of a given element can only occupy specific
discrete energies, and those closest to the nucleus have the least energy and are most tightly bound to the atom. In
some elements (like diamond, carbon, silicon, etc.), when many atoms are brought together to form a solid, a crystal
lattice structure is created which has many unique properties (note: this is the origin of the term solid-state). In a
crystal lattice, the available electron energy levels get blurred a bit and we find the discrete energy levels becomes
thick bands of energy which electrons can occupy. This phenomena is shown in Figure 1.1. Band diagrams are a
tool used in solid-state physics to illustrate what is going on in the outer electron shells (energy levels) of a group of
atoms held together in a tightly-packed crystal structure (like a silicon wafer). Band diagram help illustrate where
the outer electrons are in a given situation. Look at Figure 1.2 which shows typical band diagrams for an insulator, a
conductor, and a semiconductor. All have a band at the top which is the conduction band and a band at the bottom
which is the valence band. These bands represent the outermost energy levels that electrons can occupy. Generally
speaking (i.e. without getting into too many details) electrons the valence band are still tightly bound to the atom and
cannot move around to other atoms in the crystal. However, electrons in the conduction band have enough energy
that they can freely move throughout the crystal material thus acting as mobile charge carriers which can conduct
current. (Recall that electrons try to occupy the lowest energy levels available, and an electron at a higher energy
level will always move to a lower level if it is available. Just remember that electrons are happiest when they are
as close as possible to the nucleus.






Another important factor in the band diagram is the energy gap, Eg, which is the energy difference between the
valance and conduction bands. Because electrons can only occupy energies within the two bands, the gap between
the two bands is a forbidden region called the band gap. The band gap is significant because it tells us how much
energy electrons need before they will jump up to the conduction band and be available to conduct current. The
band gap is a constant for each material (although it varies slightly with temperature, a fact that is exploited in a
class of circuits appropriately called band gap circuits which we will discuss near the end of the semester). For Si at
room temperature, Eg = 1.1eV.
EE 562 Intro to Solid State Physics Notes Fall 00
Prof. AndrewMason Handout 1 2



What is a semiconductor?
In an insulating material, all of the electrons are held within the valence band, and no electrons are in the conduction
band and free to move around to create currents thus an insulator. In a conducting material, the outer electrons fill
the valence band but they also occupy the conduction band, so some electrons are available to move around and
create currents thus a conductor. Also, in an insulator, the band gap is large meaning that an electron must gain a
lot of energy to move up to the conduction band. In a conductor, these bands are much closer (i.e. the band gap is
smaller) and electrons are more likely to have enough energy to change bands. A semiconductor is much like an
insulator in that its outer electrons fill the valence band but do not occupy the conduction band; however, the band
gap is much smaller than in an insulator. As a result, electrons can obtain enough energy to jump to the conduction
band through a variety of mechanisms including ambient thermal energy (e.g. heat at room temperature). When this
happens, the electrons in the conduction band can move around and the semiconductor can conduct an electrical
current. Thus, a semiconductor is a material that can act as both an insulator and a conductor depending on the
conditions around the material.

What is a hole?
In an intrinsic (pure) semiconductor material at 0K, all of the electrons are in the valence band. When an
electron gets enough energy to move up to the conduction band, it leaves behind a space that an electron can occupy.
This empty space is called a hole, and the process of an electron moving from the valence band into the
conduction band is called electron-hole pair generation as illustrated in Figure 1.3. This is important in electronics
because a hole acts as a positive charge carrier. For example, when an electron jumps out of the valence band
leaving behind a hole, another electron can move into that hole (which commonly occurs in the presence of an
electric field). Now there is a hole left where the second electron came from and a third electron will jump into its
place leaving behind another hole. And on and on, until we see this one hole move across the material. Thus, it acts
just like an electron, only it has a positive charge. It might help to imagine that electrons must move to fill this hole,
and electrons will move in the opposite direction from the hole, so the net current is negative of the electron current.
Its a strange concept, I know, but it is very important in how circuits are modeled.


the white spaces in the valence band are holes left by the electrons
that have moved up to the conduction band
EE 562 Intro to Solid State Physics Notes Fall 00
Prof. AndrewMason Handout 1 3
Fermi Level
The information above gives a very simplified explanation of what is really going on in an solid material, and to
understand it better we must introduce something called the Fermi level. The Fermi level is part of a statistical,
quantum-mechanical method of describing the probability of an electron occupying a specific energy level in a
solid-state material. This is based on something called Fermi-Dirac statistics, which are too complex to cover in this
course. Basically, this statistical function gives the probability that an available energy state will be occupied by an
electron at a given temperature (note that no energy states are available within the band gap). In this model, the
Fermi level is the energy at which the probability of an energy state being occupied is . For our simplified use in
this class, the Fermi level will simply act as an indicator as to whether or not electrons are in the conduction band or
holes are in the valence band. In an insulator, the Fermi energy is in the valance band and in a conductor the Fermi
energy is in the conduction band. In a semiconductor, the Fermi energy is between the valance and conduction
bands and it can act as either an insulator or a conductor. As a result, a pure semiconductor (called intrinsic
semiconductor) at has no free carriers (thus acting as an insulator), but if given just a little energy, either through
thermal excitation or through an applied electric field, the outer electrons can be freed (thus acting as a conductor).

Figure 1.4 shows Fermi-Dirac distribution and the Fermi level as a function of temperature. Notice that as T
(temperature) increases, the distribution spreads and it becomes possible to get electrons at energies well above the
Fermi level. Figure 1.5 shows three examples of the effects of having the Fermi level at different points within the
band gap. Notice that as the Fermi level gets closer to the conduction band, we find a higher density of electrons in
the conduction band, and when the Fermi level gets closer to the valence band, we find more holes in the valence
band.




EE 562 Intro to Solid State Physics Notes Fall 00
Prof. AndrewMason Handout 1 4
Determining Number of Free Carriers

I ntrinsic Carrier Concentration
Silicon (Si), the primary element in sand, is the most common semiconductor. When the silicon atoms come
together they form a crystal lattice structure, which is a very regular cube-like arrangement of atoms that gives Si
some of the useful electrical properties that is has. Si is a group IV element and has 4 electrons in its outer shell that
can be freed and shared with other atoms in the crystal lattice. When an electron (which is a negative charge
carrier) is freed from the atom, it leaves behind a hole, or the absence of an electron (which acts as a positive charge
carrier). Free carriers are generated when electrons have gained enough energy to escape their bonds to the atom
and move from the valence band to the conduction band. This process is called electron-hole pair generation.
Electron-hole pairs can be created by any mechanism which delivers sufficient energy to an electron, including
absorbing energy from light (as in a photo diode) and thermal excitation (absorbing heat energy). Under normal
circumstances, heat energy is the largest contributor to the creation of free carriers. Thus, the number of available
free carriers is a strong function of temperature.

A material is defined as intrinsic when it consists purely of one element and no outside force (like light energy)
affects the number of free carrier other than heat energy. In intrinsic Si, the heat energy available at room
temperature generates approximately 1.5x10
10
carriers per cm
3
of each type (holes and electrons) . The number of
free carriers doubles for approximately every 11C increase in temperature. This number represents a very
important constant (at room temperature), and we define
n
i
= 1.5x10
10
cm
-3

where n
i
denotes the carrier concentration in intrinsic silicon at room temperature (constant for a given temperature).

Dopants in Semiconductors
To create active circuit devices like diodes and transistors, other elements are typically added to the semiconductor
material to alter its electrical characteristics. This process is called doping, and a material that has been doped is
called extrinsic. If elements with a different number of valence electrons are added to the silicon lattice, these
elements are called dopants or impurities and they increase the number of free charge carriers available to conduct
current. Typically, silicon is doped with elements having either 5 or 3 valence electrons (group 5 of group 3 atoms).
At room temperature, there is sufficient thermal energy to ionize the impurity atoms and introduce additional free
electrons or free holes depending on the type of impurity
1
. In this manner, doping has a strong effect on the
electrical properties of silicon.

Atoms with 5 valence electrons are said to donate their extra electrons to the silicon crystal, thus the impurity is
called a donor. Commonly used donor elements are phosphorus, P, and arsenic, As. These impurities are called n-
type since they introduce negatively charged carriers. When n-type dopants give up there extra electrons they
become ionized, and charge neutrality is maintained since the number of extra electrons is equal to the number of
ionized atoms.

In a similar manner, impurities with 3 valence electrons introduce a positive charge carrier, or hole, and are called
acceptors. A common acceptor in silicon device fabrication is boron, B. When silicon is doped with acceptors, the
material is said to be p-type because positively charged carriers (holes) have been introduced. When p-type dopants
accept free electrons they become ionized, and charge neutrality is maintained since the number of holes generated
is equal to the number of ionized atoms.


P B P B + +
+
+ -
-
group V
element
group III
element
ion
electron hole
n-type Donor p-type Acceptor
ion
free
carrier
free
carrier




1
Recall that atoms with four valence electrons have very tightly bound outer shells. In atoms with five electrons, the fifth electron is not as
tightly bound and will easily escape the bond at room temperature to become a free carrier (leaving behind a positively charged ion). Likewise,
atoms with only three valence electrons will be more stable if they ionize and take on an extra electron. Thus a group five atom provides one free
carrier and a group three atom provides one hole.
EE 562 Intro to Solid State Physics Notes Fall 00
Prof. AndrewMason Handout 1 5
At equilibrium, with no external influences such as light sources or applied voltages, the concentration of electrons,
n
0
, and the concentration of holes, p
0
, are related by
n
o
p
o
= n
i
2

where n
i
is the intrinsic carrier concentration. In an intrinsic material, n
o
= p
o
= n
i
since every free electron leave
behind a hole. In an extrinsic (doped) material, n
o
p
o
but n
o
p
o
= n
i
2
is still true.

Based on charge neutrality, for a sample doped with N
D
donor atoms per cm
-3
and N
A
acceptor atoms per cm
-3
we
can write
n
o
+ N
A
= p
o
+ N
D

which shows that the sum of the electron concentration plus the ionized acceptor atoms is equal to the sum of the
hole concentration plus the ionized donor atoms. The equation assumes that all donors and acceptors are fully
ionized, which is generally true at or above room temperature. Given the impurity concentration, the above
equations can be solved simultaneously to determine electron and hole concentrations.

In electronic devices, we typically add only one type of impurity within a given area to form either n-type or p-type
regions. In n-type regions there are typically only donor impurities and the donor concentration is mu ch greater than
the intrinsic carrier concentration, N
A
=0 and N
D
>>n
i
. Under these conditions we can write
n
n
= N
D

where n
n
is the free electron concentration in the n-type material and N
D
is the donor concentration (number of
added impurity atoms/cm
3
). Since there are many extra electrons in n-type material due to donor impurities, the
number of holes will be much less than in intrinsic silicon and is given by,
p
n
= n
i
2
/ N
D

where p
n
is the hole concentration in an n-type material and n
i
is the intrinsic carrier concentration in silicon.


Similarly, in p-type regions we can generally assume that N
D
=0 and N
A
>>n
i
. In p-type regions, the concentration of
positive carriers (holes), p
p
,

will be approximately equal to the acceptor concentration, N
A
.
p
p
= N
A

and the number of negative carriers in the p-type material, n
p
, is given by
n
p
= n
i
2
/ N
A

Notice the use of notation, where negative charged carriers are n, positive charged carriers are p, and the subscripts
denote the material, either n-type or p-type. This notation will be used throughout our discussion of pn junctions
and bipolar transistors. The above relationships are only valid when N
D
or N
A
is >> n
i
, which will always be the
case in our problems related to integrated circuit design.

EXAMPLE
A Si sample at room temperature is doped with 10
11
As atoms/cm
3
. What are the equilibrium electron and hole
concentrations at 300 K?

SOLUTION
Since the N
A
is zero we can write,
n
o
p
o
= n
i
2

n
o
+ N
A
= p
o
+ N
D

n
o
2
N
D
n
o
n
i
2
= 0

Solving this quadratic equations results in
n
0
= 1.02x10
11
[cm
-3
]
and thus,
p
0
= n
i
2
/ n
0
= 2.25x10
20
/ 1.02x10
11

p
0
= 2.2x10
9
[cm
-3
]
Notice that, since N
D
>n
i
, the results would be very similar if we assumed n
n
=N
D
=10
11
cm
-3
, although there would be
a slight error since N
D
>is not much greater than n
i
.
EE 562 Intro to Solid State Physics Notes Fall 00
Prof. AndrewMason Handout 1 6

HERE
I mpurities and Fermi Level
Adding impurities to pure silicon will affect number of free carriers in the material, thus it will affect the statistics
that determine the Fermi energy level. The semiconductor shown in Figure 1.5(a) represents a pure intrinsic
material with a Fermi level in the middle of the band gap. In an n-type material, the presence of donor elements will
cause a change in the distribution statistics and the Fermi level to rise closer to the conduction band as a result.
Similarly, in p-type silicon the acceptors will cause the Fermi level to lower closer to the valance band. Figure 1.5
(b) and (c) illustrate this effect.

The following equations demonstrate the relationship between the dopant concentration and the Fermi level.
Although we will not cover the derivation of these equations, they are very important relationships. The subscript
0 means the material is at equilibrium, and it could be either an n or a p depending on the type of material being
studied.
n
0
= N
c
e
-(Ec-Ef)/kT

p
0
= N
v
e
-(Ef -Ev)/kT

where Ef is the Fermi level, Ec is the energy at the conduction band, and Ev is the energy at the valence band. k is
Boltzmans constant (k = 8.62x10-5 eV/K = 1.38x10-23 J/K), and kT at room temperature is 0.0259 eV. Nc is the
effective density of states in the conduction band, and Nv is the effective density of states in the valence band. We
will consider both of these values to be constant at room temperature.
N
c
= 2.8x10
19
cm
-3

N
v
= 1.04x10
19
cm
-3

These equations can also be written as
n
0
= n
i
e
(Ef -Ei)/kT

p
0
= n
i
e
(Ei-Ef)/kT

where Ei is the intrinsic Fermi level (before doping) which can be assumed to be exactly in the middle of the band
gap, thus Ec-Ei = Eg/2. This relationship is very useful because it directly shows that as Ef increases from Ei there
are more electrons in the conduction band, and as Ef decreases from Ei there are more holes in the valence band.

Although these relationship will be adequate for the problems we will cover in this class, they are actually only valid
when Ec-Ef (or Ef-Ev) is >> than kT. Because of the direct relationship between dopant concentration and Ef, this
restriction amounts to saying that the equations are valid as long as the dopant concentration is not very high.
Generally speaking, these equations are valid for an impurity concentration below 10
18
, which will almost always be
the case in integrated circuits.

EXAMPLE
A Si sample is doped with 10
17
As atoms/cm
3
. What is the equilibrium hole concentration p
0
at 300 K? Where is Ef
relative to Ei?

SOLUTION
Since N
D
>> ni, we can approximate n
0
= N
D
and
p
0
= n
i
2
/ n
0
= 2.25x10
20
/ 10
17

p
0
= 2.25x10
3
[cm
-3
]
Since n
0
= n
i
e
(Ef-Ei)/kT
we can write
Ef Ei = kT ln(n
0
/n
i
)
Ef Ei = 0.0259 ln(10
17
/ 1.5x10
10
)
Ef Ei = 0.407 [eV]
Thus we see the Fermi level is above the intrinsic level suggesting the material is n-type. This is further supported
by the fact that the electron concentration is much higher than the hole concentration. Finally, the dopant was As,
which is an n-type dopant, so all the answers make sense intuitively.


EE 562 Intro to Solid State Physics Notes Fall 00
Prof. AndrewMason Handout 1 7
Conductivity, Drift, and Mobility
Charge carriers in a solid are in constant motion. However, this random scattering produces no net motion of
electrons within the material, and therefore no net current flow. In the presence of an electric filed E, electrons
experience a force -qE from the field. This force will case a net drift that can generate a current density J which is
described by
J
x
= qn
n
E
x
(n-type)
J
x
= qp
p
E
x
(p-type)
where q is the electron charge (q=1.6x10
-19
C), n and p are the carrier concentrations in n- and p-type material
respectively, is the carrier mobility, and the x subscript denotes the direction vector for the electric field. Notice
that the current density and the electric field are in the same direction. The mobility, , is different for n- and p-type
carriers, and it represents the average velocity of the carrier per unit of electric field
= <v
x
> / E
x

Thus the units of mobility are (cm/s)/(V/cm) = cm
2
/V-s. This unit can be related by conductivity, (-cm)
-1
, by
= qn
n

and similarly = qp
p
for p-type material. Generally, one type of carrier will dominate, but the general expression
for the current density is
J
x
= q (n
n
+ p
p
) E
x
= E
x

Mobility is a parameter determined by a number of material properties related to band structure, and is strongly
affected by impurity concentration, and temperature. Because of difference in the conduction and valence band
properties, there is a significant difference in the mobility for n- and p-type materials. Although mobility is not truly
a constant, it is nearly constant for the types of circuits we will cover in this class. Unless otherwise stated in a
homework problem or on a test, for room temperature mobility we will use

n
= 1100 cm
2
/V-s

p
= 500 cm
2
/V-s
Mobility is strongly affected by temperature, and this will be covered in more detail near the end of the semester
when we discuss temperature stability in circuits and temperature insensitive voltage references. For now it is worth
noting that mobility is lower at low temperatures as well as at high temperatures and has its maximum value in the
middle of the range. Mobility is also affected by impurity concentration, and it will decrease as the number of
dopants increases.

The resistance of a material to flow of current, R, is given by
R = L / wt
where L is the length of the material in the direction of current flow (i.e. the direction of the electric field), w and t
are the cross-sectional dimensions (wt = A, where A is the area of the cross section), and is the resistivity (-cm).
Resistivity is indirectly proportional to the conductance
= 1 /

EXAMPLE
If the carrier mobilities for Germanium, Ge, are
n
= 3900 cm
2
/V-s, and
p
= 1900 cm
2
/V-s, what is the resistivity of
intrinsic Ge at 300 K. Assume the intrinsic carrier concentration for Ge is 2.5x10
13
.
SOLUTION
Since the material is intrinsic, n = p = n
i
= 2.5x10
13

i
= q (
n
+
p
) n
i
= 1.6x10
-19
(5800)(2.5x10
13
)

i
= 2.32x10
-2
[-cm)
-1

i
=
i
-1
= 43 [-cm]

Summary of Constants
k = 8.62x10-5 eV/K = 1.38x10-23 J/K, Boltzmans constant q=1.6x10
-19
C (coulombs)
kT = 0.026 eV, at room temperature N
c
= 2.8x10
19
cm
-3

Eg = 1.1eV, band gap in Si at room temperature N
v
= 1.04x10
19
cm
-3

ni = 1.5x10
10

cm
-3
, intrinsic carrier concentration in Si at room temperature.