A

B
A B
A
E A = , EB = n , E N = + n , r0 = ( )1/(1n)

r
r
r r
nB
2
%IC = (1 exp(0.25)(X A X B ) )*100,

nA
=
, metal > ceramics > polymers
Vc N A

BCC

FCC

a=4R/(3)

a=2R2

0.68

0.74

12

Cubic

a=b=c

===90

Hexagonal

a=bc

==90, =120

Tetragonal

a=bc

===90

1
1
u = (2u' v' ), v = (2v' u' ), t = (u + v), w = w '

3
3
i = (h + k)

Trigonal

a=b=c

==90

0D:Vaccumcis,Intrstituals,Impritice 3D:Pore or crack

Orthorhombic

abc

===90

1D:Screw or edge dislocation 2D:Grain boundaries

Monoclinic

abc

==90

Triclinc

abc

90

NV = N exp

QV
Q C
2 C
D = D0 exp( d )
= D 2
kT
RT t
x

l l
Grain _ size _ reduction : yield = 0 + ky d 1/2
F
l
= E, = ,%EL = ( f 0 )*100,Toughness : T = K Tn
A0
l0
l0
Solid _ Solution : y ~ C1/2 (C = concentration)
A Af
1
%RA = ( 0
)*100, Re silience :Ur = y y (y yield)
r2 r2
A0
2
%CW = 0 2 d *100

r0

2 E s 1 / 2
] , E : mod ulus _ of _ elasticity, s = specific _ surface _ energy, a = length _ of _ crack
a
KC
KC 2
1
<
, a max < (
) , m = mean _ stress, r = stress _ range, a = stress _ amplitude = S
Y design
Y a max

Crack : C = [

design

l s
Q
l

Creep : = K 2 n exp( C ) =
= 0 ,
s
RT
t
t
Eutectic _ reaction : L(C E )
(CE ) + (C E ),

Eg : L(71.9wt % Ag )
(8wt % Ag ) + (91.2wt % Ag )
Eutectoid :
+ Fe3C
Peritectic : + L
,
Eg : L(71.9wt % Ag )
(8wt % Ag ) + (91.2wt % Ag )



Eutectic:Liquid->two solid phases
Eutectoid:One solid phase->two other solid phase
Peritectic:Liquid&one solid phase->a second solid
In Fe-C diagram:
wt%C <0.76: Hypoeutectoid steel,ferrite-soft most
0.76<wt%C<2.1 : Hypereutectoid steel, Fe3C most
Polymer:
Saturated hydrocarbons:1 C- 4 other atoms
Methane:CH4, Ethane:C2H6, Propane:C3H8,
Butane:C4H10, Pentane:C5H12, Hexane:C6H14
Doubel bond:1 C-3 other atoms; Triple bond...

Isomerism: Same chemical formula, different structure. Condensation:
Process is conducted in presence of a catalyst. Water,CO2 are commonly
condensed out.

R(cation)/R(anion): less than 0.155,

linear; 0.155-0.225, triangular; 0.225-0.414, TD; 0.414-0.732, OH; 0.732-1.0, Cubic; Zinc Blende: TD site
AX(include rock-salt),AX2,ABX3. FCC:4OH sites, 8TD sites
Linear: Repeating Units: single chains, Van der waals force, very flexible, example: Nylon.
Branched: Side chains, lowers density due to chain packing, example:LDPE
Cross-Linked: Covalent bonding, stronger, can be caused by a non-reversible reaction. Some rubber: adding in additional
additives (Vulcanization).
Network: Multifunctional (3 or more activate covalent bond). Example: epoxy good mechanical strength and thermal
properties.
Conformation:Molecular orientation can be changed without break bonds. Configurations to change must break bonds
Stereoisomerism: mirror plane; Tacticity: isotactic: all R groups on same side; syndiotactic: all R groups alternate side;
atactic: random R groups. Cis isomerism: bulky(CH2) groups on same side. Trans isomerism: bulky group on opposite side.
Copolymers: random;alternating(ABAB);block(AAAABBBB);graft(branch). Drawing increase in %Crystallinity, increase in
TS and E, decrease in ductility. Annealing reverses effects of drawing. Thermoplastics: Little cross-linking; ductile; soften
with heat. Eg: PE,PS. Thermosets: Cross-liking(15-50%);brittle;dont soften with heat,Eg:Epoxy.
Improve mechanical properties: Fillers: Improve TS and toughness, reduce cost; Plasticizers: Reduce Tg, less brittle.
Processing: Thermoplastic: can be reversibly cooled & reheated; heat till soft, shape as desired, then cool.
Thermoset:when heated forms a network, degrades when heated, mold the prepolymer then allow further reaction.
Polymer types: Elastomers(rubber);Fibers;Coatings;Adhesives;Films;Foams.
Ceramics:
Applications: Die blanks; die surface; tools(Singal crystal or add polycrystalline diamond); sensors.
Fabrication: Glass forming(Pressing, blowing, fiber drawing, sheet forming), Particulate forming(Slip casting, hydroplastic
forming, drying, firing, sintering,uniaxial compression, hot pressing), Cementation. Application: Heat engine; ceramic
armor. Heat treating Glass: Annealing: remove internal stress caused by uneven cooling; Tempering: put surface part
into compression to suppresses growth of crack from surface scratches. For glass: viscosity decrease with T increase while
specific volume increase with T; impurities lower deformation temperature.
Defect: Frenkel Defect: a cation is out of place.Shottky Defect: a paired set of cation and anion vacancies. Substitutional
cation impurity: cation vacancy; Substitutional anion impurity: anion vacancy.
Metal
Ferrous alloy with >2.1 wt% C, low melting. Cementite decomposes to ferrite + graphite.
Limitations of ferrous alloy: relatively high density, low conductivity, poor corrosion resistance.
Cu Alloy: Brass;Bronze;Cn-Be Alloy: density=2.7g/cm3;Mg Alloy: density =1.7g/cm3,ez ignite;Refractory metal: Hight melt
T,eg:Nb,Mo; Noble metal: oscide corrosion resistance; Ti alloy: density=4.5g/cm3,reactive at high T.
Strengthen and Failure
%EL<5% -- Brittle(Ceramic) %EL>5% Not Brittle (Metal)
Resilience: Capacity to absorb energy when deformed elastically and then upon loading, to have this energy recovered.
Toughness: Ability to absorb energy up to fracture. Hardness: Resistance to permanently indenting the surface.
Moch Hardness; Rockweel Hardness; Brinell Hardness; K&V Microindetantion
YoungsModulus:

MetalCeramics>Polymers;

Yield

Strength

Metal>

Polymers

Tensile

strength:

MetalCeramicsPolymers
If dislocation does not occur,neiter does deformation. Smaller grain/crystal size more likely to slip. Larger crystal yield at first.
Strengthening 1: Reduce grain size. Grain boundaries are barriers to slip and strength increases with misorientation. Before
rolling: isotropic; uniformity in all direction. After: anisotropic, direction dependence Strengthening 2: Solid solutions. Impurity
atoms distort the lattice and generate stress oppose dislocation direction. Strengthening 3: Precipitation Strengthening. Hard
precipitates are difficult to shear. Strengthening 4: Cold working: Forging, Drawing, Rolling, Extrusion. Room temperature,
reversible.
Recovery: No change in strength & ductility
Recrystallization: New crystals are formed

Grain growth: Grain boundary area increase => energy is reduced.

Ductile fracture: occurs with plastic deformation, warning before failure
Brittle fracture: occurs with little or no plastic deformation, no warning
Brittle failure: Many pieces, little deformation
Ductile failure: One piece, large deformation
Intergranular: between grains; Intragranular: within grains. Three non-destructively ways to detect: 1)X-ray 2)Ultrasonic
inspection 3)Surface inspection(Dye penetration)

Ts(Engineering material)<Ts(Ideal or perfect material)

Longer sample, smaller load for failure. Flaws cause premature failure, larger samples contain more flaws.
Increased loading rate increases y .and .Ts ,decreases %EL.
Improving fracture toughness: a)add monoclinic grain to crack b).Microcracks. Fatigue = failure under cyclic stress.
Fatigue can cause part failure below critical stress. Improving fatigue lifeL impose a compressive surface stress; remove stress
concentrators. Water and some chemicals can accelerate crack growth and shorten life performance(Break network).
Metal fabrication methods: Forming(Forging, rolling, drawing, extrusion),Casting(die,sand,investment),Joining(Powder
metallurgy, welding) How working: recrystallization. Cold working: no recrystallization.
Annealing: Stress relief: reduce stress by plastic deformation; not uniformed cooling. Spherodize: for steel, make steel soft
and ductile, longer time. Full anneal: make a material softer. Normalize: Steel;deform steel to grow large grain. Process
Anneal: Notify the effect of cold work. Hardenability: 4in heigh, 1in in diameter.
Diffusion:
Interdiffusion; self diffusion; vacancy diffusion; interstitial diffusion