Mass and Balance Ed 6

Mass and Balance
ii Mass and Balance - Edition 6 130101

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PRODUCED & PRINTED BY BCFT

Please note that the information contained in these notes is for instructional use only. Every effort
has been made to ensure the content is valid, accurate and complete. No responsibility is accepted
for errors or discrepancies. The text is subject to regular change without notice.

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All intellectual property rights including copyright in the content of this manual are
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download, store (in any medium), transmit, show or play in public, adapt or change in
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written permission of BCFT.

These notes are designed for use during BCFT Modular ATPL (A) courses.
The notes are also suitable for distant learning with appropriate
Instructor guidance and worksheets.
The layout and order of the notes follows a logical learning sequence and is based upon the
structured JAA/EASA ATPL (A) learning objectives 2008 (NPA25)

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MASS AND WEIGHT
1.1 UNITS............................................................................................................................ 1-3
2 AIRCRAFT MASS................................................................................................................ 1-4
2.1 EMPTY MASS................................................................................................................. 1-4
2.2 BASIC MASS / BASIC EMPTY MASS.................................................................................. 1-4
2.3 DRY OPERATING MASS................................................................................................... 1-5
2.4 USEFUL LOAD................................................................................................................ 1-8
2.5 ZERO FUEL MASS........................................................................................................... 1-8
2.6 OPERATING MASS.......................................................................................................... 1-9
2.7 TAXI MASS (RAMP MASS) ............................................................................................. 1-12
2.8 TAKE-OFF MASS.......................................................................................................... 1-13
2.9 LANDING MASS ............................................................................................................ 1-13
2.10 CAP LOADING MANIFESTS............................................................................................ 1-14
3 DETERMINATION OF AIRCRAFT MASS ......................................................................... 1-18
3.1 AIRCRAFT MASS CHECK ............................................................................................... 1-18
3.2 MASS CALCULATION..................................................................................................... 1-20
3.3 WEIGHING PERIODS AND REGULATIONS ........................................................................ 1-22
3.4 FLEET MASS AND FLEET CENTRE OF GRAVITY POSITION................................................ 1-23
3.5 DETERMINATION OF CREW, PASSENGER AND PASSENGER BAGGAGE MASS .................... 1-24
3.6 DETERMINATION OF CARGO / FREIGHT MASS................................................................. 1-28
3.7 FUEL MASS DETERMINATION......................................................................................... 1-32
4 AIRCRAFT MASS LIMITS................................................................................................. 1-41
4.1 MAXIMUM STRUCTURAL TAXI / RAMP MASS ................................................................... 1-41
4.2 MAXIMUM TAKE-OFF MASS........................................................................................... 1-41
4.3 MAXIMUM LANDING MASS............................................................................................. 1-43
4.4 MAXIMUM ZERO FUEL MASS (MZFM) ............................................................................ 1-44
4.5 CALCULATION OF TRAFFIC LOAD................................................................................... 1-45
4.6 UNDERLOAD ................................................................................................................ 1-48
4.7 LOAD & TRIM SHEET..................................................................................................... 1-51

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5 OVERLOADING ................................................................................................................ 1-53
5.1 HIGHER TAKE-OFF AND SAFETY SPEEDS......................................................................... 1-53
5.2 LONGER TAKE-OFF AND LANDING DISTANCES ................................................................. 1-54
5.3 REDUCED RATE AND GRADIENT OF CLIMB ..................................................................... 1-54
5.4 REDUCED ALTITUDE CAPABILITY................................................................................... 1-55
5.5 DECREASED ENGINE-OUT PERFORMANCE...................................................................... 1-55
5.6 REDUCED RANGE AND ENDURANCE .............................................................................. 1-55
5.7 POSSIBLE OVERSTRESS AND STRUCTURAL DAMAGE...................................................... 1-56
BALANCE / CENTRE OF GRAVITY
1.1 AIRCRAFT DATUM........................................................................................................... 2-2
1.2 DETERMINATION OF THE CENTRE OF GRAVITY POSITION .................................................. 2-5
2 AIRCRAFT CENTRE OF GRAVITY..................................................................................... 2-7
2.1 CENTRE OF GRAVITY ENVELOPE..................................................................................... 2-7
2.2 CENTRE OF GRAVITY AT BASIC EMPTY MASS................................................................. 2-11
2.3 CENTRE OF GRAVITY AT TAKE-OFF, LANDING AND ZERO FUEL CONDITION...................... 2-16
3 ALTERNATIVE CENTRE OF GRAVITY REFERENCE ..................................................... 2-21
3.1 MEAN AERODYNAMIC CHORD (MAC)............................................................................. 2-21
3.2 CENTRE OF GRAVITY INDEX.......................................................................................... 2-24
4 TRIM SETTINGS ............................................................................................................... 2-31
4.1 TAKE-OFF TRIM........................................................................................................... 2-31
4.2 AERODYNAMIC TRIM CHANGES ..................................................................................... 2-33
4.3 POWER TRIM CHANGES................................................................................................ 2-34
5 CENTRE OF GRAVITY RULES AND REGULATIONS...................................................... 2-35
6 OPERATING AT OR OUTSIDE THE CENTRE OF GRAVITY ENVELOPE....................... 2-36
6.1 FORWARD CENTRE OF GRAVITY.................................................................................... 2-36
6.2 AFT CENTRE OF GRAVITY............................................................................................. 2-36
7 CENTRE OF GRAVITY ALTERATIONS............................................................................ 2-37
7.1 ADDING AND REMOVING BALLAST.................................................................................. 2-38
7.2 MOVING BALLAST......................................................................................................... 2-45
7.3 THE TRIM SHEET.......................................................................................................... 2-49
8 COMPUTER LOAD SHEETS AND DATA-LINK CONFIRMATION................................... 2-52

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5 Kg
MASS and BALANCE
Introduction

These notes are designed for use during the second module of the BCFTC Integrated and Modular
courses. The notes are suitable for distant learning with appropriate Instructor guidance and
worksheets.

The layout and order of the notes follows a logical learning sequence and is based upon the
structured lesson plans approved for integrated and modular courses in accordance with the EASA
Theoretical Knowledge Learning Objectives.

Civil Air Publication (CAP) 696

The Civil Aviation Authority provides a generic aircraft publication called CAP 696 which details
the mass and balance data of three typical aircraft types. They are: -

Single Engine Piston (SEP)

Multi Engine Piston (MEP)

Medium Range Turbine Jet (MRJT)

These notes include extracts from the CAP which is provided as part of the course. The CAP should
be used in conjunction with these notes as several cross references are made.
Chapter 1 Mass (Loading)
A pilot must be aware of the mass / weight of his aircraft to ensure that any limiting masses /
weights are not exceeded and that performance / fuel planning characteristics can be calculated.
There are several defined aircraft masses extensively used and are listed in the CAP 696 index.
1 Mass and Weight
Any body or substance that is made up of atoms / molecules is said to have mass, for example, a 2
pound (lb) bag of sugar or 5 kilograms (kg) of potatoes. However, weight is the force that is
exerted by the mass when affected by local gravity.

For example, the diagram below shows a MASS of 5 kilograms: -

1-2 Mass and Balance - Edition 6 130101
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However, the weight of mass depends upon where it is. If the mass were in space where there is
no gravity then although it is still a mass of 5 kg it exerts a weight force of nothing (zero). If the
mass were on earth and was resting on your foot then the force you would feel on your foot would
be a function of the mass of the object and the gravity of the earth.

This can be calculated from an equation derived from Sir Issac Newtons second law of motion: -
Force = Mass x Acceleration (Gravity)

On earth, the force exerted by the 5 kg mass would be 5 kg x 9.8 m/s
2
, where 9.8 m/s
2
is the
gravitational constant (acceleration) of the earth, the result being 49 Newtons (N).
1.1 The Newton
ONE Newton is the force created by a ONE kilogram mass where g is 1 m/sec
2
. Therefore, on
earth where g is approximately 9.8 m/sec
2
(often rounded up to 10 m/sec
2
in exam questions), the
weight force exerted by ONE kilogram is about TEN Newtons.

As Newtons are only defined with reference to kilograms, any mass expressed in pounds must be
converted to kilograms to determine the equivalent weight force in Newtons.

Example 1

What is the weight of a 13 kg mass on earth?

Solution

Force = Mass x Acceleration (Gravity)

13 kg x 9.8 m/s2 = 127 Newtons

5 Kg
Force

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Example 2

What is the weight (force) of a 5 Kg mass on the moon?

Solution

The gravitational constant of the moon is approximately a sixth of that of the earth at 1.6 m/s
2
,
therefore the weight of the mass would be: -

5 kg x 1.6 m/s2 = 8 Newtons

So a 5 kg mass resting on Neil Armstrongs foot on the moon would feel a 6
th
lighter than on earth.

In practice because the mass / weight calculations in the syllabus concern aircraft operating
exclusively on earth then all masses are affected by the same gravitational constant. It is therefore
common practice to interchange the terms weight and mass, i.e. A 7 kilogram (kg) mass weighs 7
kilogram force (kgf). A 9 pound (lb) mass weighs 9 pound force (lbf) etc.

The resultant force is not actually calculated. However, sometimes the weight force expressed in
Newtons is used or referred to in exam questions; in which case either a conversion to the
equivalent mass is required or any derived answer is also expressed in terms of the weight force.
1.2 Units
The units of mass (weight) used are Kilograms (kg) and Pounds (lb). It is necessary to be able to
convert between the two. Section 1, Page 4 of CAP 696, which will be available during the exam,
provides the conversion factors to be used: -

Pounds (lb) to Kilograms (kg) lb x 0.454
Kilograms (kg) to Pounds (lb) kg x 2.205

Example 3

Convert 560 lbs into kilograms?

Solution

560 lb x 0.454 = 254.24 kg

Example 4

Convert 397 kg into pounds?

Solution

397 kg x 2.205 = 875.385 lbs

Example 5

What is the weight in Newtons of a 5,890 lbs aircraft? (g = 9.8 m/sec
2
)

Solution

5,890 lbs x 0.454 = 2,674 kg x 9.8 = 26,186 Newtons

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2 Aircraft Mass
There are several definitions concerning the description of the mass of aircraft. The definitions are
detailed in Section 1, Pages 2 and 3 of the CAP 696, which should be read in conjunction with these
notes.
2.1 Empty Mass
When an aircraft is purchased by an airline / operator, it arrives empty and uncluttered with
several items that the airline would like to permanently carry for the rest of its life with that airline.
The aircraft may have been weighed prior to delivery and the resultant mass is called the Empty
Mass. The Empty Mass is not defined in CAP 696 because it is rarely (if ever) used.

2.2 Basic Mass / Basic Empty Mass
When the aircraft arrives at the operating base of the airline, the operator will require certain items
to put aboard in order to meet certain safety regulations and allow the flight crew and cabin crew to
function. These items will increase the mass of the aircraft to its Basic Mass or Basic Empty Mass;
both titles are the same value.

The Basic Empty Mass or Basic Mass is the mass of an aeroplane including standard items required
by and provided by the aircraft operator such as: -

Operations manuals, airfield charts and other library documentation
Unusable fuel and other unusable fluids
Lubricating oil in engine and auxiliary units
Fire extinguishers
Pyrotechnics
Emergency oxygen equipment
Supplementary electronic equipment

Plus anything else the operator wants installed permanently aboard the aircraft.

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2.3 Dry Operating Mass
The aircraft cannot fly itself or provide facilities such as food, beverages and lavatory facilities for
the passengers who will eventually use it. These items must be added which increases the mass of
the aircraft to the Dry Operating Mass.

The Dry Operating Mass is the total mass of the aeroplane ready for a specific type of operation,
excluding all useable fuel and traffic load (passengers, bags and cargo). The mass includes items
such as: -

Flight Crew, Cabin Crew and crew baggage
Catering and removable passenger service equipment such as duty free goods
Potable water and lavatory chemicals
Food and beverages

The Dry Operating Mass (DOM) is usually the starting point for all aircraft mass calculations.

Summary: -

DRY OPERATING MASS
BASIC (EMPTY)
MASS
EMPTY MASS
ADD PERMANENT ITEMS
ADD OPERATING ITEMS

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Example 6 - Which of the following are included in the Basic Mass of an aircraft?

A. Crew Baggage
B. Fire Extinguishers
C. Unusable Fuel
D. Lavatory Chemicals
E. Duty Free Trolleys

Solution - The answer is B and C only. The other items are only included in the Dry Operating
Mass.

Example 7

Which of the following are included in the Dry Operating Mass of an aircraft?

A. Crew Baggage
B. Fire Extinguishers
C. Usable Fuel
D. Lavatory Chemicals
E. Cabin Crew

Solution - The answer is ALL except C. The usable fuel is not included in the Dry Operating Mass.

Example 8 - Given the following, calculate the Dry Operating Mass?

Basic Empty Mass 3,050 lbs
Fire & Safety equipment 63 lbs
Crew & Crew bags 185 lbs
Catering 42 lbs
Potable water 17 lbs
Lavatory chemicals 13 lbs
Usable Fuel 450 lbs
Passengers & baggage 425 lbs
Freight 140 lbs

Solution

First identify the items that are included in the Dry Operating Mass. They are: -

Basic Empty Mass 3,050 lbs
Fire & Safety equipment* 63 lbs*
Crew & Crew bags 185 lbs
Catering 42 lbs
Potable water 17 lbs
Lavatory chemicals 13 lbs

Total 3,307 lbs

* Note that the Fire & Safety equipment (63 lbs) IS part of the Dry Operating Mass (DOM) but is
already included as part of the Basic Empty Mass (BEM) of the aircraft and so should NOT be
counted twice!

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2.4 The Mass Triangle
Once the aircraft is at the Dry Operating Mass there are only TWO items that remain to be added.
They are the Fuel load required for the journey AND the Passenger / Cargo load, called the Traffic
Load that will earn the revenue for the flight. The total mass of the aircraft AT ANY TIME before,
after or during a flight is always the combination of the three masses.

Any TWO of the above masses can also be combined to produce a uniquely defined mass also
reproduced within CAP696: -

Dry Operating Mass + Fuel = Operating Mass
Dry Operating Mass + Traffic Load = Zero Fuel Mass
Fuel + Traffic Load = Useful Load

Dry Operating Mass

Fuel

Traffic Load
TOTAL MASS
Zero Fuel Mass
Operating Mass
Useful Load

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2.5 Useful Load
The combination of Fuel and Traffic Load combine to produce the Useful Load It is useful
because the fuel is useful to enable the aircraft to undertake the journey and the passengers and
cargo are useful as they earn revenue for the operator.

Example 9

Given the following, calculate the Useful Load?

Dry Operating Mass 5,200 lbs
Usable Fuel 570 lbs
Passengers 455 lbs
Passenger baggage 130 lbs
Freight 65 lbs

Solution

First identify the items that are included in the Useful Load. They are: -

Usable Fuel 570 lbs
Passengers 455 lbs
Freight 65 lbs

Total 1,220 lbs
2.6 Zero Fuel Mass
The zero fuel mass of an aircraft is the Dry Operating Mass plus the Traffic Load, but excluding
ALL usable fuel.

Example 10

Given the following, calculate the Zero Fuel Mass?

Usable Fuel 570 lbs
Freight 160 lbs
Passengers 455 lbs

Solution

First identify the items that are included in the Zero Fuel Mass. They are everything except the
usable fuel: -

Freight 160 lbs
Passengers 455 lbs

Total 5,745 lbs

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2.7 Operating Mass
The Operating Mass (OM) is the Dry Operating Mass (DOM) plus fuel but without the Traffic
Load (Passengers, Passenger Baggage and Freight). This is the mass of the aircraft which is ready
in all respects to operate a flight but without any revenue items on board.

Example 11

Given the following, calculate the Operating Mass?

Usable Fuel 570 lbs
Passengers 455 lbs
Freight 65 lbs

Solution

First identify the items that are included in the Operating Mass. They are everything except the
Traffic Load: -

Usable Fuel 570 lbs

Total 5,170 lbs
2.8 Fuel Definitions
An aircraft is loaded with a pre-determined / planned amount of fuel in order to operate a particular
flight (sector). This fuel load is sometimes called the Block Fuel. This actual consists of TWO
portions of fuel: -

Required Fuel to conduct the planned flight

PLUS

Safety Fuel - required if the flight doesnt go as planned

The required fuel consists of the Start-Up / Taxi Fuel plus the Trip Fuel (Take-Off / Cruise /
Descent / Approach / Landing). The calculated amount assumes that the aircraft will achieve the
planned flight level, route, speed etc and the en-route winds are as forecast. In theory, all this fuel
will be spent as the aircraft touches down on the planned destination runway.

Obviously the regulatory authorities require certain safe guards against the aircraft running out of
fuel before landing etc. Therefore, Safety Fuel is required and is comprised of several elements: -

Contingency Fuel
Diversion Fuel
Reserve Fuel
Additional Fuel

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The safety fuel elements are calculated as follows: -

Contingency Fuel

Contingency Fuel is carried to cover unforeseen variations from the planned operation, i.e. errors in
forecast wind / temperature, ATC restrictions on flight level or route and speed changes.
Contingency fuel may be used at any time after commencement of flight i.e. after push-back or
engine start. The actual amount of fuel is typically calculated as that burnt for 15 minutes at holding
altitude at the planned landing mass.

Diversion Fuel

Fuel required from go-around at Destination through climb, cruise, descent and approach to
touchdown at the selected Alternate. It is calculated using the Planned Landing Weight at
Destination minus route Contingency Fuel (assumed to have been burned) as the Start Diversion
Weight and using the forecast wind component.

Reserve Fuel

Reserve Fuel is the minimum fuel required to be remaining in tanks at normal landing. It is
calculated as being a quantity of fuel equivalent to 30 minutes holding fuel at 1500 ft clean at
Planned Landing Weight at the Alternate Airfield or destination if no alternate is required. If there
is a possibility that the aircraft will land with less than this amount in tanks then a fuel emergency
(PAN or MAYDAY) must be declared.

Additional Fuel

Occasionally, there are certain possible situations (e.g. loss of pressurisation at the most critical
point along a route) where there is insufficient fuel on board for the aircraft to descend as necessary
and proceed to an adequate aerodrome. In such situations additional fuel is carried to ensure safe
en-route diversion and adequate reserves.

This is quite a common situation on long-range trans-oceanic routes where following a descent to
10,000 after a de-pressurisation; the fuel burn rate is greatly increased. Adequate additional fuel is
therefore required.

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2.9 Extra Fuel
This is the fuel carried which is extra to the required fuel. This should not be carried unless there are
sound operational or economic reasons for doing so; for example, where refuelling at the planned
destination is not possible or prohibitively expensive. The aircraft may carry sufficient extra fuel to
meet the fuel requirements for the return / onward flight. This is called tankering.

The penalty for carriage of extra fuel is about 3% of extra fuel per hour of flight. (i.e. on a 6 hour
sector up to 18% of the extra fuel uplifted will be burned off due to the increased aircraft weight).
2.10 Fuel Plans
All flight plans produced by aircraft operators will contain details of the fuel requirements; for
example: -

CIRRUS FLT PLAN FTD EXT.30451 ACARS.LHRWFBA
P 1 OF 8 BA954 / 26 LHR-MUC ETD: 1355/26DEC11
319 G-EUOA C/S BAW954M M 0.0 EGLL-EDDM P 1.0 T/O SLOT.................

51.8 ZFW .... 1545 ATA......... TNKS........ ADVISORY INFORMATION
15 MIN CONTINGENCY
58.0 TOW .... 1355 ATD ..... USED........ DO NOT REDUCE
BELOW THIS FIGURE
54.3 LAW .... 0150 TOT.......... LEFT.........

9.5 PL ........ HOLD....

TRIM......... MIN COST VAR SPD - FP NO. 4 1154 26DEC11

ROUTE 01 FL050 EPM/FL060 DET/FL390 HAREM/FL370 TOD/FL130 BURAM
TOD/FL110 ROKIL

TRIP ...... 3780 1.28 571NM W/C P17
CONT MIN.... 384 15 ERA NUE /EDDN
DIV (F) ...... 1135 23 NUE /EDDN FL180 M11 96NM
RES ...... 1088 30 PLAN REM 2.5 TOT RES 2.3
ADDITIONAL . 0
TAXI ...... 228 (19) 2.26 COST INDEX 20
EXTRA ...... 0
ELEV LHR R27R 78
TANKS ...... 6715 KG ELEV MUC R26L 1470

ALT SUMMARY DIST TRK FL COMP TIME FUEL DIV SPD SCHED
STR/EDDS C1 136 281 240 M1 00.28 1377 COST INDEX 0
FRA/EDDF C2 185 309 280 M9 00.36 1708
CGN/EDDK C3 274 310 240 M11 00.53 2224

Etc .

Once all the fuel is loaded into the aircraft tanks the mass of the aircraft is at its RAMP / TAXI
mass.

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Example 12

From the following fuel data (in kilograms) determine the actual fuel required and the planned fuel
to be used?

TAXI ...... 315
TRIP ...... 9,547
CONT MIN.... 427
DIVF ...... 1,668
RES ...... 1,123
ADDITIONAL . 2,300
EXTRA ...... 4,513

Solution

Identify the fuel elements REQUIRED to complete the planned flight: -

TAXI ...... 315
TRIP ...... 9,547
CONT MIN.... 427
DIVF ...... 1,668
RES ...... 1,123
ADDITIONAL . 2,300

Note that this DOES NOT include the Extra Fuel as this is not required to complete the flight
safely. The answer is 15,380 kilograms. Secondly, identify the fuel that will be used based upon
best planning: -

TAXI ...... 315
TRIP ...... 9,547

The planned fuel usage is 9,862 kilograms
2.11 Taxi Mass (Ramp Mass)
The Taxi Mass, sometimes referred to as Ramp Mass, is the mass of the aeroplane at the start of
the taxi, i.e. at departure from the loading gate. This should be the maximum mass that the aircraft
is ever at for that particular flight as in flight refuelling is not generally available in commercial
aviation. The mass is simply the addition of ALL items.

Example 13

Given the following, calculate the Taxi / Ramp Mass?

Dry Operating Mass (DOM) 3,400 kg
Block Fuel 500 kg
Passengers 400 kg
Freight / Baggage 200 kg

Solution

Total 4,500 kg

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2.12 Take-Off Mass
The Take-Off Mass is defined as the mass of the aeroplane including everything and everyone
contained within it at the start of the take-off run.

The Take Mass can be calculated as the Taxi / Ramp Mass minus the Taxi / Start-Up Fuel.

Example 14

Given the following, calculate the Take-Off Mass?

Total Fuel 600 kg
Passengers 400 kg
Start-Up / Taxi Fuel 30 kg

Solution

The Take-Off Mass is the total of everything on board at the Ramp MINUS the start-up / taxi fuel: -

Total Fuel 600 kg
Passengers 400 kg

Taxi / Ramp Mass 3,500 kg

Taxi / Start Up Fuel - 30 kg

Take Off Mass 3,470 kg
2.13 Landing Mass
The Landing Mass is defined as the Take-Off Mass MINUS the fuel used on the journey, called the
Trip Fuel.

Example 15

An aircraft with a Take-Off Mass of 3,400 kg burns 550 kg of fuel. What is the aircrafts landing
mass?

Solution

3,400 (Take-Off Mass) 550 kg (Trip Fuel) = 2,850 (Landing Mass)

The Landing Mass is 2,850 kg

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2.14 CAP Loading Manifests
CAP 696 provides typical mass calculations forms called loading manifests to assist the user to
calculate the various masses. The manifest form for the SEP 1 in Section 2, Page 3 of the CAP is
shown below: -

The manifest provides an easy to use guide in order to calculate the relevant masses for the SEP 1
aircraft. The second and third columns marked Arm and Moment are used for calculating the
centre of gravity and will be discussed in the next chapter.

Example 16

Using the following data calculate the Zero Fuel Mass, Ramp Mass, Take-Off Mass and Landing
Mass of the SEP 1 aeroplane using the loading manifest: -

Front Seat Occupants 210 lb
Third and Forth Seat Pax 195 lb
Baggage Zone B 65 lb
Baggage Zone C 35 lb
Fuel Load 40 gallons
Trip Fuel 30 gallons

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Before completing the manifest, note the following: -

Basic Empty Mass is given in Section 2, Page 1as 2,415 lb

Fuel is given in gallons, therefore refer to Section 2 Page 2 which provides a conversion
table from gallons into pounds (1 gallon fuel = 6 lbs) as shown below: -

Fuel used for start-up and taxi is given as 13 lb

Solution - Complete the manifest and extract the required data, shown in bold: -

Results: -
Zero-Fuel Mass : 2,920 lbs
Ramp Mass : 3,160 lbs
Take-Off Mass : 3,147 lbs
Landing Mass : 2,967 lbs
2415
210
195
65
35
240
-13
-180
2920
3160
3147
2967

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There are similar Load Manifests for the MEP1 and MRJT1 in the CAP. The MEP1 is shown
below: -

Note the following when using this form: -

The Maximum Masses given for each section which is useful to check that no individual
area is overloaded.

The Basic Empty Mass of the aircraft is given on the form as 3210 lb.

The fuel mass is calculated from volume using the formula of 1 US gallon = 6 lbs.

The fuel used for start-up and taxi is NOT given, however the example demonstrated in the
CAP at Section 3, MEP1, Page 2 uses a MASS of 23 lbs which is just less than 4 US
gallons.

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The MRJT1 Loading Manifest is shown below: -

Note the following: -

No masses are given either in the text within Section 4, MRJT1 of the CAP or on the
manifest form itself.

No start-up and taxi fuel is given.

No maximum masses are given on the manifest but they are within the text in the CAP

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The masses required for the previous calculations have been given in the various examples but no
explanation was given about how the various masses were determined. The next section explains
how weighing is achieved. The items include: -

Aircraft Mass

Crew and Passenger Mass and their respective Baggage

Freight / Cargo Mass including Floor Loading

Fuel Mass including Volume to Mass calculations

3 Determination of Aircraft Mass
3.1 Aircraft Mass Check
An operator must specify in the Company Operations Manual the principles and methods involved
in the aircraft load determination in accordance with EASA regulations for all types of intended
operations. The results of an aircraft mass check are found in the Aircraft Technical Log,
Operations Manual and Company Loading Manual.

An operator must determine the mass of all-operating items and crew members included in the
aeroplane dry operating mass by weighing or by using standard masses. The influence of their
position within the aircraft on the aeroplane centre of gravity, discussed in the next chapter, must
also be determined.

The starting point in determining the mass of the aircraft is to determine the Basic Mass of the
aircraft. This is achieved by simply weighing the aircraft. The weighing must be accomplished
either by the manufacturer or by an EASA Approved Maintenance Organisation.

Normal precautions must be taken consistent with good practices such as: -

Checking for completeness of the aeroplane and equipment
Determining that unusable fluids are properly accounted for
Ensuring that the aeroplane is clean
Ensuring that weighing, is accomplished in an enclosed building

To determine the completeness of the aircraft prior to weighing an Equipment List is used to
identify which items are included / required on board for the weighing process. The list is defined as
including all the items which are required for the operation of that aircraft for the role in which it is
being weighed; for example, life jackets and other special equipment such as extra seats. This list is
known as the either the Equipment List or the Part B of the weight calculation.

Any equipment used for weighing must be properly calibrated, zeroed, and used in accordance with
the manufacturer's instructions. Each scale must be calibrated either by the manufacturer, by a civil
department of weights and measures or by an appropriately authorised Organisation within 2 years
or within a time period defined by the manufacturer of the weighing equipment, whichever is less.
The equipment must enable the mass of the aeroplane to be established accurately.

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The aircraft is weighed in a level attitude using suitable scales. Various scales are used such as: -

Weigh bridges, onto which the aircraft can be rolled.

Platform scales placed beneath the chocked wheels as shown below.

Hydrostatic weighing units; which measure the pressure produced in jacks interposed
between the lifting jacks and the jacking points.

Electrical and electronic weighing equipment measure the changes in electrical resistance
with elastic strain.

The mass of the aeroplane as used in establishing the dry operating mass and the centre of gravity
must be established accurately. Since a certain model of weighing equipment is used for initial and
periodic weighing of aeroplanes of widely different mass classes, one single accuracy criterion for
weighing equipment cannot be given. However, the weighing accuracy is considered satisfactory if
the following accuracy criteria are met by the individual scales/cells of the weighing equipment
used: -

For a scale load below 2,000 kg an accuracy of 1 %

For a scale load from 2,000 kg to 20,000 kg an accuracy of 20 kg

For a scale load above 20,000 kg an accuracy of 0.1 %

You will notice that equates to +/- 20 kg in all cases as 1% of 2,000 kg is 20 kg and 0.1% of 20,000
kg is also 20 kg.

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Example 17

What is the scale accuracy required when measuring a whole or partial aircraft mass of 14,500 kg?

Solution

The whole or partial mass being measured is between 2,000 and 20,000 kg. Therefore, the accuracy
required is +/- 20 kg

Example 18

What is the scale accuracy required when measuring a whole or partial aircraft mass of 32,000 kg?

Solution

The whole or partial mass being measured is greater than 20,000 kg. Therefore, the accuracy
required is +/- 0.1%. The accuracy required is: -

0.1 x 32,000 kg = +/- 32 kg
100
3.2 Mass Calculation

To calculate the mass of an aircraft (and Centre of Gravity discussed later), scales are placed
under the undercarriage and the readings are taken. The mass of the aircraft is the ADDITION of
the readings.

In the example above, if Scale A = 260 kg, Scale B = 320 kg and Scale C = 320 kg then the mass of
the aircraft is determined as the sum of the three readings = 900 kg.

SCALE A
SCALE C
SCALE B

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Notice that the readings for scales B and C are the same. This is not surprising due to the
longitudinal symmetry of the aircraft. It is therefore quite acceptable to use the reading from scale B
or C only and DOUBLE the reading.

Example 19

A tricycle undercarriage aircraft is weighed on a set of scales and the following readings taken: -

Nose Gear = 278 kg Right Main Gear = 453 kg

What is the calculated mass of the aircraft?

Solution

The LEFT main gear can be assumed to be the same reading as the Right Main Gear, i.e. 453kg.
The mass of the aircraft is therefore: -

278 kg + 453 kg + 453 kg = 1,184 kg

The same type of calculation can be used when using scales that give the WEIGHT force
expressed in Newtons (N): -

Example 20

A tricycle undercarriage aircraft is weighed on a set of force scales and the following readings
taken: -

Nose Gear = 790 N Right Main Gear = 1,345 N Left Main Gear = 1,295 N

What is the calculated mass of the aircraft assuming g = 9.8 m/sec
2
?

Solution

The weight force of the aircraft is the addition of all three weights: -

790 N + 1,345 N + 1,295 N = 3,430 Newtons

However, the question requires the MASS of the aircraft to be determined. This is achieved by
using Newtons second law: -

Force (N) = Mass x Acceleration (g)

Substituting values: -

3,430 = Mass x 9.8 (gravitational constant)

Rearranging gives: -

Mass = 3,430 / 9.8 = 350 kilograms

Quite often g is assigned an approximate value of 10 m/sec
2
but will be defined in any question.

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Example 21

A tricycle undercarriage aircraft is weighed on a set of scales and the following readings taken: -

Nose Gear = 1,700 kg
Right Main Gear = 6,300 kg
Left Main Gear = 6,300 kg

What is the calculated mass of the aircraft AND error range?

Solution

The mass is easily determined by adding the three readings: -

Nose Gear = 1,700 kg +/- 17 kg (1% - 0 - 2,000 range)
Right Main Gear = 6,300 kg +/- 20 kg (20 kg - 2,000 - 20,000 range)
Left Main Gear = 6,300 kg +/- 20 kg (20 kg - 2,000 - 20,000 range)

Total = 14,300 kg +/- 57kg

Note that the scale error is based on the individual scale readings in their respective ranges. If the
aircraft had been weighed whole (once) on a weighbridge then the error would only be +/-20 kg as
14,300 kg is in the 2,000 to 20,000 kg error range.
3.3 Weighing Periods and Regulations
The following rules apply to the mass AND centre of gravity (C of G) determination of an aircraft.
Centre of Gravity calculations are discussed in the next chapter, however the C of G rules are listed
here as they form part of the mass determination regulations.

New aeroplanes are normally weighed at the factory and are eligible to be placed into operation
without re-weighing if the mass and balance records have been adjusted for alterations or
modifications to the aeroplane. Similarly, aeroplanes transferred from one EASA operator with an
approved mass control programme to another EASA operator with an approved programme need
not be weighed prior to use by the receiving operator unless more than 4 years have elapsed since
the last weighing.

An operator must establish the mass and the centre of gravity of any aeroplane by actual weighing
prior to initial entry into service and thereafter at intervals of: -

Four years for individual aeroplanes

Nine years if aircraft is part of a fleet, discussed shortly

Any modifications and repairs which could affect the mass and balance of the aircraft must be
accounted for and properly documented.

The individual mass and centre of gravity position of each aeroplane shall be re-established
periodically as defined by the operator by either actual weighing or calculation OR whenever the
cumulative changes to the Dry Operating Mass exceed 0.5% of the maximum landing mass or the
cumulative change in C of G position exceeds 0.5% of the mean aerodynamic chord, discussed
later.

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3.4 Fleet Mass and Fleet Centre of Gravity Position
An operator may have a fleet of identical aeroplanes all similarly equipped configured and crewed
/ loaded. It is therefore likely that they will all have a similar Dry Operating Mass. In such
circumstances an average Dry Operating Mass and C of G position may be used as the Fleet Mass
and Fleet Centre of Gravity position, provided that the Dry Operating Masses and C of G
positions of the individual aeroplanes meet the conditions below: -

If the Dry Operating Mass of any aeroplane within the fleet varies by more than 0.5% of
the Maximum Structural Landing Mass from the established dry operating fleet mass or the
C of G position varies by more than 0.5% of the mean aerodynamic chord (discussed
later) from the fleet C of G, that aeroplane shall be omitted from that fleet.

If an aeroplane mass is within the dry operating fleet mass tolerance (0.5%) but its C of G
position falls outsides the permitted fleet tolerance, the aeroplane may still be operated
under the applicable dry operating fleet mass but with an individual C of G position.

If an individual aeroplane has, when compared with other aeroplanes of the fleet, a physical
accurately accountable difference (e.g. galley or seat configuration), that causes exceedance
of the fleet tolerances, this aeroplane may be maintained in the fleet provided that
appropriate corrections are applied to the mass and / or C of G position for that aeroplane.

The number of aeroplanes to be weighed to obtain fleet values depends upon the number of aircraft
within the fleet. If 'n' is the number of aeroplanes in the fleet then the following number of aircraft
must be weighed; -

In choosing the aeroplanes to be weighed, aeroplanes in the fleet which have not been weighed for
the longest time shall be selected and the interval between two fleet mass evaluations must not
exceed 4 years with no individual aircraft on the fleet exceeding 9 years without being weighed.

Aeroplanes which have not been weighed since the last fleet mass evaluation can still be kept in a
fleet operated with fleet values, provided that the individual values are revised by computation and
stay within the tolerances defined above.

Example 22

An operator has a fleet of 32 aeroplanes for which there is an established fleet dry operating mass
and fleet C pf G position. How many aircraft must be weighed during a fleet mass evaluation?

Solution

For more than 10 aircraft the formula used is (n + 51) / 10. This gives a value of 8.3 aeroplanes.
This must be rounded up to satisfy the requirements so the correct answer is 9.
Number of aeroplanes in the fleet Minimum number to be weighed
2 or 3 aeroplanes n
4 to 9 aeroplanes
2
3 n

10 or more aeroplanes
10
1 5 n

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3.5 Determination of Crew, Passenger and Passenger Baggage Mass
Crew

The operator shall use the following masses for the crew: -

Actual masses including any crew baggage using scales with a range up to 150kg at least 0.5
kg intervals.

OR

Standard masses, which include hand baggage, of 85 kg for flight crew members and 75 kg
for cabin crew members

OR

Other masses acceptable to the authority for specific reasons

Passengers

When computing the mass of the passengers and checked baggage, an operator shall use
either the actual weight of each person and item of baggage again using scales with a range
up to 150kg at least 0.5 kg intervals.

OR the standard mass values specified below in the tables: -

Less than 19 seat aircraft

Note that the standard masses include hand baggage and the mass of any infant below 2 years of age
carried by an adult on one passenger seat. Infants occupying separate passenger seats must be
considered as children (35 kg).

More than 19 seat aircraft

Passenger Seats 1 - 5 6 - 9 10 19
Male 104 kg 96 kg 92 kg
Female 86 kg 78 kg 74 kg
Children 35 kg
20 or more 30 or more
Passenger Seats
Male Female All adult
All Flights except
Holiday Charters
88 kg 70 kg 84 kg
Holiday Charters 83 kg 69 kg 76 kg
Children 35 kg

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All the above masses are listed in Section 1, Page 5 of CAP 696

In aircraft fitted with more than 30 seats the operator has a choice of using the separate
male / female values OR the all adult values.

Holiday charter means a charter flight solely intended as an element of a holiday travel
package. These mass values only apply provided that not more than 5% of passenger seats
installed in the aircraft are used for non-revenue carriage of certain categories of passengers
(Company personnel, tour operators staff, representatives of the press etc.)

If there are a significant number of persons on board other than crew whose masses,
including hand baggage, are expected to exceed the standard mass, an operator must
determine the actual mass of such persons by weighing or by adding an adequate mass
increment.

On flights where no hand baggage is carried in the cabin or where hand baggage is
accounted for separately, 6 kg may be deducted from male and female masses only.

Baggage

For aeroplanes with 19 passenger seats or less, the actual mass of checked baggage, determined by
weighing, must be used.

Where the total number of passenger seats available on an aeroplane is 20 or more, the standard
mass values for baggage given in the table below are applicable for each piece of checked baggage.

If standard mass values for checked baggage are used and a significant number of passengers
check-in baggage is expected to exceed the standard baggage mass, an operator must determine the
actual baggage mass of such baggage by weighing or by adding an adequate mass increment.

Also note the following: -

All the above masses are listed in Section 1, Page 5 of CAP 696.

Domestic flight means a flight with origin and destination within the borders of one state.

Intercontinental flight, other than flights within the European region, means a flight with
origin and destination in different continents.

Type of flight Baggage Standard Mass
Domestic 11 kg
European region 13 kg
Intercontinental 15 kg
All other 13 kg

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Flights within the European region means flights, other than domestic flights, whose origin
and destination are within the European area shown.

Example 23

An aircraft has 52 passenger seats and a load of 43 passengers (35 male, 6 female and 2 children).
Between them they have 36 bags for their scheduled flight from Bournemouth to Dublin. There is
no cargo loaded. What is the total traffic load?

Solution

Firstly, note that the operator has the choice of using the all adult value for 30 or more passenger
seats or the separate male / female values for 20 or more seats; both will be calculated. Secondly,
as the flight originates in England and terminates in Ireland, the European region baggage weights
of 13 kg each apply.

All Adult Solution

41 adults at 84 kg each = 3,444 kg
2 children at 35 kg each = 70 kg
36 bags at 13 kg each = 468 kg

Total Traffic Load = 3,982 kg

Separate Male / Female Solution

35 male adults at 88 kg each = 3,080 kg
6 female adults at 70 kg each = 420 kg


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Example 24

An aircraft has 25 passenger seats BUT has no overhead stowage bins for hand baggage and a load
of 22 passengers (14 male, 5 female, 3 children and 1 infant). Between them they have 25 bags for
their scheduled flight from Bournemouth to Glasgow. There is no cargo / freight. Calculate the
total traffic load.

Solution

Firstly, note that the operator must use the separate male / female values for 20 or more seats and
not the all adult values but that 6 kg is subtracted from each male and female adult passenger mass
as no hand baggage stowage is available within the passenger cabin area. Nothing is subtracted
from the child mass of 35 kg.

Secondly, as the flight originates in England and terminates in Scotland, the Domestic flight
baggage weight of 11 kg each applies.

14 male adults at 88 kg each less 6 kg (= 82 kg) = 1,148 kg
5 female adults at 70 kg each less 6 kg (= 64 kg) = 320 kg
1 infant at 0 kg (presume babe in arms) = 0 kg


Example 25

An aircraft has 104 passenger seats and a load of 104 passengers (96 adults, 8 children and 2
infants). Between them they have 98 bags for their holiday charter flight from Bournemouth to
Milan. There is no freight / cargo on board. Calculate the total traffic load.

Solution

Note that the all adult holiday charter mass of 76 kg is used for 30 or more passenger seats as the
male / female numbers are not known, and that as the flight originates in England and terminates in
Italy, the European region baggage mass of 13 kg applies.

96 adults at 76 kg each = 7,296 kg
2 infants at 0 kg = 0 kg
98 bags at 13 kg each = 1,274 kg


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Example 26

An aircraft has 18 seats and 15 passengers (4 male, 7 female, 2 children and 2 babies). Between
them they have 9 bags, weighing 117 kg in total, for their flight from Bournemouth to Paris.
Calculate the total traffic load if no cargo / freight is carried.

Solution

Note that the aircraft has less than 19 seats therefore separate male / female masses will apply
within the 10 to 19 seat bracket and that the ACTUAL baggage mass must be used.

4 male adults at 92 kg each = 368 kg
7 female adults at 74 kg each = 518 kg
2 infants (babe in arms) at 0 kg = 0 kg
Bags (actual mass) = 117 kg

3.6 Determination of Cargo / Freight Mass
Freight and Cargo come in a variety of shapes and sizes from individual packages to palleted loads
or even specially designed containers tailored for individual aircraft types. The cargo / freight is
weighed by the cargo department of the airline operator and sent to the ramp with details of the load
including its mass.

The loading team, in conjunction with the aircraft dispatcher, who is responsible for completing the
pre-flight documentation for the flight crew, will make sure that the load is placed in the correct
hold and that the floor loading within the particular hold area is not exceeded.

You will have seen in Section 2, Page 1 of CAP
696 that for the SEP1 a maximum floor loading
was given at 50 lb per square foot in zone A and
100 lb per square foot elsewhere. Section 3, Page
1 also states that the MEP1 has uniform floor
loading of 120 lb per square foot.

When transporting boxes, bags or suitcases there is
little risk of exceeding this limitation. However,
caution should be exercised when carrying
abnormally shaped items as only a very small part
of the item may be in contact with the floor, and
these limitations may be exceeded even with a
relatively light object and in order to distribute the
load over a larger area, a load spreader may be
employed, which works on the same principal as
snow shoes.

Most modern transport aircraft display a floor
loading limitation diagram within both the
individual hold and within the relevant section of
the operations manual.

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Section 4, Page 5 describes the floor loading limitation within the fore and aft holds of the MRJT1
aeroplane: -

There are TWO loading limitations that must be considered: -

Load Intensity This is how the mass or weight of any load is distributed over an area. The units
of load intensity are mass per distance
2
, e.g. lbs per inch
2
or kg per metre
2
or combinations
thereof. The MRJT uses kg per ft
2
and the second line of hold description indicates that the load
intensity limit is 68 kg per ft
2
for both hold areas.

Running Load This is slightly more complicated to understand but it is the measure of the mass or
weight of any load and how that load is distributed along the LONGITUDINAL axis of the
aircraft hold. The units of load intensity are mass per distance, e.g. lbs per inch or kg per metre or
combinations thereof. The MRJT uses kg per inch and the first line of hold description indicates
that the running load limit varies between 8.47 to 13.12 kg per inch in the hold 1 and 7.18 to 14.65
kg per inch in hold 2.

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The formula for calculating out the load intensity on an aircraft floor is: -

This is used for determination of floor loading based upon the MASS of the object placed in the
aircrafts hold.

Example 27

What is the floor loading intensity for a 200 lb cargo mass with a surface area in contact with the
floor of 2 feet by 3 feet?

Solution

Firstly, the contact surface area is 2 ft x 3 ft = 6 ft
2
.

Secondly, substitute the terms into the floor loading formula to give: -

200 = 33.3 lbs / ft
2

6

Example 28

What is the maximum mass of a container of dimensions 2 feet by 2 feet that can be loaded into
zone A of the SEP 1 aeroplane?

Solution

2
and from the CAP the maximum floor loading
intensity in zone A of the SEP 1 is 50 lbs / ft
2
. Note that there is no running load limitation.


Mass = 50 lbs / ft
2

4 ft
2

Therefore, the maximum mass permitted is 4 x 50 = 200 lbs.

NOTE

Dimensions can be given in feet or metres. The conversion factors for both are given in Section 1 of
the CAP: -

Feet (ft) to Metres (m) ft x 0.305
MASS
SURFACE AREA IN FLOOR CONTACT
FLOOR LOAD =
INTENSITY

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Example 29

A 700 kg container has the dimensions of 2 foot by 3 foot by 5 foot. Can the container be put into
the aft hold of the MRJT1 aeroplane without exceeding the floor load intensity limitation?

Solution

Firstly, the object has three possible orientations for loading into the hold. Side A offers the
greatest surface area of 3 feet x 5 feet = 15 ft
2
, Side B offers an area of 2 feet x 5 feet = 10 ft
2

whereas Side C offers the smallest area of 3 feet x 2 feet = 6 ft
2
.

Secondly, the floor loading intensity limitation of the rear hold of the MRJT1 aeroplane is given in
the CAP as 68 kg / ft
2
.

Floor load intensity using Area A = 700 kg / 15 ft
2
= 47 kg / ft
2
(Within limits)

Floor load intensity using Area B = 700 kg / 10 ft
2
= 70 kg / ft
2
(Just too high)

Floor load intensity using Area C = 700 kg / 6 ft
2
= 117 kg / ft
2
(Too high)

Therefore, the container may be loaded provided side A is in contact with the floor.

Finally also note from the CAP that between position 940 to position 997 in the rear hold, the
maximum load allowed is only 414 kg. The 700 kg load cannot be placed in that area of the hold.
5 feet
2 feet
3 feet
A
B
C

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Alternatively, floor loading intensity limitations may be expressed in NEWTONS per AREA
2
. In
which case the formula is amended to: -

Example 30

What is the floor load intensity in Newtons / feet
2
for a 500 kg cargo mass with a surface area in
contact with the floor of 3 feet by 4 feet? Assume g is 9.8 metres / sec
2
.

Solution

2
.

Secondly, the weight force in Newtons generated by the mass is 500 x 9.8 = 4,900 N.

Finally, substitute the terms into the floor loading formula to give: -

4,900 = 408.3 N per ft
2

12

Example 31

What is the maximum mass of a container of dimensions 2 feet by 3 feet that can be loaded into the
cargo area of an aeroplane with a floor load intensity limit of 1,500 N per ft
2
?
(Assume g is 10 metres / sec
2
)

Solution

2
.


Weight = 1,500 N per ft
2

6 ft
2

Therefore, the maximum weight permitted is 6 x 1,500 = 9,000 Newtons.

Finally, using Force = Mass x Acceleration, the mass required to produce a force of 9,000 Newtons
is: -

9,000 = Mass x 10

which gives a mass of 900 kg.
WEIGHT (Newtons)
SURFACE AREA IN FLOOR CONTACT
FLOOR LOAD =
INTENSITY

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The cargo floor consists of a thin piece of aluminium / composite material that rest on floor joists
that run laterally across the aircraft. The joist can support more mass than the actual floor but
unfortunately, the joists are not equally spaced apart nor marked on the floor for the loading team to
see.

The compartment can carry more cargo if it placed across as many joists as possible; this is
achieved by placing the cargo / container with the LONGEST length in line with the longitudinal
(fore / aft) axis of the aircraft to maximise the chance that the load is supported by as many joists as
possible.

The formula for calculating out the running load on an aircraft floor is: -

This is used for determination of floor running load based upon the MASS of the object placed in
the aircrafts hold.
MASS
LONGITUDINAL LENGTH
IN FLOOR CONTACT
RUNNING LOAD =

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Example 32

What is the floor running load of a 500 lb cargo mass of dimensions 6 feet long (placed along
aircrafts fore and aft axis) by 3 feet width by 2 feet high?

Solution

Firstly, the width and height of the cargo is NOT CONSIDERED. The longitudinal length in
contact with the floor along the aircrafts fore and aft (longitudinal) axis is 6 feet.


500 = 83.3 lbs per foot
6

Example 33

What is the maximum mass of a container of dimensions 4 feet by 4 feet by 4 feet that can be
loaded into hold 2 of the MRJT 1 aeroplane between stations 731 and 940 without exceeding the
running load limitation?

Solution

Firstly, the longitudinal length in floor contact is 4 feet (48 inches) no matter how the cargo is place
within the hold (diagonally is not considered) and from the CAP the maximum running load in hold
2 for the particular station is 14.65 kg per inch.


Mass = 14.65 kg per inch
48 inches

Therefore, the maximum mass permitted is 48 x 14.65 = 703 kg.

Similar running load calculations are possible if the running load limitations are expressed in terms
of the weight force in Newtons per inch or Newtons per metre etc. are used.

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Of course, both the Load Intensity AND the Running Load and any overall maximum
compartment load limitation must be observed as described in the next example: -

Example 34

Given the following data, determine the maximum mass of a palleted load that can be placed into a
cargo hold?

Pallet dimensions : 3 feet by 5 feet
Maximum Load Intensity : 86 kg per ft
2

Maximum Running Load : 23 kg per inch
Maximum Compartment Load : 1,600 kg

Solution

There are 3 limitations to consider: -

Load Intensity Limit

Firstly, the area of the pallet in contact with the cargo floor is: -

3 feet x 5 feet = 15 ft
2

Secondly, the Load Intensity = Mass / Area

or by re-arranging the formula Mass = Load Intensity x Area

Maximum Mass = Maximum Load Intensity x Area = 86 x 15 = 1,290 kg

Running Load Limit

Firstly, the load can be loaded with the 3 feet or 5 feet length orientated with the fore an aft axis of
the aircraft hold. Obviously placing the cargo with the longest distance (5 feet or 60 inches)
orientated along the fore and aft axis will result in a lower running load value.

Secondly, the Running Load = Mass / Longitudinal Length

or by re-arranging the formula Mass = Running Load x Longitudinal Length

Maximum Mass = Maximum Running Load x Length = 23 x 60 = 1,380 kg

Compartment Limit - Stated as 1,600 kg

The limiting mass is the lowest of the 3 permissible maximum masses; in this case, 1,290 kg based
upon the Maximum Load Intensity limitation.

For interest ONLY, had the cargo been loaded with the 3 feet (36 inch) edge of the load orientated
to the fore and aft axis of the aircraft then the maximum mass would be based upon the Running
Load limit: -

Maximum Mass = Maximum Running Load x Length = 23 x 36 = 828 kg

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When completing the previous example, it is quite a good idea to layout your solution as follows: -

The calculation of the Load Intensity and the Running Load and any overall maximum
compartment load limitation can be referenced to the weight force in Newtons: -

Example 35

Given the following data, determine the maximum mass of a palleted load that can be placed into a
cargo hold? Assume g = 10 m/sec
2
.

Pallet dimensions : 1.2 metres by 2.3 metres
Maximum Load Intensity : 9,500 N per m
2

Maximum Running Load : 10,500 N per m
Maximum Compartment Load : 35,000 N

Solution

Again, there are 3 limitations to consider: -

Load Intensity Limit

Firstly, the area of the pallet in contact with the cargo floor is: -

1.2 metres x 2.3 metres = 2.76 m
2

Secondly, the Load Intensity = Weight / Area

or by re-arranging the formula Weight = Load Intensity x Area

Maximum Weight = Maximum Load Intensity x Area = 9,500 x 2.76 = 26,220 N
Load Intensity

Max LI = Max Mass
Area

Substitute: -

86 = Max Mass
15

Rearrange: -

Max Mass = 1,290 kg

Compartment

1,600 kg

Running Load

Max RL = Max Mass
Length

Substitute: -

23 = Max Mass
5 x 12

Rearrange: -

Max Mass = 1,380 kg

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Running Load Limit

Firstly, placing the cargo with the longest distance (2.3 metres) orientated along the fore and aft axis
will result in a lower running load value.

Secondly, the Running Load = Weight / Longitudinal Length

or by re-arranging the formula Weight = Running Load x Longitudinal Length

Maximum Weight = Maximum Running Load x Length = 10,500 x 2.3 = 24,150 N

Compartment Limit - Stated as 35,000 N

The limiting mass is the lowest of the 3 permissible maximum masses; in this case, 24,150 N based
upon the Maximum Running Load limitation.

The mass of the pallet that will produce a weight force of 24,150 N is given by F = ma: -

Mass = Force / g = 24,150 / 10 = 2,415 kg

Again, the problem can be laid out as follows: -

Limiting mass is 24,150 N (Maximum Running Load limitation)

Convert to Mass: -

Mass = Force / g = 24,150 / 10 = 2,415 kg

Load Intensity

Max LI = Max Weight
Area

Substitute: -

9,500 = Max Weight
2.76

Rearrange: -

Max Weight = 26,220 N

Compartment

35,000 N

Running Load

Max RL = Max Weight
Length

Substitute: -

10,500 = Max Weight
2.3

Rearrange: -

Max Weight = 24,150 N

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3.7 Fuel Mass Determination
Modern aircraft have capacitance type fuel gauging systems that display the MASS of fuel in the
aircrafts tanks. This enables the quick calculation of aircraft mass at any time and thereby optimises
aircraft performance which is usually weight and environment dependant.

However, fuel is delivered to the aircraft in many forms litres, gallons etc. A pilot must be
comfortable at converting between mass and volume to ensure that the correct amount of fuel has
been loaded. To achieve this some basic relationships must be known: -

Mass is the quantity of matter a body contains.

Volume is the space occupied by a gas or liquid.

Density is the degree of compactness of a substance.

The density of any liquid is always calculated with reference to the density of pure water which is
given the density of 1.0. Therefore, any fluid with a density less than that of pure water (such as
aviation fuels and oils) will have a given density value lower than 1.0. This density rating is given
the term Specific Gravity (SG). This can easily be demonstrated by dropping some fuel or oil into a
bucket of water and observing that they float on the water, thus proving that they have a lower
density than the water.

It is due to the different densities of fluids that for a given volume (at the same temperature and
pressure) the mass (weight) of the fluid will be different. For example, one litre of pure water
weighs 1 kg, whereas one litre of a fluid having an SG of 0.75 will weigh 750 grams.

The only way to convert from volume to mass is by using litres and kilograms with the associated
specific gravity. There is no standard imperial conversion factor other than the table within the
CAP 696 which assumes 1 US gallon = 6 pounds (this is an approximation for use in the SEP1 and
MEP1 examples ONLY).

The formula for conversion is: -

MASS (kg) = VOLUME (lts) x SPECIFIC GRAVITY

Example 36

What is the mass of 234 litres of fuel with a specific gravity of 0.81?

Solution

Mass = Volume x SG

Mass = 234 lts x 0.81 = 189.5 kg

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Example 37

What is the volume of 673 kg of fuel with a specific gravity of 0.78?

Solution

Mass = Volume x SG

673 kg = Volume x 0.78

Volume = 673 / 0.78 = 863 ltrs

Example 38

What is the specific gravity of 452 litres of fuel with a mass of 357 kg?

Solution

Mass = Volume x SG

357 kg = 452 ltrs x SG

SG = 357 / 452 = 0.79

Naturally, fuel volume is not always determined in litres and mass is not always in kilograms:-

Example 39

What is the mass, in kilograms of 66 imperial gallons of fuel with a specific gravity of 0.80?

Solution

Firstly, convert the gallons into litres using the conversion factor in Section 1 of the CAP: -

Litres = Imp gallons x 4.546

Litres = 67 x 4.546 = 300 litres

Secondly,

Mass = Volume x SG

Mass = 300 ltrs x 0.80 = 240 kg

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Example 40

What is the mass, in pounds of 134 US gallons of fuel with a specific gravity of 0.79?

Solution

Firstly, convert the gallons into litres using the conversion factor in Section 1 of the CAP: -

Litres = US gallons x 3.785

Litres =134 x 3.785 = 507 litres

Secondly,

Mass = Volume x SG

Mass = 507 ltrs x 0.79 = 400 kg

Finally convert kilograms into pounds: -

Pounds = Kilograms x 2.205

Pounds = 400 x 2.205 = 882 lbs

Standard Fuel Density

If the actual fuel density is not known, the operator may use the standard fuel density values
specified in the Operations Manual for determining the mass of the fuel load. Such standard values
should be based on current fuel density measurements for the airports or areas concerned.

Typical fuel density values are: -

Gasoline (piston engine) 0.71

Jet fuel JP I 0.79

Jet fuel JP 4 0.76

Oil 0.88

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4 Aircraft Mass Limits
All aircraft will be limited to a variety of maximum masses, the definitions for which are listed in
Section 1 of CAP 696. They are in decreasing order: -

Maximum Taxi / Ramp Mass

Maximum Take-Off Mass

Maximum Landing Mass

Maximum Zero Fuel Mass
4.1 Maximum Structural Taxi / Ramp Mass
The Maximum Structural Taxi / Ramp Mass is the maximum mass an aircraft may have at the start
of the taxi (i.e. at the departure from the loading gate). It is equal to the Maximum Take-Off Mass
plus an additional mass of fuel necessary to start the engine(s), taxi to the end of the runway and to
power the Auxiliary Power Unit (APU) or carry out run-up checks. The additional fuel allowance
would allow an aircraft to take-off as close to the maximum take-off mass as possible. The
Maximum Taxi / Ramp Mass is a structural limitation, though it must not exceed the tyre
limitations or the pavement loading limitations.
4.2 Maximum Take-Off Mass
There are THREE possible definitions for the Maximum Take-Off Mass, they are: -

Maximum Structural Take-Off Mass (MSTOM)

This is the maximum permissible total aeroplane mass at the start of the take-off run. This is the
maximum flying mass to take into account the aircraft structural strength in manoeuvres, turbulence
and other flight design cases.

However, due to performance restrictions, such as runway length, obstacle clearance during climb
out from an airfield or runway contamination, to name but a few, the maximum take off mass may
be below the structural limit of the aircraft. This mass is called: -

Performance Limited Take-Off Mass (PLTOM)

This is the take-off mass subject to departure aerodrome performance limitations. This mass
limitation is calculated by the flight crew prior to departure based upon the environmental and
runway conditions that exist at the time of departure.

This produces the final definition which is: -

Regulated Take-Off Mass (RTOM)

This is the LOWEST of the Performance Limited Take-Off Mass (PLTOM) and Structural Limited
Take-Off Mass (SLTOM).

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Example 41

Given the following data, what is the Maximum Take-Off Mass?

MSTOM : 45,000 kg
PLTOM : 43,500 kg

Solution

In this case, the maximum structural take-off mass is 45,000 kg, however due to aircraft
performance limitations there is a performance limited take-off mass of 43,500 kg. The Regulated
Take-Off Mass is always the lower of the two values 43,500 kg.

Sometimes there may be more than one Performance Limited Take-Off Mass: -

Example 42

The Boeing 757 is permitted to take-off with the aeroplanes flaps configured for the 1, 5 or 12
position. The pilot computes the performance limited take-off mass data for all three flap
configurations and produces the following data: -

MSTOM : 97,000 kg
PLTOM (Flap 1) : 95,000 kg

What flap setting will ensure that the maximum payload can be carried and what is the regulated
take off mass?

Solution

Notice that the Performance Limited TOM for the Flap 12 setting is greater than the Maximum
Structural TOM limit. This is not unusual, it is quite normal for performance computations to
produce a figure greater than the Maximum Structural Take-Off Mass. This is because performance
graphs are created based on what the wing is capable of achieving; also the Maximum Structural
TOM can change from time to time (up or down) based upon stress surveys of older aircraft.

The pilot will review the three performance limitations and choose the configuration that will
ensure the greatest payload can be carried: -


PLTOM (Flap 12) is selected and the other performance figures disregarded. As before the
Regulated Take-Off Mass is always the lower of the MSTOM and PLTOM values: -

MSTOM : 97,000 kg

The Regulated TOM is 97,000 kg based upon the MSTOM. If the pilot opts for a different take-off
flap setting then the RTOM will decrease as the aircraft will become performance limited.

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4.3 Maximum Landing Mass
Just like the Maximum Take-Off Mass limitations, there are THREE possible definitions for the
Maximum Landing Mass.

Maximum Structural Landing Mass (MSLM)

This is the maximum permissible total aeroplane mass on landing in normal circumstances. It is
limited by the undercarriage strength. On long haul aircraft this mass could be considerably less
than the maximum take-off mass. Typically in these cases, it can be 75% of the maximum take-off
mass and a fuel jettison system may be required to reduce the mass rapidly in the event of an
abortive long-range flight to enable the aircraft to land after a short time airborne. However, due to
performance restrictions, such as runway length, slope or contamination, to name but a few, the
maximum landing mass may be below the structural limit of the aircraft. This mass is called: -

Performance Limited Landing Mass (PLLM)

This is the take-off mass subject to landing aerodrome performance limitations. This mass
limitation is calculated by the flight crew prior to arrival based upon the environmental and runway
conditions that exist at the time of arrival. This produces the final definition is: -

Regulated Landing Mass (RLM)

This is the LOWEST of the Performance Limited Landing Mass (PLLM) and Structural Limited
Landing Mass (MSLM).

Example 43

Given the following data, what is the Maximum Landing Mass?

MSLM : 61,000 kg
PLLM : 62,200 kg

Solution

In this case, the Maximum Structural Landing Mass is 61,000 kg and performance limited landing
mass is 62,200 kg. The Regulated Landing Mass is always the lower of the two values 61,000 kg.

Sometimes there may be more than one Performance Limited Landing Mass: -

Example 44

The Airbus A320 is permitted to land with the aeroplanes flaps configured for the Config FULL
or the Config 3 position. The pilot computes the performance limited landing mass data for both
flap configurations and produces the following data: -

MSLM : 71,000 kg
PLLM (Config FULL) : 70,400 kg
PLLM (Config 3) : 69,800 kg

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Stress Points
LIFT
LIFT
WEIGHT
What planned flap setting will ensure that the maximum payload can be carried and what is the
regulated landing mass?

Solution

Firstly choose the Landing Flap setting that ensures the maximum available landing mass: -

PLLM (Config 3) : 69,800 kg

The pilot will opt for a Config FULL landing configuration as this will ensure the greatest payload
(70,400 kg) can be carried. The two limting values are now: -

MSLM : 71,000 kg

The Regulated Landing Mass (RLM) is always the lower of the MSLM and PLLM values, in this
case 70,400 kg based of the landing performance limitation.
4.4 Maximum Zero Fuel Mass (MZFM)
The Maximum Zero Fuel Mass is the maximum permissible mass of an aeroplane with no usable
fuel. This is a structural limit, and any additional mass applied to the aircraft must be in the form of
fuel.

The lift and weight forces oppose each other to create stress points at the wing route and cause the
wing to bend. If the mass of the aircraft is increased by adding cargo or passengers (traffic load)
then the additional mass will be concentrated within the aircraft fuselage; causing greater stress
forces.

However, if additional mass is added, in the form of fuel (stored along the wing), then no additional
stress forces are created. Therefore, the Maximum Structural Take-Off Mass (MSTOM) of the
aircraft can exceed the Maximum Zero Fuel Mass (MZFM).

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4.5 Calculation of Traffic Load
An aircraft is ALWAYS limited by THREE masses: -

Regulated Take-Off Mass (the lower of structural / performance limiting mass)

Regulated Landing Mass (the lower of structural / performance limiting mass)

Maximum Zero Fuel Mass (structural limiting mass)

So during the planning stages of a flight, care must be taken NOT to exceed any of these masses.
Therefore, THREE calculations must be completed prior to departure to ensure that the traffic load
is not too high. This is best shown by a few examples: -

Example 45

Given the following data, determine the maximum traffic load that can be loaded assuming no fuel
is used for start-up / taxi?

Dry Operating Mass : 50,000 kg
Fuel Load : 10,000 kg
Planned Trip Fuel : 8,000 kg
RTOM : 79,000 kg
RLM : 73,000 kg
MZFM : 65,000 kg

Solution

THREE calculations must now be done in order to determine which limiting mass is going to
determine the maximum traffic load that can be carried. Firstly, the Take-Off limitation capacity: -

Available Traffic Load = 79,000 kg (RTOM) minus 50,000 kg (DOM) minus 10,000 kg (Fuel
Load) = 19,000 kg.

Secondly, the Landing limitation capacity noting that the fuel remaining in tanks on landing should
be 2,000 kg (fuel load at start trip fuel): -

Available Traffic Load = 73,000 kg (RLM) minus 50,000 kg (DOM) minus 2,000 kg (Fuel
remaining) = 21,000 kg.

Finally, the Maximum Zero Fuel Mass limitation capacity: -

Available Traffic Load = 65,000 kg (MZFM) minus 50,000 kg (DOM) = 15,000 kg.

The available traffic load will be the most limiting (lowest) of the three values calculated, in this
case, 15,000 kg based upon the maximum zero fuel mass (MZFM) limit.

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Take Off

The maximum traffic load is
16,000 kg
Zero Fuel

17,000 kg

Landing

23,500 kg
79,000
48,000
DOM
FUEL TL
15,000
?
73,000
48,000
DOM
FUEL TL
1,500
?
48,000
DOM
TL
?
65,000
The problem can be laid out as follows: -

The lowest traffic load is 15,000 kg based upon Zero Fuel Mass limit.

Example 46


RTOM : 79,000 kg
RLM : 73,000 kg
MZFM : 65,000 kg

Solution

The lowest traffic load is 16,000 kg based upon Regulated Take-Off Mass limit.
Take Off

19,000 kg
Zero Fuel

15,000 kg

Landing

21,000 kg
79,000
49,000
DOM
FUEL TL
13,000
?
73,000
49,000
DOM
FUEL TL
2,000
?
49,000
DOM
TL
?
65,000

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Take Off

19,000 kg
Zero Fuel

16,000 kg

Landing

15,500 kg
81,000
49,000
DOM
FUEL TL
13,000
?
73,000
49,000
DOM
FUEL TL
8,500
?
49,000
DOM
TL
?
65,000
Example 47


RTOM : 81,000 kg
RLM : 73,000 kg
MZFM : 65,000 kg

Solution

The lowest traffic load is 15,500 kg based upon Regulated Landing Mass limit.

It is quite rare for the Maximum Landing Mass to be the limiting factor but this could be the case
when the aircraft is planning to land with a high fuel load still on board. This happens when the
company decides to tanker fuel for use on subsequent sectors or when operating to an isolated
destination where a large amount of diversion and reserve fuel is required.

Ascension Island, Atlantic Ocean 1,217 miles from nearest alternate airport.

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Take Off

The underload is 3,500 kg
Zero Fuel

The underload is 500 kg

Landing

The underload is 6,000 kg
79,000
45,000
DOM
FUEL TL
11,000
19,500
73,000
45,000
DOM
FUEL TL
2,500
19,500
45,000
DOM
TL
19,500
65,000
4.6 Underload
No matter what the limiting mass, whenever the actual traffic load is less than the maximum traffic
load available, the spare capacity is known as the underload.

In example 44 above, the maximum available traffic load is 15,500 kg. If only 13,000 kg of
passengers, baggage and freight were loaded then the aircraft has an underload of 2,500 kg.

It is useful for the pilot to know the underload figure just in case there are last minute changes to
the load. If, say a couple of extra passengers turn up at the gate, the pilot will be able to quickly
calculate whether or not they can be carried / added to the traffic load without exceeding any
limitations.

Example 48

Given the following data, determine the underload for the flight assuming no fuel is used for start-
up / taxi?

Traffic Load : 19,500 kg
RTOM : 79,000 kg
RLM : 73,000 kg
MZFM : 65,000 kg

Solution

As before, THREE calculations must now be done in order to determine which limiting mass is
going to determine the maximum spare capacity (underload), if any, available.

The underload will be the most limiting (lowest) of the three values calculated, in this case, 500 kg
based upon the maximum zero fuel mass (ZFM) limit.

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Take Off

Maximum Fuel load is
33,700 kg
Zero Fuel

Not Limiting

Landing

Maximum Fuel load ON
LANDING is 17,700 kg.

Therefore DEPARTURE
fuel could have been 17,700
PLUS the 9,800 kg trip fuel
= 27,500 kg.

89,000
40,000
DOM
FUEL TL
?
15,300
73,000
40,000
DOM
FUEL TL
?
15,300
40,000
DOM
TL
15,300
60,000
4.7 Tankering
Sometimes, for a variety of performance or commercial reasons, the operator will require the pilot
to carry more fuel than is technically or legally required for the outbound sector EXTRA FUEL.

For example, if a return flight from Bournemouth to Paris is planned but the price of fuel is very
expensive in Paris then, subject to fuel capacity considerations, the pilot will be encouraged to take
as much fuel as possible to reduce the amount of fuel that has to be uplifted in Paris or even carry
round trip fuel so no fuel has to be uplifted at all for the return sector.

In this situation the aircraft on the outbound sector will be taking off and landing at a greater mass
than normal. Quite often the pilot has to determine in the planning phase the MAXIMUM amount
of fuel that can be carried without exceeding the RTOM and RLM.

Example 49

Given the following data, determine the maximum amount of fuel that can be carried for a flight
from Southampton to Berlin assuming no fuel is used for start-up / taxi?

RTOM : 89,000 kg
RLM : 73,000 kg
MZFM : 60,000 kg

Solution

As before, THREE calculations must now be done in order to determine which limiting mass is
going to determine the maximum amount of fuel that can be carried.

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Firstly, it is very unlikely that the Zero Fuel Mass limitation will apply because if the sum of Dry
Operating Mass and Traffic Load exceeds the Maximum ZFM then it doesnt matter how much or
how little fuel is carried the flight is not legally allowed to depart.

However, it is still good practice to check that the Zero Fuel Mass is not exceeded: -

40,000 kg (DOM) plus 15,300 kg (Traffic Load) = 55,300 kg which is less than the maximum Zero
Fuel Mass of 60,000 kg.

Secondly, the Take-Off limited maximum fuel load: -

Maximum Fuel Load = 89,000 kg (RTOM) minus 40,000 kg (DOM) minus 15,300 kg (Traffic
Load) = 33,700 kg.

Thirdly, the maximum amount of fuel allowed in tanks on landing: -

Maximum Fuel Load (on landing) = 73,000 kg (RLM) minus 40,000 kg (DOM) minus 15,300 kg
(Traffic Load) = 17,700 kg.

However, note that the aircraft will burn 9,800 kg of fuel during the journey and that amount of fuel
will NOT be in the tanks on landing. Therefore, the trip fuel (9,800 kg) can be ADDED to the
maximum fuel on landing (17,700 kg) to give the maximum amount of fuel with which the aircraft
can depart from Southampton without exceeding the maximum landing mass restriction: -

Maximum Fuel Mass at Take-Off (without exceeding landing mass limit) = 17,700kg plus 9,800 kg
(Trip Fuel) = 27,500 kg

Therefore, the aircraft can safely take-off from Southampton with 27,500 kg of fuel on board
without exceeding take off limitation at Southampton or landing mass limitation at Berlin for that
sector.

There could be an added complication in that the aircraft has arrived in Berlin with 17,700 kg in
tanks. If there is a take-off performance restriction for the departing sector FROM Berlin then the
Traffic Load (Passengers & Cargo) may have to be limited because the de-fuelling an aircraft is
both expensive and time consuming.

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1
3
5 Load & Trim Sheet
The person responsible for loading computes aircraft mass limitations by the use of a Load & Trim
Sheet. There is an example of a sheet in Section 4 of CAP 696 for the MRJT1 aircraft.

The sheet, shown below, is split into two halves: -

Everything to the LEFT of the dotted line is used for calculating the limiting mass and aircraft mass
whilst everything to the RIGHT of the dotted line is used to determine the Centre of Gravity of the
aircraft for a particular flight. The C of G calculation will be discussed later in the next chapter.

The shaded area marked 1 is used to determine which of the three limiting masses, Take-Off
Mass, Landing Mass or Zero Fuel Mass is the most limiting. The area marked 3 is used to
determine the actual mass of the aircraft and to confirm that no mass has been exceeded.

The following is a completed MASS section using the following data: -

Take-Off Fuel Load : 14,500 kg
Trip Fuel : 8,500 kg
RTOM : 62,800 kg
RLM : 54,900 kg
MZFM : 51,300 kg

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The loadmaster / dispatcher completes section 1 first to determine the limiting mass as follows: -

The person completing the sheet simply enters the information in the appropriate boxes and follows
the directions of the arrows and signs (+, -, = etc).

Because this flight is RTOM limited, only the Take-Off column is completed which yields an
allowed traffic load of 14,000 kg. The traffic load so far is only 13,370 kg which means there is a
spare capacity or underload of 630 kg. This means that only a FURTHER 630 kg of traffic load can
be added to the aircraft mass before the MOST LIMITING mass is exceeded.

The dispatcher now completes section 3 of the sheet as follows: -

This process will yield the actual Zero Fuel, Take-Off and Landing masses.

The pilot can see that ALL the values for each mass are LESS than the maximum values which
have been re-entered in the boxes from the first column. Not surprisingly, the closest to being
exceeded is the take-off mass which was determined in section 1.
The three limiting masses
are shown in this row. In
this example, the lowest
figure is the take-off mass
of 62,800 kg. This means
that the RTOM is the most
limiting mass for this flight.

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6 Overloading
There are several handling and performance problems encountered when an aircraft is overloaded,
they include: -

Larger angle of attack required at a given airspeed.

Stall speed is increased.

Take-off and landing runs are increased.

Reduced rate of climb and reduced climb gradient.

Reduced altitude capability and therefore potentially reduced terrain clearance.

Increased fuel consumption and reduced range.

Possibility of overstressing the airframe
6.1 Higher take-off and safety speeds
For an aircraft to fly, engine thrust must overcome the drag and the lift be greater or equal to the
weight. When an aircraft is in level unaccelerated flight all these forces will be in balance: -

If two identical aircraft are in level unaccelerated flight, except that one aircraft is heavier than the
other, the heavier aircraft will require more lift to overcome the weight. In order for the heavier
aircraft to create more lift either the forward airspeed must be increased or the angle of attack of the
wing because: -

Lift = C
L
V
2
s

Where C
L
is proportional to angle of attack and V is the aeroplanes true airspeed. In both cases, the
drag which is also a function of airspeed and angle of attack, will increase and therefore the thrust
will have to be increased. Therefore, with an increased mass, an increase in thrust and forward
speed is required. This equally applies during the take-off roll and so a higher speed is required on
the runway to lift off at a greater mass.

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6.2 Longer take-off and landing distances
Increased mass has two effects on the take-off run distance. Firstly, there will be a reduced
acceleration rate due to a higher mass for the accelerating force to act on. Secondly, there will be an
increase in the take-off speed due to the higher lift required to overcome the higher weight. Both of
these factors will increase the take-off run distance required proportional to the weight increase.
Therefore, the available runway length may limit the take-off mass, and the mass may have to be
reduced (limited) to enable a safe take-off to be performed.

Increased mass has two similar effects on landing, Firstly, a reduced deceleration due to the higher
mass for retardation devices to act on. Secondly, an increase in the landing speed due to the higher
lift required to support the higher weight. Both of these factors will increase the landing distance
required. It is very rarely that a lack of runway length precludes a landing. However, it should be
noted that a heavy aircraft does have a longer landing roll and may need to increase the amount of
retardation used (i.e. a higher reverse thrust setting) to enable a safe landing to be performed.
6.3 Reduced Rate and Gradient of Climb
Consider an aircraft in a steady climb where airspeed and climb angle () are constant.

During a climb the lift continues to act at right angles to the flight path and the weight vertically
downwards, however, the two are no longer diametrically opposed. The weight must now be
resolved into two components, one supported by lift, and the other acting in the opposite direction
to the flight path ADDING to the drag. Note that the lift required is now less than for level flight
(W Cos ) although the thrust must now be increased to overcome the component of weight (W
Sin) that is acting parallel to the flight path adding to the drag.

If the aircraft were heavier (larger W), the W Sin component would be greater and therefore the
thrust would need to be increased. However, if there is no more thrust available then would have
to be reduced instead resulting in a REDUCED rate and gradient of climb.

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6.4 Reduced Altitude Capability
As already explained in the previous paragraphs, the heavier the aeroplane is then the lower the rate
of climb which is achievable. The engines have to produce sufficient thrust to overcome drag PLUS
W Sin . Unfortunately, the power available from the engines reduces with increase in altitude, so
as altitude increases the excess power available to overcome W Sin reduces, maintaining the
balance is only achievable by progressively reducing the angle of climb .

A performance (or service) ceiling is defined as when the rate of climb falls to 150 ft/min. When the
rate of climb has dropped to this amount due to the progressive reduction in climb angle then this
becomes the performance ceiling. As fuel is burnt, the aircraft will become lighter so step climbs
will become progressively possible.

6.5 Decreased engine-out performance
In a multi-engine aircraft flying at or close to it's ceiling, loss of thrust from a power unit will make
the drag greater than the thrust available with the remaining power units at maximum continuous
power rating. The aircraft has a lack of power and so it will descend (drift-down) to an altitude
where the power available is equal to the power required (or thrust is equal to drag). This altitude is
known as the stabilising altitude, and is, in effect, a new ceiling.

It should be seen, therefore that a heavier aircraft has a lower ceiling than a lighter aircraft and
consequently a lower power available factor at a given altitude. It follows then that an engine
failure will cause the heavier aircraft to loose a greater height in drift down than when compared to
a lighter aircraft. This may have serious consequences when flying over a mountainous region,
where a heavy aircraft may have a stabilising altitude below the safety altitude.

6.6 Reduced Range and Endurance
As already discussed, as an aircrafts mass increases, so does the thrust required to keep it airborne.
This means that the aircraft cannot be flown as economically as a light aircraft because the fuel
consumption will be that much higher in order to provide the additional thrust. This therefore
means that for two identical aircraft, except that one has a significantly greater payload, but with the
same fuel loaded, the heavier aircraft will not be able to stay airborne for as long as the light one or
fly as far.

Although a heavier aircraft will burn more fuel due to the increased thrust required from the
engines, this is not the only reason that the aircrafts range and endurance are reduced. Older jet
aircraft in service today have less powerful and less efficient engines than the more modern aircraft,
and so have reduced climb performance. This means that heavier aircraft are unable to climb to the
more efficient Flight Levels where the engines will work more efficiently. Being unable to climb to
the optimum cruising altitude and having to take a lower cruising flight level results in an increased
fuel burn for the sector, which may mean that the aircraft has to make a tech stop to take on more
fuel to reach its destination.

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6.7 Possible Overstress and Structural Damage

Consider an aircraft in a banked turn: -

The wing has to produce sufficient lift that, when divided into horizontal and vertical components,
counter the weight of the aircraft AND produce enough centripetal force to make the turn happen.
During a 60 banked turn, the load factor would be 2g which means that the equivalent weight felt
by the aircraft is actually DOUBLE its actual mass, which is one very good reason why
commercial aircraft do not do such manoeuvres.

If the aircraft where overloaded in the first place then any g load experienced would magnify the
overload. Whilst 60 angle of bank may be considered extreme, it is not out of the realms of
possibility that during severe turbulence an aircraft may be put into such an attitude. Obviously, if
that aircraft were overloaded in the first place, the resulting load factor would almost undoubtedly
exceed the airframe limitations and may cause serious if not destructive damage to the airframe.
Centripetal Force
Equivalent Weight

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Chapter 2 Balance / Centre of Gravity
A pilot must be aware of the Centre of Gravity (C of G) of his aircraft to ensure that any C of G
limitations are not exceeded and that performance and control characteristics can be calculated.
There are several defined C of G terms extensively used and are listed in the CAP 696 index.
1 Introduction
Consider a 3 metre plank of wood of uniform density and a mass of 7 kg: -

Every molecule within the plank, when in a gravitational environment, is exerting a weight force
w. All these minute forces can be combined into one resultant force for the whole plank: -

The position of the resultant Weight force is obviously at the centre point of the plank (assuming
uniform density) and is referred to as the Centre of Gravity (C of G) of the mass. It is also
sometimes known as the balance point because if a pivot or fulcrum is placed at the C of G position
the mass will be in balance: -

w w w w w w w w w w w w w w w w w
Weight
Pivot / Fulcrum

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When considering an aeroplane, which is no more than a non-uniform, non-linear plank: -

The Centre of Gravity is that point on an aircraft through which all the mass is considered to act
vertically downwards. It is theoretically possible that an aircraft could be balanced on a pivot at
this point with no other contact with the ground.
1.1 Aircraft Datum
Consider the same 3 metre plank of wood: -

The centre of gravity position on the plank can be described in several ways: -

The mid-point of the plank at position C
OR
1.5 metres to the right of position A (at +1.5m)
OR
1.5 metres to the left of position B (at -1.5m)
OR
Referenced to any point, e.g. 0.96 metres to the right of position Z (at +0.96m)

The point which is used as the reference where any measurements are taken from is called the
Datum Point or just Datum. Notice that wherever the datum is located, any measurements
described to the RIGHT of that point are POSITIVE values and any measurements to the LEFT of
the datum are NEGATIVE values. This is merely a convention.

When considering an aeroplane: -

The Aircraft Datum is a fixed reference point on the longitudinal axis (or extension thereof) from
which the centres of gravities of all masses are referenced.

The position of the Centre of Gravity of any mass within the aircraft, including the aircraft itself in
relation to the Aircraft Datum is called the Balance Arm: -

The Balance Arm (BA) is the distance from the datum to the centre of gravity of a mass.

Centre of
Gravity
1.5 m 1.5 m
A B
C
Z
0.96 m

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The diagram above is the SEP1 aircraft from Section 2, Page 1 of CAP 696. Notice that the aircraft
datum is at the front of the aircraft just behind the propeller. It is normal practise by aircraft
designers to position the datum at a forward location because all measurements or ARMS measured
from the datum are POSITIVE as they are to the right of the datum, when viewed from the port side
of the aircraft.

The above example shows that the firewall is at position +39 inches. Whilst the permitted C of G
range is between +84.4 inches and + 87.7 inches.

Example 1

What is the position of the C of G of the MEP1 aircraft at its Basic Empty Mass?

Solution

Refer to the diagram at Section 3, Page 1: -

This shows the C of G at position +88.5 inches.

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1.2 Aircraft Stations
During the design phase of a modern aircraft the mould known a tool within which the aircraft
fuselage is constructed is described by BODY STATIONS. The stations enable the manufactures /
builders to position the frames and spars that make up the aircraft skeleton in the correct position.
The body stations are used as reference points for where items of other aircraft parts (such as the
wings) and equipment are to be attached.

The mass and balance ARMS that are used to calculate the centre of gravity of the aircraft arent
particularly important during the building phase BUT are required for the loading and operating
phase of the aircrafts life. Therefore there is usually a table or diagram that converts body stations
to arms.

Section 4, Page 1 of CAP 696 shows the locations diagram for the MRJT: -

Using the diagram it is a simple matter to find an arm distance from a body station description.
For example, using the above diagram, an object located at body station 727E has an arm distance
of 831 inches aft of the aircraft datum.

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1.3 Determination of the Centre of Gravity Position
Consider the 3 metre plank of wood of uniform density and a mass of 7 kg again but now it has
some other masses attached to it: -

The plank without the extra masses will balance on the fulcrum. However, now that extra masses
have been added it will either tip over (probably to the right) OR the fulcrum will have to moved to
a new position (again to the right probably) to rebalance the forces. The new position of the fulcrum
is the new balance point or new C of G.

The 5 kg mass on the right hand side of the plank is trying to tip the plank in a clockwise or positive
(+) sense whilst the 3 kg mass to the left is trying to tip the plank in an anti-clockwise or negative
sense (-). This tipping or tuning force is called a MOMENT and the magnitude of the moment is a
function of: -

The size of the mass

The distance or arm of the mass from the measurement point or datum

From Cap 696, the Moment is the product of the mass and the balance arm (Mass x Arm)

We can use moments to calculate the new position required for the fulcrum which will be the new C
of G of the now complex mass. The calculation will be demonstrated using both position C and
position A as the datum for the calculations and observing the advantages and disadvantages of
both methods.

Position C Solution

Firstly draw and complete a table: -

Mass (kg) Arm (m) Moment (kg m)
Plank 7 0 0
3 kg Mass 3 -0.9 -2.7
5 kg Mass 5 +1.3 +6.5
Total 15 ? +3.8
A
C
3 kg 5 kg
Fulcrum
Clockwise
Moment (+)
Anti-Clockwise
Moment (-)
0.6 m 0.9 m 1.3 m

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The moments are calculated by multiplying the mass by the arm remembering to apply the signs
correctly. The total mass (15 kg) and total moment (+3.8) is determined. The total moment is the
sum of all the individual moments.

Moment = Mass x Arm. Therefore, Total Moment = Total Mass x Resultant Arm

OR

Resultant Arm = Total Moment = +3.8 = +0.25
Total Mass 15

This means that the new C of G position or balance point is 0.25m to the RIGHT of position C: -

Position A Solution

Again draw and complete a table: -

Mass (kg) Arm (m) Moment (kg m)
Plank 7 +1.5 +10.5
3 kg Mass 3 +0.6 +1.8
5 kg Mass 5 +2.8 +14.0
Total 15 ? +26.3
A C
3 kg 5 kg
Centre of Gravity
0.25 m
A C
3 kg 5 kg
0.6 m
1.5 m
2.8 m

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The moments are calculated by multiplying the mass by the arm remembering to apply the signs
correctly. The total mass (15 kg) and total moment (+26.3) is determined. The total moment is the
sum of all the individual moments.

Moment = Mass x Arm. Therefore, Total Moment = Total Mass x Resultant Arm

OR

Resultant Arm = Total Moment = +26.3 = +1.75
Total Mass 15

This means that the new C of G position or balance point is 1.75m to the RIGHT of position A: -

This position is obviously exactly the same position as calculated from position C. However, the
calculation is much more straightforward as all moments are POSITIVE because all masses are to
the RIGHT of the datum. This is why the aircraft datum is nearly always at the front of the aircraft.

2 Aircraft Centre of Gravity
An aeroplane has strict limitations regarding an acceptable centre of gravity position. During the
design and testing phase of the aircrafts development, an acceptable range of C of G positions will
be determined to ensure that the aircrafts stability and controllability is acceptable throughout its
intended mass and speed range. The aeroplane must also be stable and controllable throughout any
configuration changes (flap & gear positions) and following reasonable malfunctions such as engine
failures or loss of a panel or component that is subject to aerodynamic stresses.
2.1 Centre of Gravity Envelope
The Centre of Gravity limits both forward and aft, constitutes an envelope within which the aircraft
must be AT ALL TIMES whilst airborne. Although, this envelope is not critical on the ground, for
an aircraft with a nose wheel and two main wheels, if the C of G was ever aft of the main wheels
then it would simple tip onto its tail whilst on the ground.
A C
3 kg 5 kg
Centre of Gravity
0.25 m
1.75 m

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Consider an aircraft wing as attached to the fuselage of an aircraft: -

There is an area of low pressure created on the upper surface of the wing whenever there is an angle
of attack to the relative airflow as shown above. Every part of the upper wing will generate a lift
force of differing strength depending on the lift distribution. All the lift forces can be combined to
create one force known as the Centre of Pressure (CP).

The position of the Centre of Pressure on a typical wing form will vary depending upon the shape of
the pressure distribution curve created on the upper wing surface. At high angle of attack and / or
slow speed, the CP will be at the forward part of the wing, at about 10% of the chord length, whilst
at a low angles and / or high speed it will be further back at about 40% of the chord length: -

Therefore, during any flight, the wing will experience a variety of CP positions. However, most
aircraft will have a FIXED centre of gravity position during any particular flight apart from those
with an ability to move ballast (usually fuel) around such as Concorde.
Airflow
Lift Distribution
Centre of Pressure
High Angle of Attack Low Angle of Attack
10%
40%

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Whenever, the Centre of Gravity and Centre of Pressure are NOT in alignment there will be a
pitching moment created which will try to pitch the aircraft nose up or nose down depending upon
the relative misalignment.

In the above diagram, the aircraft Centre of Gravity is forward of the Centre of Pressure. This will
cause a nose down pitching moment. The magnitude of pitching moment will depend how far the C
of G and CP are misaligned. The only way to counter the pitching moment is to create an opposing
force (down force in this case) from the elevator / stabiliser as shown. The elevator / stabiliser is
only a certain size and can therefore only generate a limited amount of opposing force to counter
the pitching moment. The opposite is also true for an aft C of G position where the elevator
counters an upward pitch moment with an Up Force.

Forward C of G Limit

The nose down pitching moment will be at its greatest at low angles of attack which will occur at
higher speeds when the CP is at its most aft position. The theoretical maximum forward C of G
limit occurs when the tailplane has insufficient down force capability to oppose the nose down
pitching moment.

If the elevator is at its maximum deflection just countering the pitch moment then no pitch up
manoeuvring is possible. Therefore the actual forward C of G position is a safe margin aft of the
theoretical maximum.
Pitching Moment
C of G
C of P
Down Force
Theoretical Maximum
Forward C of G
Maximum
Aft C of P
Maximum
Down Force
Maximum Manoeuvring
Forward C of G position

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Aft C of G Limit

The nose up pitching moment will be at its greatest at high angles of attack which will occur at
lower speeds when the CP is at its most forward position. The theoretical maximum aft C of G limit
occurs when the tailplane has insufficient up force capability to oppose the nose up pitching
moment.

If the elevator is at its maximum deflection just countering the pitch moment then no pitch down
manoeuvring is possible. Therefore the actual aft C of G position is a safe margin forward of the
theoretical maximum.

The Envelope

The Forward and Aft Centre of Gravity
limits are published in the form of a
graph shown here. The aircraft C of G
must remain within the white area at
ALL TIMES whilst airborne to ensure
that control and manoeuvrability is
always possible.

This example is from the SEP1
aeroplane in CAP 696.

Notice how the Centre of Gravity
envelope narrows as the mass of the
aircraft increases. This is quite typical
of nearly all aircraft.

Theoretical Maximum
Aft C of G
Maximum
Forward C of P
Maximum
Up Force
Maximum Manoeuvring
Aft C of G position

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Ideal C of G

There is no such thing as the ideal C of G position because the C of P changes as the aircraft alters
speed and manoeuvres. However, when the C of G and C of P are in alignment then NO pitch force
is required from the elevator, which means Minimum Drag. This is obviously desirable for fuel
economy reasons.

The most efficient / economical C of G position coincides with where the Centre of Pressure is
located for MOST of the time that is in the cruise at high speed and at a low angle of attack, so an
AFT C of G is the most desirable condition.

2.2 Centre of Gravity at Basic Empty Mass
Before an aircraft can be loaded with passengers, freight and fuel and its C of G determined, the
centre of gravity of the aircraft at its Basic Empty Mass must first be determined. In order to
determine the position of the C of G and the aircraft basic weight, the aircraft must be weighed.

With light aircraft this is done by putting each wheel onto a pair of scales, taking the appropriate
readings and using the knowledge and technique of moments described to determine the position
of the C of G with reference to the datum.

Note that the weighing procedure will produce TWO bits of information: -

The Mass of the Aircraft

The position of the Centre of Gravity described as a distance FROM A DEFINED
LOCATION

The DEFINED LOCATION is VERY IMPORTANT as it must always be clear to the user of the
information where any measurement is taken from.

This technique is best explained using some examples: -
Aft C of G
Limit
Low Angle of
Attack C of P
Forward C of
G Limit
Minimum Drag
Position
Aft C of G

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Example 2

The Basic Empty aircraft below is weighed on suitable scales and readings are taken. What is the
mass and C of G of the aeroplane?

The mass on each set of scales are: -

Nose Wheel Scale = 432 lb.
Left Main Wheel Scale = 987 lb.
Right Main Wheel Scale = 996 lb.

Solution

Draw and complete the following table: -

Total Moment = Total Mass x Resultant Arm (C of G)

OR

Resultant Arm = Total Moment = + 136,161= + 56.38 inches
Total Mass 2,415

Therefore, the aircraft mass is 2,415 lb. and the C of G position 56.38 inches aft of the datum.

Notice that this position is about 7 inches forward of the main gear, which seems reasonable.
Mass (lb) Arm (inches) Moment (lb in)
Nose wheel 432 + 26 + 11,232
Left main wheel 987 + 63 + 62,181
Right main wheel 996 + 63 + 62,748
Total 2,415 C of G + 136,161
26"
63"
Datum

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There is no requirement for the datum used in this calculation to be the same datum that is
published in the aeroplane details. The following examples are exactly the same as the previous
case (Example 2) but a different datum is selected for calculation purposes. In the next example, the
position of the nose wheel is used as the datum: -

Example 3


As before, the weights on each set of scales are: -


Solution

Draw and complete the following table, as before: -

Resultant Arm = Total Moment = + 73,371 = +30.38 inches
Total Mass 2,415

The calculated C of G position is exactly the same as before at 30.38 inches aft of the nose wheel
datum which is still about 7 inches forward of the main gear but the calculation was a little easier
because the nose gear arm is zero, therefore less calculation required.
Nose wheel 432 0 0
Left main wheel 987 + 37 + 36,519
Right main wheel 996 + 37 + 36,852
Total 2,415 C of G + 73,371
Datum
37"

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The calculation can be simplified even further by using the main gear as the datum: -

Example 4


As before, the weights on each set of scales are: -


Solution

Draw and complete the following table, as before: -

Resultant Arm = Total Moment = -15,984 = -6.62 inches
Total Mass 2,415

The calculated C of G position is exactly the same as before at 6.62 inches forward (minus) of the
main wheel datum but the calculation was a lot easier because the main gear arm is zero, therefore
less calculation required. However, this method does introduce a negative moment which could
potentially cause confusion.
Nose wheel 432 -37 -15,984
Left main wheel 987 0 0
Right main wheel 996 0 0
Total 2,415 C of G -15,984
Datum
37"

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It is also possible to determine the mass and Centre of Gravity of the aircraft if the readings taken
from the scales are in Newtons: -

Example 5

mass and C of G of the aeroplane? Assume g is 9.8 m/sec
2
.

The weights on each set of scales are: -

Nose Wheel Scale = 3,900 N.
Left Main Wheel Scale = 8,900 N.
Right Main Wheel Scale = 9,100 N.

Solution

Draw and complete the following table: -

Resultant Arm = Total Moment = +1,235,400 = +56.41 inches
Total Weight 21,900

The aircraft weight (force) is 21,900 N which using F = ma is 21,900 / 9.8 = 2,235 kg.

Weight (Newton) Arm (inches) Moment (N in)
Nose wheel 3,900 + 26 +101,400
Left main wheel 8,900 + 63 +560,700
Right main wheel 9,100 + 63 +573,300
Total 21,900 C of G +1,235,400
26"
63"
Datum

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2.3 Centre of Gravity at Take-Off, Landing and Zero Fuel Condition
There are several methods of calculating the Centre of Gravity of an aircraft, however there are
suitable loading manifests within CAP 696 which are more than adequate for purpose. The use of
these is best shown buy examples:-

Example 5

Using the following data, complete a loading manifest for the SEP 1 aircraft and determine its C of
G at ramp, take-off, landing and at zero fuel mass condition.

Basic Empty Mass (BEM) : 2,415 lb.
C of G at BEM : 77.7 inches
1 pilot & 1 person in front seats : 320 lb.
1 person in second row : 140 lb.
3 bags in zone C : 200 lb.
Fuel load : 50 gallons
Trip fuel : 35 gallons

Solution

Firstly the fuel load and trip fuel are converted in pounds: -

50 gallons = 300 pounds
35 gallons = 210 pounds

Next, the mass and moment columns of the loading manifest are completed: -

Item Mass Arm (in) Moment 100
Basic empty condition 2,415 77.7 1,876.46
Front seat occupants 320 79 252.8
3
rd
& 4
th
seat occupants 140 117 163.8
Baggage zone A 108
5
th
& 6
th
seat occupants 152
Baggage zone B 150
Baggage zone C 200 180 360
Sub total (zero fuel mass) 3,075 2,653.06
Fuel loading 300 225
Sub total (ramp mass) 3,375 2,878.06
Taxi & run up fuel -13 -10
Sub total (take-off mass) 3,362 2,868.06
Trip fuel -210 -158
Sub total (landing mass) 3,152 2,710.06

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Notice the following: -

The calculated moments are reduced by a factor of 100. This makes the numbers more
manageable. The factor will be multiplied by 100 to return to the original figure later in the
calculation.

There is an arm of 75 inches given for the fuel loading. However, it is not required as the
fuel table, shown below, provides the moment as well as the mass for the manifest.

The taxi and run up fuel of -13 lbs produces a moment of -1000 in lb. This is divided by 100
to give a -10 value for entry into the manifest.

The Centre of Gravity positions can now be calculated: -

Zero Fuel C of G = Total Moment = 2,653.06 x 100 = 86.3 inches
Total Mass 3,075

Ramp C of G = Total Moment = 2,878.06 x 100 = 85.3 inches
Total Mass 3375

Take-Off C of G = Total Moment = 2,868.06 x 100 = 85.3 inches
Total Mass 3,362

Landing C of G = Total Moment = 2,710.06 x 100 = 86.0 inches
Total Mass 3,152

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The calculated Centre of Gravity positions are then plotted on the C of G envelope: -

The envelope shows that no Centre of Gravity limitations are exceeded BUT it does not indicate if
any structural or performance limited masses have been exceeded. Future examples of C of G
envelopes will enable BOTH to be checked.

Example 6

Using the following data, complete a loading manifest for the MEP 1 aircraft and determine its C of
G at ramp, take-off, landing and at zero fuel mass condition.

Basic Empty Mass (BEM) : 3,210 lb
C of G at BEM : 88.5 inches
1 pilot & 1 pax in front seats : 340 lb
Passengers / Bagage zone 2 : 236 lb
Passengers / Bagage zone 3 : 340 lb
Bagage Zone 1 : 100 lb
Fuel Load : 545 lb
Trip Fuel : 450 lb

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Solution

Complete the Loading Manifest for the MEP1 as per the previous example: -

Note that in order to calculate the fuel mass a standard fuel relative density of 6 lb per US gallon is
used and the arm of the fuel tanks is given on the manifest as 93.6 inches.

The Centre of Gravity positions can now be calculated: -

Zero Fuel C of G = Total Moment = 3,969.55 x 100 = 93.9 inches
Total Mass 4,226

Ramp C of G = Total Moment = 4,479.67 x 100 = 93.9 inches
Total Mass 4,771

Take-Off C of G = Total Moment = 4,458.14 x 100 = 93.9 inches
Total Mass 4,748

Landing C of G = Total Moment = 4,036.94 x 100 = 93.9 inches
Total Mass 4,298

Item Mass (lb) Arm (in) Moment 100
Basic empty condition 3,210 88.5 2,840.85
Pilot & front passenger 340 85.5 290.70
Passenger/baggage zone 2 (360 lb. max) 236 118.5 279.66
Passenger/baggage zone 3 (400 lb. max) 340 157.6 535.84
Baggage zone 1 (100 lb. max) 100 22.5 22.50
Baggage zone 4 (100 lb. max) 178.7
Zero fuel mass (4470 lb. max) 4,226 3,969.55
Fuel loading (123 Gal max) 545 93.6 510.12
Ramp mass (4773 lb. max) 4,771 4,479.67
Start, taxi & run up fuel -23 93.6 -21.53
Take-off mass (4750 lb. max) 4,748 4,458.14
Estimated burn -450 93.6 -421.20
Landing mass (4513 lb. max) 4,298 4,036.94

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The calculated Centre of Gravity positions are then plotted on the C of G envelope: -


There are Maximum Structural Limit lines for Take-Off, Landing and Zero Fuel Mass
conditions shown on the envelope. There are no performance limit lines on the chart as these
will vary for each flight.

The calculated C of G positions are all towards the aft limit of 94.5 inches. This is the more
economical location for cruise conditions requiring minimum deflection of the elevator to
counter pitching moments.

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3 Alternative Centre of Gravity Reference
In the previous examples, the Centre of Gravity position has always been described with reference
to the aircraft datum, wherever it may be. However, there are two other ways to describe the C of G
position, they are: -

Mean Aerodynamic Chord (MAC)

Centre of Gravity Index

Both will be described with suitable examples: -
3.1 Mean Aerodynamic Chord (MAC)
Consider an aircraft with a swept wing as shown below: -

By design, the wing does not have a uniform chord. Each portion of the wing will exhibit its own
lift and drag properties because of the different chord size. However, the average chord called the
Mean Aerodynamic Chord (MAC), of an equivalent uniform chord wing (shown as a dotted line)
can be determined as shown below: -

X1 X2 Y1
Datum
Leading
Edge
Y2
Chord
Length

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The actual wings leading and trailing edges are attached to the fuselage at the wing root at points
X1 and X2, however, the equivalent average wings leading and trailing edges are attached at Y1
and Y2. It is the position of the average equivalent wing that is always quoted rather than the
actual position of the leading and trailing edges at the wing root.

The leading edge of the mean chord is designated 0% MAC, and the trailing edge is designated
100% MAC. The MAC is a fixed position on the aircraft centreline at Y1 to Y2 and is frequently
used as a reference point. The position of the Centre of Gravity can be referenced to the Mean
Aerodynamic Chord (MAC) as a percentage rather than aircraft datum. Because the C of G is
expressed as a percentage of the MAC, the efficiency / economy of the flight can be assessed by
comparing it to the Centre of Pressure of the wing which represents the lift.

By getting the C of G and C of P as close as possible then the more efficient the aircraft will fly
because the turning moment between lift and weight is the smallest, and therefore the least down
force from the tail is required which reduces drag. A typical CG range would be 10% MAC to 35%
MAC, although the actual C of G range will depend upon the aircraft pitch trim tolerances. The
MAC can be expressed either as a start and finish arm from the datum (e.g. 854 inches aft to 987
inches aft of the datum) or, as a starting point and length (e.g. a length 133 inches from 854 inches
aft of the datum).

Example 7

The MAC length is from 853 inches to 1069 inches aft of the datum. The C of G is 942 inches aft
of the datum. What is the C of G expressed as a % MAC?

Solution - Often a simple diagram will help visualise the problem: -

The MAC length = 1069 853 = 216 inches
C of G position from 0% MAC position = 942 853 = 89 inches

Therefore, C of G as a MAC % = 89 x 100 = 41.2%
216
Datum C of G
853
1069
216
942
89

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Example 8

The MAC length is 29 inches. The leading edge of the MAC is 63 inches aft of the datum. The C of
G is 74 inches aft of the datum. What is the C of G expressed as a % MAC?

Solution

The MAC length is given as = 29 inches
C of G position from 0% MAC position = 74 63 = 11 inches

Therefore, C of G as a MAC % = 11 x 100 = 37.9%
29
Example 9

The MAC length is from 789 inches to 956 inches aft of the datum. The C of G is 56.3% of the
MAC. What is the C of G position expressed as an arm from the datum?

Solution

The MAC length = 956 - 789 = 167 inches
The C of G is at 56.3 % of 167 inches = 94 inches

The C of G position from datum = 789 + 94 = 883 inches
Datum C of G
63
92
29
74
11
Datum C of G
789
956
167
883
94

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Example 10

The MAC length is 42 inches. The leading edge of the MAC is 189 inches aft of the datum. The C
of G is at 48% of the MAC. What is the C of G expressed as an arm from the datum?

The MAC length is given as = 42 inches
The C of G is at 48% of 42 inches = 20 inches

The C of G position from datum = 189 + 20 = 209 inches

3.2 Centre of Gravity Index
In the commercial world, it is often impractical to calculate all the individual moments of the
passengers, the freight, cargo etc., and so a different method is used to calculate the position of the
C of G. All the moments are referred to as an index. This allows a group of items to be weighed
and measured, and their effect on the position of the C of G calculated so that each item within the
group does not have to be individually calculated. Therefore, instead of using mathematical
calculations to calculate the net moment of the loads about the datum, a balance chart or table is
used.

The chart uses a series of scales to reflect the moment of each load carrying area, whereas a table
uses a mathematical calculation consisting of simple addition and subtraction of derived values.
Balance charts may be used provided that: -

The appropriate balance chart for the aircraft and configuration is used.

The passenger load is evenly distributed within the cabins.

No other special requirements exist.

An example of a balance chart is given in Section 4 of CAP 696 using the MRJT1 aircraft as an
example: -

Datum C of G
189
231
42
209
20

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The index scale is obviously derived from the aircraft datum but the index values are NOT related
to any balance arm values that appear in the aircraft diagrams or the loading manifests. Their use is
ONLY in relation to the appropriate chart for that aircraft type.

The C of G envelope is
related to an index shown at
the bottom of the chart
Loading Scales that show
the effect on the C of G
index when items such as
passengers, freight and fuel
are added to the aircraft.
Centre of Gravity Index

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Before the person responsible for loading the aircraft can make use of the chart to see what the
effects will be on adding passengers, freight etc onto the aircraft, he / she must establish a starting C
of G that is related to the index scale This starting value is called the Dry Operating Index

The Dry Operating Index (DOI) is simply the Centre of Gravity location at the Dry Operating Mass
using the index scale. The Dry Operating Index will always be given with the Dry Operating Mass
as the start point in loading calculations in the same way that the Basic Empty Mass and C of G at
Basic Empty Mass were given in the smaller aircraft types such as the SEP1 and MEP1.

The loading scales show the magnitude and direction of the effect of adding a load to a particular
area: -

The symbol above means that the C of G index will move by the amount shown, in the direction
indicated for every 1,000 kg of load placed into that compartment. Sometimes the index shift is
related to the number of passengers: -

Example 11

Using the following data, complete the trim sheet for the MRJT1 aircraft and determine the C of G
as an index AND %MAC at zero fuel mass, take-off mass and landing mass?

Dry Operation Mass : 34,300 kg
Dry Operating Index: 45.0
Baggage / Cargo: -

Hold 1: 1000 kg
Hold 4: 1500 kg

95 Passengers of total mass 8,200 kg seated as follows: -

Zone A: 10
Zone B: 10
Zone C: 10
Zone D: 20
Zone E: 20
Zone F: 15
Zone G: 10

Take-off Fuel: 15,000 kg
Trip Fuel: 9,000 kg
PITCH 10 Pax
PITCH 1000 kg
Index shift

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1 5 0 0
1 0 0 0
10
10
20
20
10
15
10
ZFM
Solution

Step 1 Zero Fuel Centre of Gravity Calculation

Start at the top of the trim sheet at the Dry Operating Index of 45.0 and snake down the sheet row
by row moving left or right in the direction shown by the loading scale symbols until Row G is
completed: -

Once Row G is completed the aircraft is at the Zero Fuel Mass. Draw a line vertically down to the
Index at the bottom to give a Zero Fuel Mass C of G index of 59. Notice that the passenger numbers
and cargo / baggage values have been entered into the space provided at the left hand side of the
sheet.

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The zero fuel mass is 45,000 kg (34,000 kg DOM plus 2,500 kg cargo plus 8,200 kg of passengers).
By drawing a horizontal line at 45,000 kg, using the scale on the left hand side of the envelope, the
MAC Centre of Gravity can be seen to be about 21.3%.

Notice that the Zero Fuel Mass centre of gravity is comfortably within the C of G envelope AND
below the maximum zero fuel mass limits.

Step 2 Take-Off Centre of Gravity Calculation

To achieve the take-off mass the fuel load of 15,000 kg must be added to the calculated zero fuel
mass. This is 60,000 kg (45,000 kg ZFM plus 15,000 kg fuel load). The effect of adding the fuel
will be to move the C of G forward. The magnitude of the shift is calculated by using fuel index
table on Page 12 of Section 4 in the CAP: -

Simply read off the Index Correction (circled in RED) for the fuel load added, -14.1.

There is a note below the fuel index table that interpolation between values is not necessary,
therefore simply choose a fuel figure closest to the actual fuel loaded.

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Return to the trim sheet and draw the fuel correction index to the existing zero fuel line as shown
below using a dotted line: -

Draw a line vertically down to the Index at the bottom to give a Take-Off Mass C of G index of 44.
The take-off mass is 60,000 kg. By drawing a horizontal line at 60,000 kg, using the scale on the
left hand side of the envelope, the MAC Centre of Gravity can be seen to be about 16.5%.

Notice that the Take-Off Mass centre of gravity is comfortably within the C of G envelope AND
below the maximum take-off mass limits.
1 5 0 0
1 0 0 0
10
10
20
20
10
15
10
ZFM
TOM
-14.1

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Step 3 Landing Centre of Gravity Calculation

In theory, there are TWO ways to achieve the landing mass: -

The trip fuel of 9,000 kg can be subtracted from the take-off mass of 60,000 kg.
OR
The fuel remaining at landing of 6,000 kg (15,000 kg minus 9,000 kg) added to the zero fuel
mass of 45,000 kg.

Of course, both will yield the same answer of 51,000 kg but the later method MUST be used when
calculating the Fuel Index change.

IMPORTANT - The zero fuel mass index is 59. Adding a fuel of 6,000 kg (the predicted fuel on
landing) yields an index of -6.0 giving a landing C of G position of about 52.

It is the later method that MUST be used, i.e. ADD the fuel load and corresponding index shift to
the zero fuel mass condition. The trim sheet is completed as follows: -

The take-off calculation has been removed for clarity. Draw a line vertically down to the Index at
the bottom to give a Landing Mass C of G index of 52. The landing mass is 51,000 kg. By drawing
a horizontal line at 51,000 kg, using the scale on the left hand side of the envelope, the MAC Centre
of Gravity can be seen to be about 18.5%.

Notice that the Landing Mass centre of gravity is comfortably within the C of G envelope.

ZFM
LM
-6.0

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Sometimes it is necessary to make adjustments to the Dry Operating Index (DOI), which alters the
starting point in the calculations. Rather than do complex calculations, a new DOI can be quickly
determined by reference to an index correction table, for example: -

4 Trim Settings
There are three pitch trim factors: -

Take-Off Trim Setting

Aerodynamic Trim Changes

Power Trim Changes
4.1 Take-Off Trim
In flight the trim setting is simply determined by that setting which gives zero stick forces in steady
flight. At rotation on take-off the aircraft must be in a reasonable trim so that the control column
forces to rotate the aircraft are not excessive. An incorrect trim setting could oppose aircraft
rotation if the trim is set too aircraft nose-down or if the C of G was further forward than expected.
If the trim were set too aircraft nose-up or the C of G was further aft than expected then the aircraft
may auto-rotate, i.e. lift the nose-wheel off the ground with no control column input and there
may be a tendency to over-rotate.

Both these conditions are all potentially dangerous conditions and often not discovered until V
R
(the
rotation speed) is reached. The trim setting may be on an elevator trim tab on an aircraft with a
fixed tailplane, or on the horizontal stabiliser with an aircraft with a trimming tailplane. The setting
should be visually checked and compared in either case with the flight deck indication. If the
system has a trimming stabiliser and separate elevator, then the rate of movement of the trim system
may not be rapid enough to correct the incorrect trim setting at rotation speed.

In conclusion, the trim setting at take-off is calculated and set according to the % MAC position and
aircraft mass. This is best described by example: -
Adjustments Kg Index
Supernumerary Male Flight Deck
Supernumerary Air Hostess Flight Deck
Add Forward Air Hostess
Add Aft Air Hostess
Remove Air Hostess Flight Deck
Aft Air Hostess To Row 1
Flight Deck Air Hostess To Bay C
Remove All 3 Air Hostess
+85
+75
+75
+75
-75
0
0
-225
-4.0
-3.5
-3.0
+1.5
+3.5
-4.0
+3.5
+8.2

TM
Ltd 2009

Example 12

What is the stabiliser trim setting for a Flap 15 take-off for the MRJT aircraft with a centre of
gravity at take-off of 23% MAC?

Solution

Refer to the chart on Page 2, Section 4 of the CAP 696 reproduced below: -

Enter the graph at the MAC trim setting (23%), move upwards towards the Flap 15 line then
horizontally to the scale on the left hand side and read off the trim setting, in this case - 2.2. The
pilot sets 2.2 trim units on the trim setting wheel in the cockpit in preparation for take-off.

Notice the trim scale is inverted, i.e. the scale increases from top to bottom.

Example 13

The required stabiliser trim setting for the MRJT aircraft conducting a Flap 5 take-off is 4 units.
What is the new trim position if Flap 15 is selected instead?

Solution

Again the chart will provide the answer: -

TM
Ltd 2009

Find 4 units on the left scale and move right to the Flap 5 reference line. Move upward to
intercept the Flap 15 reference line, then left again to the trim scale.
The required setting is 3.2 units.
4.2 Aerodynamic Trim Changes
To perfectly balance the aircraft the pitching moment created by the relative positions of the centre
of pressure (CP) and the C of G needs to be countered / opposed. On most aircraft this is achieved
by changing the tailplane load. The largest CP shifts are due to changes of wing camber; with
increased camber the CP moves aft, with decreased camber the CP moves forward. This results in a
trim change when flaps are selected up and down which is simply trimmed out by the pilot to
relieve stick forces. The effect of flap movement also slightly alters the C of G position as shown
below for the MRJT: -

This table is found on Page 2, Section 4 of the CAP.

TM
Ltd 2009
Example 14

What is the moment change when the pilot raises the flaps on the MRJT from position 30 to
position 0?

Solution

The previous table reveals the answer as -15,000 kg inches

Example 15

What is the moment change when the pilot lowers the flaps on the MRJT from position 0 to 40?

Solution

The previous table reveals the answer as +16,000 kg inches. Notice this is POSITIVE value when
LOWERING the flaps.

At high subsonic Mach numbers some aircraft suffer a gradual rearwards shift of the CP which is
gradual with an increase in Mach number. This causes a longitudinal instability where the aircraft
pitches nose down with an increase in Mach number, and the aircraft will enter a dive. This is
known as Tuck Under, and sufficient longitudinal control must therefore be available to
overcome this by using a Mach trim system.
4.3 Power Trim Changes
Depending on the location of the thrust line relative to the vertical position of the C of G, changing
thrust can cause pitch changes. For a low thrust line (B737), increased thrust gives a nose up
moment and reduced thrust a nose down moment. Drag may also have a moment about the C of G,
for example when the undercarriage is lowered a nose down pitch may be experienced. The
stability, which depends on the C of G position and the pitch control power, should be adequate to
deal with these changes.

Thrust Line
Drag Line
Power
Pitching
Moment

TM
Ltd 2009
5 Centre of Gravity Rules and Regulations
There are a number of regulations regarding the mass and balance of an aircraft: -

1. An operator shall ensure that during any phase of operation the mass and centre of gravity of
the aeroplane complies with the limitations specified in the approved Aeroplane Flight Manual, or
the Operations Manual if more restrictive.

2. Operational safety margins must be applied to the certified centre of gravity envelope unless
the effect of passengers, cargo and fuel is accounted for accurately in the balance calculation.

3. An operator shall establish mass and balance documentation prior to each flight specifying
the load and its distribution. The mass and balance documentation must enable the commander to
determine that the load and its distribution is such that the mass and balance limits of the aeroplane
are not exceeded. The person preparing the mass and balance documentation must be named on the
document. This document must be accepted by the commander, his acceptance being indicated by
his signature.

4. Forward and aft C of G limits must be specified in the Certificate Limitations section of the
Aeroplane Flight manual. These limits ensure that the certification stability and control criteria are
met throughout the whole flight and allow the trim setting required for take-off to be calculated.

5. An operator should ensure that these limits are observed by defining operational procedures
or a C of G envelope which compensates for the following deviations and errors: -

Actual C of G at empty or operating mass varies from published data.
Non normal fuel distribution.
Non normal distribution of baggage and cargo.
Non-standard passenger seating.
In-flight movement of cabin crew, pantry equipment and passengers.

6. Any last minute changes that occurs after the completion of the mass and balance
documentation, must be brought to the attention of the commander and the last minute change must
be entered on the mass and balance documentation. The maximum allowed change in the number
of passengers or hold load acceptable as a last minute change must be specified in the Operations
Manual. If this number is exceeded, new mass and balance documentation must be prepared.

7. Where mass and balance documentation is generated by a computerised mass and balance
system (described later), the operator must verify the integrity of the output data. He must establish
a system to check that amendments of his input data are incorporated properly in the system and
that the system is operating correctly on a continuous basis by verifying the output data at intervals
not exceeding 6 months.

8. When mass and balance documentation is sent to aeroplanes via data-link (described later), a
copy of the final mass and balance documentation as accepted by the commander must be available
on the ground.

TM
Ltd 2009
6 Operating at or outside the Centre of Gravity envelope
This section explains the effects of operating the aircraft when the C of G is too far forward or aft.

6.1 Forward Centre of Gravity
The handling and performance problems encountered with a C of G too far forward include: -

Inability or difficulty in rotating, resulting in a slow rotation at take-off.

Inability or difficulty to trim without heavy pull forces on the control column.

Higher stick forces per g loading.

Inability or difficulty in trimming when flaps are lowered.

Inability or difficulty in flaring on touchdown, resulting in the nose wheel landing first.

Higher stalling speed.

Higher trim drag owing to the higher tailplane download to trim the aircraft, resulting in
higher fuel consumption and reduced range.

High nose wheel loading resulting in possible damage and reduced effectiveness in main
wheel braking.

6.2 Aft Centre of Gravity
The handling and performance problems encountered with a C of G too far aft include: -

Likelihood of a nose up overbalance on a nose wheel aircraft on the ground resulting in
damage to the tail.

Degraded or loss of nose wheel steering.

Risk of over-rotation on take-off resulting in a tail strike and onset of a stall.

Low stick forces per g loading with the risk of over-stressing the airframe in manoeuvres.

Difficulty or inability in recovering from a spin.

Loss of control, particularly when applying power.

TM
Ltd 2009
7 Centre of Gravity Alterations
The Basic Empty Mass or Dry Operating Mass and corresponding Centre of Gravity are the starting
points for any calculation relating to aircraft loading. They will therefore be used regularly, as these
calculations have to be carried out before every flight to ensure that the C of G is within limits and
that the aircraft is not overloaded.

If the C of G is out of limits, adjustments must be made to the loading. Adjustments can be made
by either: -

Removing ballast (passengers / cargo)

Adding ballast (dead load)

Moving ballast (passengers / cargo or dead load)

Once a ballast adjustment has been made, the C of G calculation can either be done all over again
which is time consuming or amended using TWO formulae that will assist in the calculation of the
change in C of G position.

These are: -

New Moment = Old Moment +/- Ballast Moment

Remember a moment is given by MASS x ARM, so the formula could be re-written as: -

New Mass x New Arm = Old Mass x Old Arm +/- Ballast Mass x Arm

This formula is used when adding or removing ballast. The + is used when adding ballast and the
when removing ballast.

OR

Ballast Mass = C of G Change
Aircraft Mass Distance Moved

This formula is only used when moving ballast.

TM
Ltd 2009
7.1 Adding and Removing Ballast
The use of the formulae is best described by examples: -

Example 16

An aircraft has a mass 3,000 kg and C of G at 4.5 metres from the nose datum. What is the new C of
G position if an additional 500 kg of freight is placed in a hold at position 6.0 metres?

Solution

A diagram is always useful to visualise the problem: -

Substitute the values into the formula: -

New Moment = Old Moment + Ballast Moment

3,500 x New C of G = 3,000 x 4.5 + 500 x 6

3,500 x New C of G = 13,500 + 3,000

3,500 x New C of G = 16,500

Therefore, New C of G = 16,500 / 3,500 = 4.71 metres

Looking at the diagram, this makes sense as the C of G would move aft is ballast is added aft of the
current C of G position.
Datum
Current
C of G
6.0m
4.5m
Ballast
positioned
here

TM
Ltd 2009

Example 17

An aircraft has a mass 5,000 kg and C of G at 8.3 metres from the nose datum. What is the new C of
G position if 700 kg of freight is removed from a hold at position 12.5 metres?

Solution


New Moment = Old Moment - Ballast Moment

4,300 x New C of G = 5,000 x 8.3 - 700 x 12.5

4,300 x New C of G = 41,500 8,750

4,300 x New C of G = 32,750

Therefore, New C of G = 32,750 / 4,300 = 7.61 metres

Looking at the diagram, this makes sense as the C of G would move forward if ballast is removed
from aft of the current C of G position.
Datum
Current
C of G
12.5m
8.3m
Ballast
removed
from here

TM
Ltd 2009

Example 18

An aircraft has a mass 4,000 kg and C of G at 5.5 metres from the nose datum. Where must a mass
of 300 kg be placed in order to move the aircrafts C of G to the 5.8 position?

Solution



4,300 x 5.8 = 4,000 x 5.5 + 300 x ?

24,940 = 22,000 + 300 x ?

24,940 22,000 = 300 x ?

2,940 = 300 x ?

Therefore, Ballast is placed = 2,940 / 300 = 9.8 metres
Datum
Current
C of G
?
5.5m
Ballast
positioned
here

TM
Ltd 2009
Example 19

An aircraft has a mass 13,000 kg and C of G at 11.3 metres from the nose datum. From where must
a mass of 1,500 kg be removed from in order to move the aircrafts C of G AFT by 0.7 metres?

Solution

The required C of G position is AFT of the current position by a further 0.7 m. Therefore the new C
of G position is at 11.3 + 0.7 = 12.0 m. To get the C of G to move aft then ballast must be removed
from forward of the current C of G position to make the tail more heavy: -



(13,000 1,500) x 12.0 = 13,000 x 11.3 1,500 x ?

11,500 x 12.0 = 13,000 x 11.3 1,500 x ?

138,000 = 146,900 1,500 x ?

Rearrange to give: -

1,500 x ? = 146,900 138,000

1,500 x ? = 8,900

Therefore, Ballast is removed from = 8,900 / 1,500 = 5.93 metres

Datum
Current
C of G
?
11.3m
Ballast
removed
from here

TM
Ltd 2009

Example 20

An aircraft has a mass 3,000 kg and C of G at 4.0 metres from the nose datum. How much freight
must be placed in a hold at position 6.0 metres in order to move the C of G to the 4.5 metre
position?

Solution

This is a more complex problem mathematically. Let the mass to be added be called m



(3,000 + m) x 4.5 = 3,000 x 4.0 + m x 6.0

You can see that m appears twice in the substituted formula. Multiply out the brackets: -

13,500 + 4.5m = 12,000 + 6.0m

Move the m terms to the right: -

13,500 12,000 = 6.0m 4.5m

1,500 = 1.5m

Therefore, Mass to be added m is 1,500 / 1.5 = 1,000 kg

Looking at the diagram, this makes sense as adding a 1,000 kg mass at the 6.0 metre position will
move the C of G position further aft.
Datum
Current
C of G
6.0m
4.0m
Ballast
positioned
here

TM
Ltd 2009
Example 21

An aircraft has a mass 15,000 kg and C of G at 8.3 metres from the nose datum. How much freight
must be removed from a hold at position 12.6 metres in order to move the C of G 0.8 meters
forward?

Solution

The required C of G position is forward of the current position by a further 0.8 m. Therefore the
new C of G position is at 8.3 - 0.8 = 7.5 metres.

Let the mass to be removed be called m



(15,000 - m) x 7.5 = 15,000 x 8.3 - m x 12.6

You can see that m appears twice in the substituted formula. Multiply out the brackets: -

105,000 - 7.5m = 124,500 - 12.6m

Move the m terms to the left this time: -

12.6m 7.5m = 124,500 105,000

5.1m = 19,500

Therefore, Mass to be removed m is 19,500 / 5.1 = 3,824 kg

Looking at the diagram, this makes sense as removing a 3,834 kg mass at the 12.6 metre position
will move the C of G position forward.
Datum
Current
C of G
12.6m
8.3m
Ballast
removed
here

TM
Ltd 2009

Sometimes questions are asked with NO DATUM is given. However, the possible answers only
require knowledge of the effect of ballast loading on the current Centre of Gravity situation: -

Example 22

An aircraft has a mass 3,500 kg. Where would be the new C of G position if an additional 400 kg of
freight is placed in a hold which is 2.6 metres aft of the current C of G position?

A. 0.27 metres forward of current C of G
B. 0.27 metres aft of current C of G
C. 0.27 metres forward of the hold
D. 0.27 metres aft of aircraft datum

Solution

A diagram is always useful to visualise the problem but note that there is no datum defined in the
question therefore you can create your own. The current C of G position is as good as anywhere: -



3,900 x New C of G = 3,000 x 0 + 400 x 2.6

3,900 x New C of G = 0 + 1,040

3,900 x New C of G = 1,040

Therefore, New C of G = 1,040 / 3,900 = 0.27 metres aft of current C of G

Looking at the diagram, this makes sense as the C of G would move aft if ballast is added aft of the
current C of G position. So answer B is correct. Note that answer D is NOT correct because no
reference is made to the actual aircraft datum in the question.
Datum
2.6m
Current
C of G
Ballast
positioned
here

TM
Ltd 2009
Example 23

An aircraft has a mass 4,200 kg. Where would 750 kg of freight need to be placed in order to move
the C of G aft by 0.3 metres?

Solution

Again there is no datum defined in the question therefore you can again create your own. The
current C of G position is as good as anywhere: -



4,950 x 0.3 = 4,200 kg x 0 + 750 x Ballast Position

1,485 = 750 x Ballast Position

Therefore, Ballast Position = 1,485 / 750 = 1.98 metres aft of current C of G
7.2 Moving Ballast
The formula to use when MOVING ballast is: -

Ballast Mass (B) = C of G Change (C)
Aircraft Mass (A) Distance Moved (D)

Notice that this can be remembered as: -
B = C
A D

This is quite a straight forward formula to use and there are three basic types of problem: -

Calculate the C of G change when ballast / cargo is moved from one location to another
Calculate the amount of ballast / cargo to be moved to achieve a required C of G change
Calculate how far to move ballast / cargo to achieve the required C of G change

Datum
?
Current
C of G
Ballast
positioned
here
New
C of G

TM
Ltd 2009
There follows three examples of the different problem types: -

Example 24

An aircraft has a mass 17,000 kg and C of G at 14.4 metres from the nose datum. What is the new C
of G if 1,300 kg cargo is moved from a hold at position 8.5 metres to a hold at 21.6 metres?

Solution

A drawing will help visualise the problem: -

The distance between holds is 21.6 8.5 = 13.1 metres. Substitute values into the formula: -


1,300 = CG Change
17,000 13.1

Re-arranging the terms gives:-

CG Change = 13.1 x 1,300 = 1.0 metre
17,000

The C of G will move aft by 1.0 metre. The new C of G position is 14.4 + 1.0 = 15.4 metres.
Datum
Current
C of G
8.5m
14.4m
HOLD HOLD
21.6m
13.1m

TM
Ltd 2009

Example 25

An aircraft has a mass 9,000 kg and C of G at 6.5 metres from the nose datum. How much cargo
must be moved from the aft hold at position 9.2 metres to the forward hold at position 3.4 metres to
move the aircraft C of G forward to 6.3 metres?

Solution

The distance between holds is 9.2 3.4 = 13.1 metres. The required C of G change is 6.5 6.3 = 0.2
metres. Substitute values into the formula: -


Ballast = 0.2
9,000 5.8


Ballast = 0.2 x 9,000 = 310 kg
5.8

Datum
Current
C of G
3.4m
6.5m
HOLD HOLD
9.2m
5.8m

TM
Ltd 2009

Example 26

A cargo aircraft has a mass 45,000 kg and C of G at 25.7 metres from the nose datum. How far aft
must a ballast mass of 9,200 kg be moved from position 22.6 metres in the fuselage to move the
aircraft C of G aft by 1.4 metres?

Solution

The new C of G position required is 25.7 + 1.4 = 27.1 metres

Substitute values into the formula: -


9,200 = 1.4 metres
45,000 Distance


Distance (D) = 1.4 x 45,000 = 6.84 metres
9,200

Datum
Current
C of G
22.6m
25.7m
9,200 kg
27.1m
D

TM
Ltd 2009
7.3 The Trim Sheet
The adjustment of Centre of Gravity can be accomplished using Load and Trim sheets. The process
is very quick and sufficiently accurate for commercial uses. The use of the trim sheets is best
described by examples. As, before, the calculations fall into two categories: -

Adding and Removing Ballast
Moving the position of ballast within the aircraft

Example 24

An aircraft is prepared for take-off with a take-off mass of 50,000 kg and a take-off MAC of 22%.
What is the new take-off %MAC if 2,000 kg of freight is loaded into Hold 1?

Solution

Firstly, plot the starting position on the trim sheet. Draw a line vertically upwards to the Hold 1
compartment index. Move horizontally in the appropriate direction (LEFT for ADDING a load in
this particular hold) by the appropriate amount (20 units for a load of 2,000 kg). Draw a line
vertically downwards to the bottom of the chart: -

Start Point
New MAC

TM
Ltd 2009
Finally, draw a horizontal line at the corresponding aircraft mass (now 52,000 kg). The intersection
of the two lines yields the new MAC of 14%.
Example 27

What is the new take-off %MAC if 1,500 kg of freight is removed from Hold 4?

Solution

Firstly, plot the starting position on the trim sheet. Draw a line vertically upwards to the Hold 4
compartment index. Move horizontally in the appropriate direction (LEFT for REMOVING a load
in this compartment) by the appropriate amount (15 units for a load of 1,500 kg). Draw a line
vertically downwards to the bottom of the chart: -

Finally, draw a horizontal line at the corresponding aircraft mass (now 58,500 kg). The intersection
of the two lines yields the new MAC of 14.5%.

Start Point
New MAC

TM
Ltd 2009

When MOVING a load within the aircraft with no mass change then the process is exactly the same
but with two steps, Firstly, remove the load then secondly, add it somewhere else.

Example 28

What is the new take-off %MAC if 10 passengers are moved from Compartment B to
Compartment G?

Solution

Firstly, plot the starting position on the trim sheet. Draw a line vertically upwards to the
Compartment B index. Move horizontally in the appropriate direction (RIGHT for REMOVING a
load in this compartment) by the appropriate amount (10 units for a load of 10 passengers). Draw a
line vertically downwards to the Compartment G index. Move horizontally in the appropriate
direction (RIGHT for ADDING a load in this compartment) by the appropriate amount (10 units for
a load of 10 passengers). Draw a line vertically downwards to the bottom of the chart: -

Finally, draw a horizontal line at the corresponding aircraft mass (still 55,000 kg). The intersection
of the two lines yields the new MAC of 19%.
New MAC Start Point

TM
Ltd 2009
8 Computer Load Sheets and Data-link Confirmation
In the real world, all mass and balance calculations are computer generated. The dispatcher enters
all the relevant data into a computer and prints out a load sheet for the flight crew. For example: -

The pilot has all the information required to calculate the performance speeds of the aircraft etc.
This is a provisional load sheet, which is a best guess of the final mass and balance figures. Due
to late changes, such as freight not arriving on time for loading or a few missing passengers, then
the figures will change. So that there is no departure delay, the final figures are sent to the aircraft
whilst it is taxiing to the take-off runway via a data-link transmission, for example:-

Provided the data-link confirmation is in compliance with provisional, which is the case most of
time, then the performance calculations are valid. If not then a recalculation is required which may
delay the take-off.
*********** P R O V I S I O N A L ************* V E R S I O N ************************

L O A D S H E E T CHECKED APPROVED /TIME ISSUE
ALL WEIGHTS IN KILOS Biggles 02

FROM/TO FLIGHT A/C REG CREW DATE TIME
ABZ / LHR BA1311 GEUUL 2/5 26OCT06 1532Z

PAX / CABIN BAG EST 9130 23/115 TTL 138

********************************************************************************************

TOTAL TRAFFIC LOAD 10297
DRY OPERATING WEIGHT 45257
ZERO FUEL WEIGHT 55554 MAX 61000 ACT..
TAKE OFF FUEL 5800
TAKE OFF WEIGHT 61354 MAX 73500 ACT..
TRIP FUEL 3200
LANDING WEIGHT 58154 MAX 64500 ACT..

BI 202.0 DOI 197.3

MACZFW 26.9 ACT..
MACTOW 26.3 ACT..

********************************************************************************************

TAXI FUEL 200 TAXI WEIGHT 61554 MAX 73900
LOADSHEET FINAL BA1311 26OCT
COMPLIANCE WITH ISSUE 02
ABZ LHR ACREG GEUUL 2/5
ZFW 54678 MAX 61000
TOF 5800
TOW 60478 MAX 73500
TIF 3200
LAW 57278 MAX 64500
UNDLD 13022
PAX CM 21/108 TTL 139
DOI 59 DLI 56 LIZFW 31
MAC-ZFW 26.3
MAC-TOW 26.1
END OF MESSAGE

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