Lecture 5

Vector Operators: Grad, Div and Curl

In the rst lecture of the second part of this course we move more to consider properties of elds. We
introduce three eld operators which reveal interesting collective eld properties, viz.

the gradient of a scalar eld,

the divergence of a vector eld, and

the curl of a vector eld.

There are two points to get over about each:

The mechanics of taking the grad, div or curl, for which you will need to brush up your multivariate
calculus.

The underlying physical meaning that is, why they are worth bothering about.

In Lecture 6 we will look at combining these vector operators.

5.1 The gradient of a scalar eld

Recall the discussion of temperature distribution throughout a room in the overview, where we wondered
how a scalar would vary as we moved off in an arbitrary direction. Here we nd out how to.




0 '2
0 ')
$"
5
6' 4  & & 31 & & 1( & &  % #!
It is usual to dene the vector operator

& '
0 & ' 2 0 & ')  7
& 4
&
&
which is called del or nabla. Then

7 8 $"
A@9 % #!
51

   
 

If
is a scalar eld, ie a scalar function of position
gradient at any point is dened in Cartesian co-ordinates by

in 3 dimensions, then its

T R
S

I
P
@
 Q
' 4  0 ' 2 0 ') %

. Hence




and similarly for

D
E' 4

B
  & ' & ' & H @  A7
D '4 0 2 0 )

&
&
& %
F
 & &  0 0 G
@

B
C
@
&
0 ' 2 & 0 ' ) & % A
&
&

&

' 4 % & 0 ' 2 % & 0 ' ) % &  A7

&
&
&
, and

8 3
#& 40
8
$&
3 '0
)& 29 #&
'

, so

5 3
)& 70
5 ( 3
)& $& 40
(
)&
3 '0
)& 61 #& )& 21 #&
' 3 '0
'
,

, so

 


%





%


%





' 4 $ 0 ' 2  0 ' ) !   # 0  0 !  & ' 4 0 & ' 2 0 & ' )
"
 "

&
&
&
is constant.

But

Now

 A7
 
 

, where

 5
 A7

0 0 


' 4  0 ' 2 0 ')



, so

4.
3.

2.

5 ' )  A7

& &

Only

exists so

1.

Worked examples of gradient evaluation

Without thinking too carefully about it, we can see that the gradient tends to point in the direction of
greatest change of the scalar eld. Later we will be more precise.

A7

Note immediately that

is a vector eld!

LECTURE 5. VECTOR OPERATORS: GRAD, DIV AND CURL

52

5.2. THE SIGNIFICANCE OF GRAD

53


 

grad


 

Figure 5.1: The directional derivative

5.2 The signicance of grad

We have seen that

' 4  & 0 ' 2 & 0 ') &  A7

&
&
&

5   A7
@
@
'4  0 ' 2 0

is (see gure 5.1)

@
@
 @
  & & 0 & & 0 & & 
') @   @


'

is a unit vector in the direction of

, so

@
So

@
 
@
 @ 

But remember that

@ @
 


7 

5 

Now divide by

the change in

so if we move a small amount

$"
% #!

has the property that the rate of change of wrt distance in a particular direction ( ) is the
projection of
onto that direction (or the component of
in that direction).

$
% " !

"
% $ #!

@


The quantity
is called a directional derivative. Note that in general it has a different value for
each direction, and so has no meaning until you specify the direction.

We could also say that

at P, and has magnitude equal

that is the locus




$"
% #!

Another nice property emerges if we think of a surface of constant

At any point P,
points in the direction of greatest change of
to the rate of change of wrt distance in that direction.

for

& &% # !
(# $ '$"

 


LECTURE 5. VECTOR OPERATORS: GRAD, DIV AND CURL

54

0.1

0.08

0.06

0.04

0.02

0
4
4

2
2

0
0
2

2
4

Figure 5.2:

@ @
 

 


@
@ 

@


A7

This can only be satised if

is NORMAL to a surface of constant

$
% " !

gradU

Surface of constant U
These are called Level Surfaces

Surface of constant U

Figure 5.3:

5.3 The divergence of a vector eld

The divergence computes a scalar quantity from a vector eld by differentiation.

If we move a tiny amount within the surface, that is in any tangential direction, there is no change in
so
. So for any
in the surface

55




More precisely, if
is a vector function of position in 3 dimensions, that is
then its divergence at any point is dened in Cartesian co-ordinates by

' 4 " 0 ' 2 ' ) 

0

5.4. THE SIGNIFICANCE OF

"

 & & 0 & & 0 & &  %

We can write this in a simplied notation using a scalar product with the

vector differential operator:

 7  

&
' 0 & ' 2 0 & ')
&
& 4
&


 %

Notice that the divergence of a vector eld is a scalar eld.

Worked examples of divergence evaluation

of it.

"

  
# ' "   &    0 0   $ " 



5  #   0 0  ! 0 "    0 0 5   "    0 0 5 & &
"


and gives

1)
20(

5.4 The signicance of

 

Adding this to similar terms for

, and we need to nd

$
%" 


  0 0 5

is

 

component of

&
  

The

"





3
  ' 4  0 ' 2 0 ')  
)'

Let us show the third example.

is constant

&&

where

div

Consider a typical vector eld, water ow, and denote it by

. This vector has magnitude equal to the
mass of water crossing a unit area perpendicular to the direction of per unit time.
and gure out the balance of the ow of

3
#@

Now take an innitesimal volume element

.

in and out of

3
4@

To be specic, consider the volume element

in Cartesian co-ordinates, and think rst
about the face of area
perpendicular to the axis and facing outwards in the negative direction.
(That is, the one with surface area
.)

@ @ @

7 ' 2 

5
 6@

@ @

@ @
5
5  

5
 @ 

(Flux here means mass per unit time.)

'2  @
3
 4@

The component of the vector normal to this face is

contribution to the OUTWARD ux from this surface is

, and is pointing inwards, and so the its

LECTURE 5. VECTOR OPERATORS: GRAD, DIV AND CURL

56

dz
dS = -dxdz j

dS = +dxdz j
y
dx
dy

x
Figure 5.4: Elemental volume for calculating divergence.
A similar contribution, but of opposite sign, will arise from the opposite face, but we must remember
that we have moved along by an amount , so that this OUTWARD amount is

@ @

@
5
5 && 0


 @  @  @ 0 5

The total outward amount from these two faces is

3
#@
@ @ @
5
& &   5 & &
Summing the other faces gives a total outward ux of

3
#@ 

3
#@
7 


8 & 0 5 & 0 ( &

&
&
&


Take home message: The divergence of a vector eld represents the ux generation per unit volume at
each point of the eld. (Divergence because it is an efux not an inux.)
Interestingly we also saw that the total efux from the innitesimal volume was equal to the ux integrated over the surface of the volume.
(NB: The above does not constitute a rigorous proof of the assertion because we have not proved that the
quantity calculated is independent of the co-ordinate system used, but it will sufce for our purposes.

1)
20(

The Laplacian:




"
% $ #!

5.5

of a scalar eld

Recall that
of any scalar eld is a vector eld. Recall also that we can compute the divergence
, even if we dont know what it means yet.
of any vector eld. So we can certainly compute

$
 % " ! %

"
 #   0 0

 
0
 0 0  


  0 
5 5  0 "    0

 0 0

" 
0
5

and

"





&

&

"

Adding up similar terms for

0 0 & &

'    & &

and so



'    0 0

Lets prove the last example (which is particularly signicant can you guess why?).
B

 A9
@
2
3& 
"

& 8('73654
"  1
2 & 
1

) &
0('%$#!
"

 






Examples of

evaluation

Laplaces equation itself is

&
0 & 0 &
&
&
&




This last expression occurs frequently in engineering science (you will meet it next in solving Laplaces
Equation in partial differential equations). For this reason, the operator
is called the Laplacian

   &&

  &&

4' 0 & &

4' 0 & &

2' 0 &
&
2' 0 &
&

')
')

 
 

  & 0 &
& &
 && 0 &&
& '
0 & '2 0
& 4
&
  & '
0 & '2
& 4
&

0 &
&
0 &
&
& ')
& 
0 & ')
&









  7

operator starts to be really handy.

Here is where the

5.5. THE LAPLACIAN:

OF A SCALAR FIELD

57

LECTURE 5. VECTOR OPERATORS: GRAD, DIV AND CURL

58

5.6 The curl of a vector eld

So far we have seen the operator

 7
7

Applied to a scalar eld

; and

Dotted with a vector eld

You are now overwhelmed by that irrestible temptation to

cross it with a vector eld

This gives the curl of a vector eld

 "

We can follow the pseudo-determinant recipe for vector products, so that

'4


( & &

5
& &

0 '2  8 &
&


( & &


'4

8$&
&

0 ')  5  &
&
8

'2

5)&
&

')

()&
&

8
& &

( 




Examples of curl evaluation

'4

'
' 2 4 0 ' )

' 2 ') 

5.7 The signcance of curl

' 2 0 ')

Perhaps the rst example gives a clue. The eld

is sketched in Figure 5.5(a). (It is the
eld you would calculate as the velocity eld of an object rotating with
.) This eld has a
curl of , which is in the r-h screw out of the page. You can also see that a eld like this must give a
nite value to the line integral around the complete loop

   

5

'4



In fact curl is closely related to the line integral around a loop. The circulation of a vector
closed curve is dened to be

round any


represents the vorticity, or circulation per unit area, of the eld.
by

Our proof uses the small rectangular element

round the perimeter of a rectangular element.

and the curl of the vector eld

shown in Figure 5.5(b). Consider the circulation

5.8. SOME DEFINITIONS INVOLVING DIV, CURL AND GRAD

59
y
ax (y+dy)

y+dy

dy
ay (x)

ay (x+dx)

dx
x+dx

x
ax (y)

. (b) An element in which to calculate curl.

direction at the bottom and top are

@
@
(
(
( & & 0    0

(


%#$

and the elds in the

direction at the left and right are

@
@
5
5

5 & & 0    0

The elds in the

' 2 0 ')

Figure 5.5: (a) A rough sketch of the vector eld

5


%#$

Starting at the bottom and working round in the anticlockwise sense, the four contributions to the circulation
are therefore as follows, where the minus signs take account of the path being oppose to the
eld:

@
5
  
D



 ( &

&@
0 
@
0 

5
6@

5
& &

(
(  0
 0
.

@
@
@
@
5 B
( B
 @ ( & & 5 0  @  @ D (  5 @& & 0 @  5 
     0    0 

@
@




@ @
5
6@
'4 

where

NB: Again, this is not a completely rigorous proof as we have not shown that the result is independent
of the co-ordinate system used.

5.8 Some denitions involving div, curl and grad

A vector eld with zero divergence is said to be solenoidal.

A vector eld with zero curl is said to be irrotational.

A scalar eld with zero gradient is said to be, er, well, constant.

IDR October 21, 2003

60

LECTURE 5. VECTOR OPERATORS: GRAD, DIV AND CURL

Lecture 6
Vector Operator Identities
In this lecture we look at more complicated identities involving vector operators. The main thing to
appreciate it that the operators behave both as vectors and as differential operators, so that the usual rules
of taking the derivative of, say, a product must be observed.
We shall derive these using both conventional grunt, and using the compact notation. Note that the
relevance of these identities may only become clear later in other Engineering courses.

5 
 ' 4 0  ' 2 0  &  & &  & & &  ') 
  & & & & & & 
'& 4 & & ' 2 & & ') &
can be thought of as a null operator.

(
&  & &

 & & & & & &

 & & & & & &

5 &  &  ( & & 0 8 & &

8 &
& &

61

6.2 Identity 2: div curl

A7

Note that

6.1 Identity 1: curl grad

5
& & &

8 &
(
&

&




7 
7

LECTURE 6. VECTOR OPERATOR IDENTITIES

6.3 Identity 3: div and curl of

62

 

 

Suppose that
is a scalar eld and that
is a vector eld and we are interested in the product
,
which is a vector eld so we can compute its divergence and curl. For example the density
of a uid
is a scalar eld, and the instantaneous velocity of the uid
is a vector eld, and we are probably
interested in mass ow rates for which we will be interested in
.

 

   
 

The divergence (a scalar) of the product

is given by:

 

  % #! 0  %
$"

  7 0    7

 A7

, and the result should be a vector eld:

 

6.4 Identity 4: div of

7


In a similar way, we can take the curl of the vector eld

Life quickly gets trickier when vector or scalar products are involved: For example, it is not that obvious
that

"
( 5
 

&

5 (
8 (
   & 0  

&

 
%&
5 5 5 " % ! "  & & !
( 8
5 8
  & 0  


 

&

 % $ 5 5 5 

8 5
  & 


"

 "

  6%

To show this, use the determinant:

curl

8 
5 
(


 & & & & & &

6.5 Vector operator identities in HLT

There is a kind of cottage industry in inventing vector identities. HLT contains a lot of them. So why not
leave it at that?

" 

% % #!
$"

First, since
,
and
describe key aspects of vectors elds, they arise often in practice, and
so the identities can save you a lot of time and hacking of partial derivatives, as we will see when we
consider Maxwells equation as an example later.
Secondly, they help to identify other practically important vector operators. We now look at such an
example.

( 5



'& 4 &

5 (
8 (
 




&' &
2

( 8
5 8
 




& ' &

8 5


  "

( 8
( 5
 &&  

8 (
 


')

so the component is

6.6 Identity 5:

63


6.6. IDENTITY 5:

5 (
 &&

which can be written as the sum of four terms:


(

 &8 0 &5
&  & 


0 D 8  & 0 5 &
&
&


&

&

8 & 0 5 &


& (

 7  

67


 0   7

(
)&

 7  

to the


67  

can be regarded as new, and very useful, scalar differential operator.

6.7 Denition of the operator

where

(
)&

& (

(
8
5
   && 0 &&

Adding
to the rst of these, and subtracting from the last, and doing the same with
other two terms, we nd that:

This is a scalar operator, but it can obviously can be applied to a scalar eld, resulting in a scalar eld,
or to a vector eld resulting in a vector eld:

&

( B
5
&8
0 & 0 & 8  7  
&
&
D






"







6.8 Identity 6:

for you to derive

The following important identity is stated, and let as an exercise:

8
'4

% % " !   "  "

$

5
0 '2

(
0 ')

where

Example of Identity 6: electromagnetic waves

Background: Maxwell established a set of four vector equations which are fundamental to working out
how eletromagnetic waves propagate. The entire telecommunications industry is built on these!

#
$%

'
# (& 0 1

%& " 

%

&

'
(&
&

)
0" 

LECTURE 6. VECTOR OPERATOR IDENTITIES

64
In addition, we can assume the following
,
,
,
where all the scalars are constants.

, and with zero conductivity,

Question: Show that in a material with no free charge,

eletric eld must be a solution of the wave equation

, the

5  (& % &
'

3
3 

Answer: The good news is that we can do this knowing little about EM waves!

3
1
 (& % &  '
'
0 3 ( & ' # & 0
'
  (& ) ) 3  & 3 &
& (
  $6% %  3    ) % 3  %%

 $ %
%
% ( % % #!    (& ) &
% $"
'
% "
$ % % $ #!  0 "  " 
%

 %





) " 
% " 

 3

 "

  0% "  " 

so interchanging the order of partial differentation, and using

#
$6%

But we know (or rather you worked out) that

, so

 (& 3 3
'
% &
 (& 3 B (& 3
'
'
D %
&
&

' 3
 0) "   (& &

6.9 Grad, div, curl and

in curvilinear co-ordinate systems

It is possible to obtain general expressions for grad, div and curl in any orthogonal curvilinear co-ordinate
system by making use of the factors which were introduced in Lecture 4.
and

 
 &&  



where is the radius vector, and

 &

 &   

and similar expressions apply for the other co-ordinate directions. Then

We recall that the unit vector in the direction of increasing , with

being kept constant, is

 @  # "  0  @  !  0  @    



6.10. GRAD IN CURVILINEAR COORDINATES

65

6.10 Grad in curvilinear coordinates

Using the properties of the gradient of a scalar eld obtained previously,

@
@

@ @ @
,

@

&
0
&

@

@
& 0
&

& 
& 

@

&  @  
&

A7

 @  # "  0  @  !  0  @    

A7

The only way this can be satised for independent

&
0
&

&
0
&

It follows that

is when


 !  
& "
0 ' &  0 '  &   A7

& 
&
&

'#

6.11 Divergence in curvilinear coordinates

Expressions can be obtained for the divergence of a vector eld in orthogonal curvilinear co-ordinates
by making use of the ux property.
. Although earlier we derived this as the volume of a parallelop-

3
#@

We consider an element of volume

iped, and found that the


 &

 @  @  @    

3
&  #@

If the curvilinear coordinates are orthogonal then the little volume is a cuboid (to rst order in small
quantities) and

 @  @  @ "  !   


3
#@

However, it is not quite a cuboid: the area of two opposite faces will differ as the scale parameters are
functions of , and in general.
direction shown in Figure 6.1 is

@@@ &
 "    ! B&
B
B
@ 
@ 
@@ @ 
" & & 0 "  D    && 0   D  ! && 0 !

@@ "!




By denition div is the net efux per unit volume, so summing up the other faces:

 @

 

which is easily shown by multiplying the rst line out and dropping second order terms (i.e.

$

'

So the net efux from the two faces in the

).

!

@@@  &
 !    "
@@@  
   &"
&

&
0

&
 "    !
"   & !

&


0

&
0

&
 "  ! 
"  ! & 

&


0

&




3
#@
 %

@@ @ "!

6%

LECTURE 6. VECTOR OPERATOR IDENTITIES

66

h (v) dw
w

h (v+dv) dw
w

h (v) du

h (v+dv) du

h v dv

The scale params are

functions of u,v,w

Figure 6.1: Elemental volume for calculating divergence in orthogonal curvilinear coordinates
So, nally,

!


   &"

&
0


"   & !

&
0

&


"  ! & 

"!

 6%

6.12 Curl in curvilinear coordinates

Recall from Lecture 5 that we computed the component of curl as the circulation per unit area the
contents of the brackets in the expression for the element of circulation


@

( & &

5
& &


@

By analogy with our derivation of divergence, you will realize that for an orthogonal curvilinear coordinate system we can write the area as
. But the opposite sides are no longer quite of the same
length. The lower of the pair in Figure 6.2 is length
, but the upper is of length

@ @

@ @!

 



@ 

@@

&
    &


 @  @ 0     @ 0    @     
@@
&

    &

&
&

0
 ! !  &     &

@

So the circulation per unit area is

0 

and together with the other pair:

Summing this pair gives a contribution to the circulation

&
 ! !  &


@

! @ @!

6.13. THE LAPLACIAN IN CURVILINEAR COORDINATES

67

y
au (v+dv)

v+dv

h u(v+dv) du
dv
hu (v) du
y

u+du

u
au (v)

Figure 6.2: Elemental loop for calculating curl in orthogonal curvilinear coordinates
and hence curl is

0 '


&
 " "  &

&
    &




!
#'     &  ! ! & 
 &  & &   "  !
0 '   ! ! &
 &  " "  &  

"

     "

6.13 The Laplacian in curvilinear coordinates

$"
% #!

%

Substitution of the components of

into the expression for
immediately (!*?) gives the
following expression for the Laplacian in general orthogonal co-ordinates:

" 
!    &&
, and so

&
&

0


&
&

! 
 "   & &

0

 &  &


, and that

&
&

  B "!
"  !   && 

%
' 4  0 ' 2 #  0 ' )

% ! 

  % !  0 # %
%

    0 $! 

 
F

We recall that

6.14 Grad, etc, in cylindrical polars


"

in (i) Cartesians and (ii) Spherical poplars when

 ' 4  0 ' 2 0 ' ) 

"

Q1 Find

Examples
is set as a tutorial exercise.

0   # %

&&

The derivation of the expression for

3
 &
&


&  &  ' # %

# 
%

0   & # % & 3 '

 &
&  '
& 
& 

& # % 0
& # % 0 3 &

 # % # % &   3 & 
& 

0 ' &  0 ' &

&
&

'

&
&

 " 

  %

$
% " !
Hence

'4

# %  $!  0 # % # %

 %

  # % 0  # % 0 $" % ! 
% !
%
   $!  0  # % 0 % !  # %

% !
$"

0 '2 # %

# %

0 ')

"




% ! %
$" # 

We recall that

so that

6.15 Grad, etc, in spherical polars

in cylindrical polar co-ordinates is set as a tutorial exercise.

'4

 3

&&

&
0 '

 &  

 8

The derivation of the expression for

3
3 & 0 '   & &
& 

8
 & 0  & 0  3
&
&

' 4  & 0 ' &

&
&

&&

8 &

&  

&
3 &  
0 ' &
&

 " 

  %

$
% " !
Hence

LECTURE 6. VECTOR OPERATOR IDENTITIES

68

Q2 Find the divergence of the vector eld

where
coordinates and (ii) using Spherical Polar coordinates.

is a constant vector (i) using Cartesian

which is exactly the result in Cartesians.

% ! %
$" $! 

 '2

%
$! 

0 ') # % 0  # %

4' 0 ' 2 

%
' 4 # % #  0 ' 2 % ! 

% !
% ! %
 ' 4 # % ' 2 # % $" 0 ' ) $" $! 



 "

So the result in spherical polars is

: we are after all rotating one right-handed orthogonal

'
' 4 
') 2 



5 ' 4  0 ' 2 0 ' )    " 

'
'4
') 2

# %
% !
$"

'

 

$! 
%

%
# % $! 

# % # %

 & "   '

@

')

and so on in terms of etc using

Dont be shocked to see a rotation matrix

coord system into another.

'

# %
$" $! 
% ! %
$" # %
% !

 &   '

'
'
3
'

Grinding through we nd


3
 &   '
@

Remember that we can work out the unit vectors

')

Now, these two results should be the same, but to check we need expressions for
etc.

etc in terms of

&

' 0 

% ! %
$" $! 

0 # % # %

$ ' 

%$"
!
# % &
&

$" $! 
% ! %




% !
$"

0 

# %# '

# % &
&




'

'

%
# 

 "

'

%!
$" # %  3

3
 '

 "

'4 0 ' 2 

Hence
so

% !  # %

(ii) By inspection, in spherical polars

A1 (i) In Cartesians, using the pseudo determinant gives

6.15. GRAD, ETC, IN SPHERICAL POLARS

69

# %
8
% !
$"

(


5

is a constant, so now we can write down

 




  

'
' 4 
') 2 

'
'
3
'

 

'
'4
')2
'
'4
')2

  %$!  ( 0  # %
# % % !  0

$! $! 
%  %

(
# % # % 0
%
$!  # %


 (

, etc, where

For our particular problem,

and using the inner product

8
5
(
3 3
' 4 0 ' 2 0 ' )  ' 0 ' 0 '

Now the point is the same point in space whatever the coordinate system, so

'
'4  
' ) 2 

'
'4
')2

$"
% !
# % $"
% !

# % # %

# %
$"
% !

# %
$!  $"
% % !
% !  # %

'
'
3
'

and our rst task is to nd and so on. We cant do this by inspection, and nding their values
requires more work than you might think! Recall

'

0 ' 0 3 ' 3 

(ii) Using Spherical polars

555 0
555 0

 

  
( '
0 0

'


5 

& &

 %

A2 (i) Using Cartesian coords:

LECTURE 6. VECTOR OPERATOR IDENTITIES

70

6.15. GRAD, ETC, IN SPHERICAL POLARS

71

Now all we need to do is to bash out

&&

&

 # % &

# %

%
# 

3 &   %

 & 
In glorious detail this is

0 &
8

%
$!  # %


5

0

# %

# %
5
(
%
  # %  $!  

# %
(
$!
%
%

  # % $! (  $ 
5
# % # % 0 % !  # %

$"
% !

  %

A bit more bashing and youll nd

%
$! 

0
5

# % # %

0
(

3
  '
$!  # %
%

  %

This is EXACTLY what you worked out before of course.

Take home messages from these examples:

All the trig was a bit tedious, but there are three important points!

Just as physical vectors are independent of their coordinate systems, so are differential operators.

Dont forget about the vector geometry you did in the 1st year. Rotation matrices are useful!
Spherical polars were NOT a good coordinate system in which to think about this problem. Let
the symmetry guide you.

IDR October 21, 2003