Alpha Decay

Alpha decay is one process that unstable atoms can use to become more stable. During
alpha decay, an atom's nucleus sheds two protons and two neutrons in a packet that
scientists call an alpha particle.
Since an atom loses two protons during alpha decay, it changes from one element to
another. For example, after undergoing alpha decay, an atom of uranium (with 92 protons)
becomes an atom of thorium (with 90 protons).
Alpha Particle

Produced during alpha decay, an alpha particle is a fast moving helium nucleus. Alpha
particles carry a charge of +2 and strongly interact with matter. They travel only a few inches
through air and can easily be stopped with a sheet of paper.
Beta Decay

Beta decay is one process that unstable atoms can use to become more stable. There are two
types of beta decay, beta-minus and beta-plus.
During beta-minus decay, a neutron in an atom's nucleus turns into a proton, an electron and
an antineutrino. The electron and antineutrino fly away from the nucleus, which now has one
more proton than it started with. Since an atom gains a proton during beta-minus decay, it
changes from one element to another. For example, after undergoing beta-minus decay, an
atom of carbon (with 6 protons) becomes an atom of nitrogen (with 7 protons).
During beta-plus decay, a proton in an atom's nucleus turns into a neutron, a positron and a
neutrino. The positron and neutrino fly away from the nucleus, which now has one less
proton than it started with. Since an atom loses a proton during beta-plus decay, it changes
from one element to another. For example, after undergoing beta-plus decay, an atom of
carbon (with 6 protons) becomes an atom of boron (with 5 protons).
Although the numbers of protons and neutrons in an atom's nucleus change during beta decay,
the total number of particles (protons + neutrons) remains the same.
Beta Particle

Ejected from the nucleus during beta decay, a beta particle is a fast moving electron or
positron, depending on the type on beta decay involved. Beta particles can travel a few feet
through air and can be stopped with a few sheets of aluminum foil.
Electron Capture

Electron capture is one process that unstable atoms can use to become more stable. During
electron capture, an electron in an atom's inner shell is drawn into the nucleus where it
combines with a proton, forming a neutron and a neutrino. The neutrino is ejected from the
atom's nucleus.
Since an atom loses a proton during electron capture, it changes from one element to another.
For example, after undergoing electron capture, an atom of carbon (with 6 protons) becomes
an atom of boron (with 5 protons).
Although the numbers of protons and neutrons in an atom's nucleus change during electron
capture, the total number of particles (protons + neutrons) remains the same.
Electron capture is also called K-capture since the captured electron usually comes from the
atom's K-shell.
Electron

Electrons are negatively charged particles that surround the atom's nucleus. Electrons were
discovered by J. J. Thomson in 1897.
Particle Data
Symbol Mass Half-life Charge Spin
e
-
0.511 MeV stable -1 1/2
Half-life

The half-life describes the amount of time needed for half of a sample of unstable atoms or
particles to undergo decay. Thallium-208, for example, decays into lead-208 with a half-life
of 3.05 minutes. This means that half of a sample of thallium-208 will decay into lead-208
over the course of 3.05 minutes.
Scientists cannot predict when a particular atom or particle will decay. They only know that,
on average, half of a sample will decay during the span of one half-life.
Isotope

Atoms that have the same number of protons but different numbers of neutrons are called
isotopes. The element hydrogen, for example, has three commonly known isotopes: protium,
deuterium and tritium.
Neutron

Neutrons are uncharged particles found within atomic nuclei. Neutrons were discovered by
James Chadwick in 1932.
Experiments done at the Stanford Linear Accelerator Center in the late 1960's and early
1970's showed that neutrons are made from other particles called quarks. Neutrons are made
from one 'up' quark and two 'down' quarks.
Particle Data
Symbol Mass Half-life Charge Spin Quark Content
n 939.6 MeV in nuclei: stable 0 1/2 udd

free: 15 minutes

Neutron Emission

Neutron emission is one process that unstable atoms can use to become more stable. During
neutron emission, a neutron is ejected from an atom's nucleus.
Since the number of protons within an atom doesn't change during neutron emission, it
doesn't change from one element to another. It does, however, become a different isotope of
that element. For example, after undergoing neutron emission, an atom of beryllium-13 (with
9 neutrons) becomes an atom of beryllium-12 (with 8 neutrons).
Nucleus

Discovered by Ernest Rutherford in 1911, the nucleus is the central part of an atom.
Composed of protons and neutrons, the nucleus contains most of an atom's mass.
Proton

Protons are positively charged particles found within atomic nuclei. Protons were discovered
by Ernest Rutherford in experiments conducted between the years 1911 and 1919.
Experiments done at the Stanford Linear Accelerator Center in the late 1960's and early
1970's showed that protons are made from other particles called quarks. Protons are made
from two 'up' quarks and one 'down' quark.
Particle Data
Symbol Mass Half-life Charge Spin Quark Content
p 938.3 MeV >10
32
years +1 1/2 uud
Proton Emission

Proton emission is one process that unstable atoms can use to become more stable. During
proton emission, a proton is ejected from an atom's nucleus.
Since an atom loses a proton during proton emission, it changes from one element to another.
For example, after undergoing proton emission, an atom of nitrogen (with 7 protons)
becomes an atom of carbon (with 6 protons).

10 Most Abundant Elements in the Earth's Crust
Source: CRC Handbook of Chemistry and Physics, 77th Edition
Element
Abundance
percent by weight
Abundance
parts per million by weight
Oxygen 46.1% 461,000
Silicon 28.2% 282,000
Aluminum 8.23% 82,300
Iron 5.63% 56,300
Calcium 4.15% 41,500
Sodium 2.36% 23,600
Magnesium 2.33% 23,300
Potassium 2.09% 20,900
Titanium 0.565% 5,650
Hydrogen 0.14% 1,400

10 Most Abundant Elements in the Universe
Source: Exploring Chemical Elements and their Compounds; David L. Heiserman, 1992
Element
Abundance
measured relative to silicon
Hydrogen 40,000
Helium 3,100
Oxygen 22
Neon 8.6
Nitrogen 6.6
Carbon 3.5
Silicon 1
Magnesium 0.91
Iron 0.6
Sulfur 0.38
10 Most Abundant Compounds in the Earth's Crust
Source: Exploring Chemical Elements and their Compounds; David L. Heiserman, 1992
Compound Formula
Abundance
percent by weight
Abundance
parts per million by weight
Silicon dioxide SiO
2
42.86% 428,600
Magnesium oxide MgO 35.07% 350,700
Ferrous oxide FeO 8.97% 89,700
Aluminum oxide Al
2
O
3
6.99% 69,900
Calcium oxide CaO 4.37% 43,700
Sodium oxide Na
2
O 0.45% 4,500
Ferric oxide Fe
2
O
3
0.36% 3,600
Titanium dioxide TiO
2
0.33% 3,300
Chromic oxide Cr
2
O
3
0.18% 1,800
Manganese dioxide MnO
2
0.14% 1,400