Circadian Field Photometry

Circadian field photometry
December 1, 2006
PETTERI TEIKARI
petteri.teikari@tkk.fi

PROJECT WORK OF MEASUREMENT SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY FOR THE COURSE
S-108.3120 PROJECT WORK

Course credits:
ECTS Points
Grade (1-5):
Supervisors signature:
M.Sc. Tuomas Hieta

Symbols and abbreviations................................................................................................. 3
1. Introduction............................................................................................................ 4
2. Circadian photobiology ......................................................................................... 6
2.1 Circadian rhythms ......................................................................................................... 7
2.2 Circadian clock mechanism.......................................................................................... 8
2.3 Physiology of the eye.................................................................................................... 9
2.3.1 Ophthalmological optics ..................................................................................................... 12
2.3.2 Pupil pathways .................................................................................................................... 15
2.3.3 Eye movements ................................................................................................................... 17
2.4 Light characteristics .................................................................................................... 19
2.4.1 Spectrum............................................................................................................................. 19
2.4.2 Spatial distribution .............................................................................................................. 22
2.4.3 Intensity............................................................................................................................... 23
2.4.4 Timing................................................................................................................................. 24
2.4.5 Duration .............................................................................................................................. 25
2.4.6 Photic history ...................................................................................................................... 26
2.4.7 Polarization ......................................................................................................................... 26
3. Eye and photometric measurements .................................................................. 27
3.1 Electrical activity ........................................................................................................ 27
3.1.1 Electroretinogram (ERG) .................................................................................................... 27
3.1.2 Electooculogram (EOG)...................................................................................................... 29
3.2 Eye tracking ................................................................................................................ 30
3.2.1 Pelz et al. (2000, 2004) ....................................................................................................... 32
3.2.2 Li et al. (2006): openEyes ................................................................................................... 33
3.3 Pupil size..................................................................................................................... 37
3.3.1 Video-driven infrared pupillography .................................................................................. 38
3.3.2 Photorefractometry.............................................................................................................. 40
3.3.3 Digital photography ............................................................................................................ 41
3.4 Digital-imaging circadian photometry ........................................................................ 43
3.4.1 Circadian-weighed luminancephotometers (Gall et al., 2004) ............................................ 43
3.4.2 Digital photography (Hollan et al., 2004) ........................................................................... 45
3.5 Dosimeters .................................................................................................................. 47
3.5.1 LichtBlick (Hubalek et al., 2004)........................................................................................ 48
3.5.2 Daysimeter (Bierman et al., 2005) ...................................................................................... 49
4. Dosimeter design and simulation........................................................................ 54
4.1 Eyetracker and/or pupil size measurement.................................................................. 54
4.2 Dosimeter .................................................................................................................... 56
4.2.1 Photodiode-based dosimeter ............................................................................................... 56
4.2.2 Spectroradiometer-based..................................................................................................... 61
5. Conclusions ........................................................................................................... 63
6. References ............................................................................................................. 65
Symbols and abbreviations 3
SYMBOLS AND ABBREVIATIONS
wavelength
max peak wavelength
W/cm
2
microwatt per square centimeter
A/Hz
amperes per root hertz

A/W
amperes per watt
acv circadian action factor
Ap pupil area
Ar area of the image at the retina
As source area
B noise bandwidth [Hz]
B() action spectra for blue light hazard (ICNIRP)
B() biological/circadian action spectra
b-lx blue-lx, unit for blue-colored illuminance
BY hypothetical luminous efficiency function for
circadian responses.
c() circadian action function
cd/m
2
candelas per square meter, unit for luminance
dB decibel
DC direct current
dp pupil diameter
dr diameter of the image at the retina
ds diameter of the source
E Energy
Ec corneal irradiance
en noise voltage density
Er retinal irradiance
f frequency
f focal length
g gram
h Plancks constant
Hg high-pressure mercury
Hz Hertz, unit for frequency
Id dark current
If feedback (gain) current
Ijn Johnson noise current
In noise current
in noise current density
In,e noise current from en
in,e noise current density from en
Ip photocurrent
Itot total noise current
J/cm
2
Joules per square centimeter
K Kelvin, unit for (color) temperature
kB Boltzmann constant
kbauds/s kilobauds per second
lm/w lumens per watt, unit for luminous efficacy
Ls source radiance
lx lx, unit for illuminance
mA milliampere
mAh milliampere hour
MB megabyte
Mbps megabits per second
MHz megahertz
mm millimeter
M melanopsin-containing retinal ganglion cell
spectral efficiency
nm nanometer, normal unit for wavelength
nV nanovolt
pA picoampere
Pr retinal power
P spectral irradiance at the eye [W/m
2
/nm]
Rf feedback (gain) resistance
Rsh shunt resistance
R photosensitivity
S S cone spectral efficiency
T temperature [K]
V()
spectral sensitivity curve for photopic vision
V/Hz
volts per root hertz

V rod spectral efficiency function
V10 photopic spectral sensitivity for centrally fixated
large target
VDC volts, direct current
W watt
Xec circadian radiation quantity
Xv photometric radiation quantity
angular subtense of the source
lens transmittance
luminous flx [lm]
e, Spectral radiance [Wm
-2
]
ohm, unit for resistance
s solid angle [sr]

Symbols and abbreviations 4
+/+ wild type mice
ADC analog-to-digital converter
AgCl silver chloride
CBT core body temperature
CBTmin core body temperature minimum
CCD charge-coupled device
CCT correlated color temperature
CD compact disc
CIE International Commission on Illumination
CMOS complementary metal oxide semiconductor
CP constant posture
CR constant routine
CRH corticotropin-releasing hormone
CT circadian time
DLMO dim light melatonin onset
DLMOff dim ligh melatonin offset
DLMOn dim light melatonin onset
DMH dorsomedial hypothalamic nucleus
dmSCN dorsomedial suprachiasmatic nucleus
dSPZ dorsal subparaventricular zone
EB eye blink
ECG electrocardiogram
EEG electroencephalogram
EOG electrooculogram
ERG electroretinogram
ERP early-receptor potential
EW Edinger-Westphal nucleus
fMRI functional magnetic resonance imaging
FOV field of view
FWHM full width at half maximum
GNU GNU's Not Unix
GPL General Public License
GTP ganosine triphosphate
hbw half bandwidth
hbw half bandwidth
IC integrated circuit
IEEE-1394 Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers,
standard 1394 (FireWire, i.LINK)
INL inner nuclear layer
ipRGC intrinsically photosensitive retinal ganglion cell
IR infrared
IRC intensity response curve
IRED infrared LED
KRG potassiumretinogram
LASIK laser-assisted in situ keratomileusis
LCD liquid crystal display
LED light emitting diode
LGN lateral geniculate nucleus
LRP late-receptor potential
MPO medial preoptic region
mRGC melanopsin-containing retinal ganglion cells
M-RGC magno-retinal ganglion cells
NIF non-image forming
ONL outer nuclear level
PF prefrontal
PLR pupillary light reflex
PPRF paramedine pontine reticular formation
PRC phase response curve
P-RGC parvo-retinal ganglion cells
PRK photorefractive keratectomy
PU Pupillary Unrest
PUI Pupillary Unrest Index
RANSAC Random Sample Consensus
REM rapid eye movement sleep
RGC retinal ganglion cell
RHT retino-hypothalamic tract
RI retinal illuminace
RMS root-mean-square
RS-232 a standard for serial binary data interconnection
SCN suprachiasmatic nucleus
SD standard deviation
SEM slow eye movement
SEM standard error of the mean
SPD spectral power distribution
USB Universial Serial Bus
UV ultraviolet
VDT video display terminals
VDU video display unit
VLPO ventrolateral preoptic nucleus
vlSCN ventrolateral suprachiasmatic nucleus
vSPZ ventral subparaventricular zone

Introduction 5
1. INTRODUCTION
Over 150 years since the discovery of the retinal rod and cone photoreceptors in 1834, it
has been believed that, both visual and biological effects induced by light would be
dependent on those two traditional photoreceptors. However in 2002, through the discovery
of a novel photoreceptor in the eye by David Berson et al. [1] views have changed on how
human vision system works. The novel photoreceptor, intrinsically photosensitive retinal
ganglion cell (ipRGC) is one of the known ~20 ganglion cells in human retina. It has been
estimated that of all retinal ganglion cells (RGC), 0.25% are photosensitive ipRGCs [2]. It
was found [3] that the novel photoreceptor is responsible mainly for regulating light-
induced human biological rhythms (circadian rhythms) by synchronizing body to
environmental light/dark-cycle. It has also been proposed [4] to mediate light-induced
increase in alertness, pupillary responses, and as a possible target for seasonal depression
treatment. This novel photoreceptor may have many consequences for practical
applications both in general lighting and lighting for special groups (e.g. elderly, shift
workers, patients suffering from seasonal depression) so it has become a great interest of
research in the lighting community [5].
However, the characteristics of non-image forming (NIF) visual system differ from the
conventional visual system based on cones and rods. The NIF visual system has a higher
threshold for activation, requires longer exposures for activation, depends on the location of
light source in the visual field, and most importantly has different spectral characteristics
with the peak wavelength (
max
=480 nm) shifted towards the blue part of visible spectrum.
Given that the spectral characteristics are different with the NIF visual system;
conventional photometric illuminance can not be used to quantify the NIF responses in
humans. As the temporal characteristics (duration and timing of light exposure) differ from
visual system, simple measurement of task illuminance is not sufficient to determine the
NIF effective light response for example during normal office work.
Measurement situations with NIF effective lighting can be divided roughly into two
categories: measurement in strictly controlled laboratory studies and to field studies and
workplace measurements. This work addresses the problems measuring the NIF effective
light exposure by means of a literature review in field conditions using a portable head-
mounted light dosimeter. However given that the biological effects of given light exposure
are not completely unknown, the simple measurement of light exposure is not sufficient to
produce new knowledge on the NIF visual system. Both in field and laboratory studies
physiological measurements are needed to study the causality between biological effects
and light. Within the scope of this work the physiological measures are only briefly
reviewed. In reality when designing a dosimeter, the simultaneous measurement of
measures such as ERG, EOG, EEG and ECG with light exposure should be taken into
account (e.g. electromagnetic compatibility and space/weight restrictions). For a review of
the physiology related to light exposure and NIF responses, the Masters thesis of the
author is suggested [6].
In this work chapter 2 reviews briefly the circadian photobiology that is needed to
understand the needs of the new measurement device needed to quantify the NIF responses.
Chapter 3 reviews the literature on existing technologies for measuring NIF effective light
exposure and the related measurements such as pupil size, eye tracking, electrical activity
of eye, and NIF effective ambient luminosity distribution. In Chapter 4 the possible
improvements and cost-cutting methods for the measurement are reviewed with some basic
signal-to-noise ratio comparisons.

Circadian photobiology 6
2. CIRCADIAN PHOTOBIOLOGY
The whole concept of circadian rhythm is the most essential point of this work so its
essential to clarify what it really means. Circadian (circa, meaning approximately and dies,
meaning day) clock exists practically in every organism starting from cyanobacteria to
humans [7-10]. Genuine circadian rhythms are generated totally endogenously without
external cues (zeitgebers=time givers) like light. Light is thought to be the strongest
zeitgeber, but in reality some weaker zeitgebers (nonphotic entrainment) can have even
greater effect on human circadian rhythms in certain special cases. These weaker zeitgebers
include social interaction, sleep/wake schedules, food, drugs, auditory and olfactory
stimuli, temperature, and exercise [11]. In general circadian rhythms are advantageous to
organisms to anticipate changes in the environment, such as the rising and setting of the
sun. Other rhythms that affect our bodies include ultradian, which are cycles that are shorter
than day, for example, the milliseconds it takes for a neuron to fire, or a 90-minute sleep
cycle. Theres also infradian, referring to cycles longer than 24 hours like monthly
menstruation for example. There are also seasonal rhythms (photoperiod) like those in
hibernation, and reproduction [12].
People have noted the existence of daily rhythms throughout the history. In 1729, Jean
Jacques DOrtous de Mairan, a French astronomer, had a sharp insight into how to test
whether a daily rhythm is internal or completely dictated by external stimulus [13]. He
studied this by keeping a heliotrope (plant) in the dark and noticed that its leaves kept
opening and closing despite the lack of light. De Mairan however didnt conduct any
further experiments on this subject. In the 1850s Karl von Frisch, Gustav Kramer and Colin
Pittendrigh each independently discovered compelling evidence for internal clocks in
animals [14]. These investigations were the beginning of the modern field of circadian
photobiology. In the 1960s Jrgen Aschoff, a German researcher conducted a human study
on circadian rhythms [15]. He built a bunker in which volunteers lived for several weeks.
Most of the time they were totally isolated from real world without any sunlight, and
occasionally the door to bunker was opened revealing the real
world. Aschoff noticed in his study that even though
volunteers were isolated, their sleep-wake cycles persisted.
But he also found that their biological clock got
desynchronized with the real world because their endogenous
cycle wasnt exactly 24 hours, average periodicity being 24.5
hours. Aschoffs final conclusion was that when the door was
reopened, the subjects readjusted their clocks meaning that it
was possible to reset their circadian clock by external cues.
Still Aschoff didnt know how this circadian clock works,
and whether it could be located in a particular part of the
body.
Normally animals have been divided into nocturnal (active
during night) and diurnal (active during day), but there exists
also some adaptability to environmental situation at circadian
level, which is the case with Finnish bats which are nocturnal mainly during the warm
months of the summer. However, in the spring and fall, when environmental factors no
longer favor night flight (fewer insects to eat during the colder nights, and fewer birds to
compete with and to prey on bats during the day), their activity cycle shifts to the daylight
hours [16,17]. In the 1970s scientists demonstrated that the mammalian clock is located in a
part of the brain called hypothalamus, specifically in a set of neurons on each side of the
Figure 1. Rhythm of Finnish bats.
The gray region indicates the night
period and the black bars show
the actual activity time for the bats
on each day [17].
brain called the suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN). It was noticed that when removing the
SCN from rats and hamsters, the animals lost their normal biological rhythms. However
when transplanting the SCN back to into hamsters, the normal rhythms were restored.
Recently experiments have shown that the SCN can be completely isolated from the animal
and still measure chemical and physiological signals from it in vitro conditions. Later SCN
and the other hypothalamic nuclei involved in regulation of circadian rhythms will be
reviewed.

2.1 CIRCADIAN RHYTHMS
Cyclical fluctuations around 37C in core body temperature (CBT) are perhaps the best
documented circadian rhythm. Gierse [18] had already shown in 1842 that his own oral
temperature revealed a maximum temperature in the early evening and minimum in the
early morning. Aschoff et al. [19,20] showed that circadian rhythm is caused both by
changes in heat production and changes in heat loss, and concluded that heat production
undergoes a circadian rhythm which is phase advanced by 1.2 h with respect to the
circadian rhythm of heat loss, and this delay is caused by bodys inertia and because
transport of heat takes time. This individual regulation of the heat production and heat loss
results in much finer tuning of the CBT rhythm than if only one of these components were
regulated [21]. It has been proposed [22] that body temperature represents the underlying
mechanism regulating performance. The speed of
thinking and performance depends on the level of
metabolic processes in neurons in the cerebral
cortex. However, the interrelationship between
thermoregulatory and sleepiness/performance
regulatory mechanisms is rather complex and not
fully understood [21]. CBT can be easily
measured continuously by using a rectal
thermistor (e.g. Harvard Apparatus YSI 400
Series [23]).
Another common circadian rhythm measured in
chronobiological studies, is the circadian rhythm
of melatonin hormone. Melatonin (C
13
H
16
N
2
O
2
;
molecule weight232,278 g/mol), 5-methoxy-N-
acetyltryptamine, is a hormone produced
primarily by pinealocytes in the pineal gland
(located in the brain) [24]. It can be considered to
be a reliable marker of the circadian phase as it is
secreted in very strict circadian manner peaking
during the night. It is synthesized and secreted at night
in both day-active and night-active species [25],
thereby acting as a signal for the length of day and
night. Despite its robust circadian behavior many
mechanisms of melatonin are still unclear [26].
Abnormal melatonin levels caused by lighting at
wrong biological time in night-shift workers have been
connected to increased risk of breast cancer in women
[27-30]. The typical circadian variations of plasma
melatonin and core body temperature are seen in
Figure 2 [31]. Melatonin levels are usually used as a

Figure 3. Relative (%) circadian phase
markers using melatonin. DLMO, dim-
light melatonin onset, DLMOFF dim-light
melatonin offset [33].
Figure 2. Plots of (A) endogenous plasma
melatonin, and (B) core body temperature with
data folded at endogenous circadian period as
determined by core body temperature for each
subject. Abscissa refers to biological time which
corresponds different clock time in every
individual. In average minimum in CBT
(CBTmin) occurs around 04:00 hours [31].
marker for the phase shifts in circadian rhythms. This phase-shift in practice means that
light exposure can delay or advance the onset of nocturnal melatonin rhythm [32]. Typical
methods to assess the time of nocturnal melatonin surge can be seen in Figure 3 [33]. Other
circadian rhythms include the diurnal rhythms of cortisol [34], thyrotropin (TSH) [35],
prolactin [36], vasopressin [37], and growth hormone (GH) [38] among many others.

2.2 CIRCADIAN CLOCK MECHANISM
In this chapter different brain regions and the hormones involved in the regulation of
circadian rhythms are briefly reviewed. The information presented here should be taken
with caution as all the presented areas require
further research. Hypothalamus is a structure
in the brain located below the thalamus and it
regulates various metabolic and autonomic
processed [39]. Given its central position in
the brain and its proximity to the pituitary
(Figure 4) it is involved as an integrator of
both sensory and contextual information.
Hypothalamus consists of various nuclei
(Figure 5). A lot about the hypothalamus is
still unknown, but some actions are at least
partially understood and can be described at
basic level.
Suprachiasmatic nuclei (plural form of
nucleus) are nuclei in the hypothalamus
situated immediately above the optic chiasm
(Figure 5) on either side of the third ventricle
in anterior hypothalamus. The SCN is one of
four nuclei that receive nerve signals
directly from the retina through
retinohypothalamic tract (RHT, Figure 4);
the others are lateral geniculate nucleus
(LGN), the superior colliculus and the
pretectum. In the 1970s the biological clock
was located in SCN [40,41], and it was
shown that SCN contain genetically driven
clock mechanism that ensures a nearly 24
hour cycle [42]. Precise estimation of the
periods of the endogenous circadian rhythms
of melatonin, core body temperature, and
cortisol in healthy individuals living in
carefully controlled lighting conditions
indicates that the intrinsic period of the
human circadian pacemaker averages 24.18
hours with a tight distribution that is
consistent with other species [43]. Circadian
rhythmicity is abolished by SCN lesions [41] and restored by SCN transplants [44].
Traditionally SCN has been subdivided into a dorsomedial shell (dmSCN) and a
ventrolateral core (vlSCN) based on retinal innervation and phenotypically distinct cell
Figure 5. The hypothalamus, showing the location of the
suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN), which in mammals is
the primary biological clock. [39]
Figure 4. Schematic summary of targets influenced
by photosensitive retinal ganglion cells. Projections to
the SCN from the retinohypothalamic tract (RHT)
[39].
types [45,46], while this subdivision has also been criticized for simplifying the SCN
structure [47]. Intrinsically rhythmic cells are largely confined to the SCN shell [48],
receive little retinal innervation [46], and displays delayed clock gene expression following
phase-shifting light exposure [49]. Cells in the SCN core receive direct retinal innervation
[50] and express c-fos, Per1 and Per2 in response to phase-shifting light pulses [51-53].
Cells in the SCN core oscillate in response to light stimulus. Light exposure always
increases firing rates in SCN neurons [54], although light induces clock gene expression in
the SCN only during the night [55].
The simplified assumption that SCN is responsible solely for circadian rhythms is
inadequate for in-depth understanding of the human circadian rhythms. Currently human
circadian rhythms are thought to be controlled via multioscillator organization
hypothalamic nuclei [56-58]. SCN provides three major output pathways. One pathway
runs into the medial preoptic region (MPO) and then up into paraventricular nucleus of
thalamus. A second pathway runs to the retrochiasmatic area and the capsule of the
ventromedial nucleus. The third pathway, which contains the largest portion of the SCN
efferent (going away, opposite is afferent) flow, runs mainly to vSPZ and dSPZ with
smaller proportion terminating to the DMH. Also small numbers of SCN axons innervate
directly the areas that are involved in feeding, wake-sleep cycles and secretion of hormones
such as melatonin (presumably through dorsal parvicellular portion of the paraventricular
nucleus [59]) and corticotrophin-releasing hormone (CRH) [60]. The further examination
of circadian clock mechanism is beyond the scope of this work.

2.3 PHYSIOLOGY OF THE EYE
The simplified anatomy of an eye is shown n Figure 6 [61]. The pupil allows light to enter
the eye. It appears dark because of the absorbing pigments in the retina. The pupil is
surrounded by beautifully pigmented iris, which is a circular muscle controlling the amount
of light entering the eye. Both pupil and the iris are covered by a transparent external
surface called the cornea. This is the first and most powerful lens of the optical system of
the eye and allows, together with the crystalline lens the production of a sharp image at the
retinal photoreceptor level. The purpose of the lens is to focus light onto the back of the
eye. The lens is encased in a capsular-like bag and suspended within the eye by tiny guy
wires called zonules. The cornea is continuous with the sclera, the white of the eye,
which forms part of the supporting wall of the eyeball. Furthermore this external covering
of the eye is in continuity with the dura of the central nervous system. The sclera and the
cornea form the external layer of eye.
Figure 6. a) Vertical, and b) horizontal sagittal section of the adult human eye [61].
a) b)
Retina is the sensory part of eye and part of the central nervous system. The central point
for image focus (the visual axis) in the human retina is the fovea. The optic axis is the
longest sagittal distance between the front or vertex of the cornea and the furthest posterior
part of the eyeball. It is about the optic axis that the eye is rotated by the eye muscles. In the
center of the retina is the optic nerve, a circular oval white area. From the center of the
optic nerve radiate the major blood vessels of the retina. Approximately 17 degrees (4.5-5
mm), or two and half optic disc diameters to the left of the optic disc (or optic nerve head is
the point in the eye where the optic nerve fibers leave the retina), can be seen the slightly
oval-shaped, blood vessel-free reddish spot, the fovea, which is at the center of the area
known as the macula. It is a small and highly sensitive part of the retina responsible for
detailed central vision. A circular field of approximately 6 mm around the fovea is
considered the central retina while beyond this is peripheral retina stretching to the ora
serrata. The optic nerve contains the ganglion cell axons running to the brain and,
additionally, incoming blood vessels that open into the retina to vascularize the retinal
layers and neurons. A radial section of a portion of the retina reveals that the ganglion cells
(the output neurons of the retina) lie innermost in the retina closest to the lens and front of
the eye, and the classical photosensors (the rods and cones) lie outermost in the retina
against the pigment epithelium and choroid (Figure 7A [62]). All vertebrate retinas are
composed of three layers of nerve cell bodies and two layers of synapses (Figure 7B). The
outer nuclear layer (ONL) contains cell bodies of the rods and cones, the inner nuclear layer
(INL) contains cell bodies of the bipolar, horizontal and amacrine cells and the ganglion
cell layer contains cell bodies of ganglion cells and displaced amacrine cells. Between these
layers are areas called neuropils where synaptic contacts occur.
Traditionally cones and rods have been thought to be the only photoreceptors in
mammalian retina, but after the discovery of the novel photoreceptor ipRGCs the exact
roles of all three photoreceptors are not fully understood. The rod system is specialized for
vision at very low light levels, but with the expense of poor spatial resolution. When only
rods are activated the perception is called scotopic vision. With only rods active it is
impossible to neither sense color differences or to make exact visual discriminations. The
cone system has a very high spatial resolution, with color sensing abilities in the expense of
poor light sensitivity. At about the level of starlight the cones begin to contribute to vision
and they become more and more dominant as light level increases. At very high light levels
such as in sunlight, only cones are active and rods are totally saturated [63]. This condition
is called photopic vision. The area between scotopic and photopic vision is called mesopic
(A)
Figure 7. (A) Simple diagram of the organization of the retina. (B) 3-D block of a portion of human retina. [62]
(B)
vision, which is characterized by contribution of both rods and cones. The estimated upper
luminance limit for mesopic vision is 3-10 cd/m
2
[64].
Spectral sensitivities for photopic, mesopic and
scotopic vision can be seen in Figure 8 [65].
The retina contains about 20 different retinal ganglion
cells (RGCs) [66], which basically are responsible for
the output of visual data to the brain. At the basic level
ganglion cells can be divided in two ways, either by
their receptive field with the division to magno (M-)
and parvo (P-) cells, or by their polarization response
to light (ON and OFF cells). M-RGCs terminate in
the magnocellular layer of the lateral geniculate
nucleus (LGN) of the thalamus, and P-RGCs
terminate in the parvocellular layer of the LGN. The
conventional view was that ganglion cells got their
commands from rods and cones, and ganglion cells
did not have any light-sensitive properties themselves
[1]. In the beginning of 1980s, however, behavioral
studies especially those of Foster and colleagues,
began to challenge this model [67]. Photic entrainment
exhibited high thresholds, low-pass temporal filtering
and long-term temporal integration that seemed
difficult to explain with the conventional model of
cones and rods. This was backed up by studies made with blind mice [68-70] with severe
degeneration of classical photoreceptors as well as studies done with certain blind humans
[71]. However, it was not clear at all that the receptor for circadian phase would be found
from the eye. In non-mammalian animals light penetrating directly to brains acts as
circadian pacemaker. In mammals, however, many studies were made and no impact on
circadian phase could be shown after eye removal [72-75]. Interestingly, one study reported
a bright light behind the knee phase-shifting circadian rhythm [76], but the results could not
be replicated [77,78] making this explanation a bit unlikely at the moment.
The discovery of circadian photoreceptor was at last made by David M. Berson et al. [1].
The novel photoreceptor is abbreviated as ipRGC (intrinsically photosensitive retinal
ganglion cells), or as mRGC (melanopsin-containing retinal ganglion cell, mRGC) due to
the photopigment responsible for the noticed non-image forming (NIF) effects. Melanopsin
was first discovered by Ignacio Provencio and his colleagues [79,80], and is named by the
cells in which it first was isolated: the dermal melanophores of frog skin. The two main
differences of ipRGCs compared to cones and rods, are that light depolarizes ipRGC while
the opposite happens with rods and cones; and ipRGCs are far more sluggish compared to
rod and cones, response latencies being as long as a minute. The results are not consistent
about the peak wavelength of melanopsin-pigment. Qiu et al. [81], and Panda et al. [82]
show that melanopsin
max
is very close to 480 nm, but Melyan et al. [83] and Newman et
al. [84] suggest that melanopsin has
max
closer to 420-430nm. The most likely explanation
for this kind of large difference was that Newman et al. [84] were the only ones who
determined the direct absorption spectrum of melanopsin in vitro conditions whereas all the
other studies were done in vivo conditions [85]. Peak absorption spectrum of 420-430 nm
might well be the intrinsic peak wavelength for melanopsin, but it would not be the actual
peak wavelength responsible of the wide range of the biological effects mediated by
ipRGCs. There is also some preliminary evidence that some cones contain also melanopsin
and are involved in circadian phototransduction [86].
Figure 8. Spectral sensitivity functions of
the eye. In photopic vision, when cones
are active, the sensitivity follows the
function V( ) with a peak wavelength of
555nm. At very low light levels only rods
are active, and spectral sensitivity follows
V( )-function with a peak wavelength of
505nm. The V
mes
( ) is one example of the
possible mesopic spectral sensitivity as no
consensus exists on it yet. The V
10
( ) is is
the photopic spectral sensitivity for
centrally fixated large target [65].
2.3.1 Ophthalmological optics
Figure 9 shows the human visual fields, which are divided first to monocular (one eye) and
binocular visual fields (two eyes), and then further into superior/inferior and nasal/temporal
visual fields. Figure 9B shows how the image is inversed onto the surface of the retina, and
how the different quadrants of monocular visual fields are related to the binocular vision. It
is important to notice from Figure 9C that light reaching nasal (inner) part of the retina is
coming from peripheral visual field and vice versa, and the same thing happens with
superior/inferior visual fields, where the object (e.g. sky) in the superior visual field is
projected to the inferior part of the retina [39].
Binocular visual field is larger than either of the monocular visual fields. Forehead, nose
and cheeks limit visual field so that it is larger horizontally than vertically. Binocular visual
field is horizontally about 190, and below the horizontal level about 70-80 and above 50-
60 [87]. It should be noted that the human visual field is much larger than normal 35mm
lens used in cameras. However, visual processing is not uniform across the visual field:
25% of cortex is devoted to the central five degrees of the field of view [88].
Figure 9. Projection of the visual fields onto the left and right retinas. (A) Projection of an image onto the
surface of the retina. The passage of light rays through the optical elements of the eye results in images that are
inverted and left-right reversed on the retinal surface. (B) Retinal quadrants and their relation to the
organization of monocular and binocular visual fields, as viewed from the back surface of the eyes. (C)
Projection of the binocular field of view onto the two retinas and its relation to the crossing of fibers in the optic
chiasm. Points in the binocular portion of the left visual field (B) fall on the nasal retina of the left eye and the
temporal retina of the right eye. Points in the binocular portion of the right visual field (C) fall on the nasal
retina of the right eye and the temporal retina of the left eye. Points that lie in the monocular portions of the left
and right visual fields (A and D) fall on the left and right nasal retinas, respectively. [39].
Human eye as an optical instrument is briefly reviewed here as the actual retinal
illuminance or irradiance depends on the optical characteristics of the eye. Figure 10B [89]
shows the simplified version of the human eye as an optical system. The size of the pupil
determines (pupil diameter d
p
) the light entering the eye. Figure 10A [89] shows the
wavelength dependent transmittance (from cornea to retina) and retinal absorption.
Transmittance is important for the actual retinal irradiance whereas retinal absorption
affects the amount of retinal damage from light exposure.
Between the corneal irradiance E
c
, the retinal irradiance E
r
, and the radiance of the source
L
s
, the following relation exists [89]:
p
r r
r
r
2
s
2
2
p
2
s
2
p
2
r
2
s
s s s c
A
A E
A
P
r
A f
d
4
r
A
d
f 4 E
r
A
L L E
= = =
(1)
r
p c
s
2
p
r
A
A E
L
f 4
d
E

=

= (2)
Where, E
c
= corneal irradiance
L
s
= source radiance
s
= solid angle [sr]
A
s
= source area
r = distance between the source and lens
P
r
= retinal power
= lens transmittance
d
p
= pupil diameter
f = focal length, can be estimated to be 1,7 cm [89,90]
E
r
= retinal irradiance
A
r
= area of the image at the retina
A
p
= pupil area
The image size (diameter) of the source at the retina can be calculated quite simply [89]:
f
r
f
d d
s r
= = (3)
Where, d
r
= size of image at the retina
d
s
= size of the source
f = focal length, can be estimated to be 1,7 cm [89,90]
r = distance between the source and lens
= angular subtense of the source
Transmittance
Absorption
%
Figure 10. (A) Transmittance of optical radiation from cornea to retina and the absorption at the retina [89]. (B)
Eye as an optical system [89].
(A) (B)

The size of the image at the retina depends on distance between the source and lens. In
practice the retinal irradiance can de different while the corneal irradiance is the same.
Larger angular subtense produces smaller retinal irradiance and smaller then
consequently produces larger retinal irradiance [91]. This is why the corneal irradiance (or
illuminance) should always be controlled when conducting experiments by neutral density
filter rather than moving light sources further from eye as circadian responses ultimately
depend on the retinal irradiance.
Figure 12 shows the wavelength dependent
average transmittance of human lens [92-
95]. It can be seen that in the visible part of
spectrum newborn lens does not have
significant wavelength dependence. In the
age group of 20-29 years the transmittance
of the blue part of the visible spectrum is
slightly attenuated, and in the age group 60-
69 years the attenuation is really significant
due to yellowing of the lens. In visual
responses the human brain can compensate
the attenuation of the blue light in a manner
that the world does not appear to be less
blue for the older people [96,97].
The transmittance of the human lens in
different age groups accompanied with the
spectral transmittance of intraocular lens
(used after cataract removal surgery) [98],
the proposed melatonin suppression curve,
and the cornea is shown in Figure 11 [99].
Corneal spectral transmittance remains
relatively constant in aging as supported by
the study by Beems et al. [100] that the
corneal transmission for donors younger
than 45 yr (n = 3, 2243 yr) did not differ
significantly from that of donors older than
45 yr (n = 5, 6787 yr) at any wavelength.

Figure 12. The average transmittance of human
lenses for three different age groups as a function of
wavelength [92,95].
WAVELENGTH
%
Figure 11. Transmittance data for lens: 14 years (); 49
years (+); 92 years () (after Weale, 1985 [93]); mean
lens data (X) (after Stockman and Sharpe, 2000 [63]);
intraocular lens (*) (after Mainster, 1986 [98]); cornea
() (after Beems and van Best, 1990 [100]). The heavy
continuous curve shows the relative sensitivity of the
presumed photopigment (after Thapan et al., 2001
[116]. Graph from Charman [99].
2.3.2 Pupil pathways
It was assumed in earlier days that pupil light response (PLR) was driven by a single
subcortical pathway and this was because of persisted pupillary light reflex in cortically
blind people [101]. Recently however this hypothesis has been replaced with a theory of
bilateral signaling involving two different pathways [102]. Pupillary reflexes have been
divided into steady-state pupil size depending on the ambient light level, and brisk and
transient constriction of pupil size depending on rapid changes in light flux, which is also
described as dynamic PLR response. Shining light in the eye thus leads to an increase in the
activity of pretectal neurons, which stimulates the Edinger-Westphal neurons and the ciliary
ganglion neurons they innervate, thus constricting the pupil. Pupil-related pathway is
shown in Figure 13.
Pupil size is determined by iris movement, which is
controlled by two antagonistic muscles, the sphincter
and the dilator. Activation of the sphincter of the iris
causes the pupil to constrict (i.e., miosis), this being
largely under parasympathetic control and involving
ciliary ganglion. Dilator is under sympathetic control,
and causes the pupil to dilate (mydriasis) through
superior cervical ganglion controlled by EW nucleus.
Sympathetic system is associated with fight-or-flight
responses with epinephrine and norepinephrine
stimulation. Parasympathetic system is the opposite and
it is sometimes called the rest and digest system for
its ability to relax and slow down the functions of
organs (slowing heart beat and increasing its
constricting power). In practice general arousal through
increased sympathetic activity will cause pupil dilation
independent of the ambient light level, and vice versa.
Like with all lens systems, the size of the pupil
Figure 13. The circuitry responsible for the pupillary light reflex. This pathway includes bilateral projections from
the retina to the pretectum and projections from the pretectum to the Edinger-Westphal nucleus. Neurons in the
Edinger-Westphal (EW) nucleus terminate in the ciliary ganglion, and neurons in the ciliary ganglion innervate
the pupillary constrictor muscles. Notice that the afferent axons activate both Edinger-Westphal nuclei via the
neurons in the pretectum [39].
Figure 14. Example of dynamic pupil
light reflex responses to flashes of
increasing luminance contrast, i.e.,
L/Lb = 0.3, 0.6, 0.9, 1.2, 1.5 & 2.15
[102].
(aperture) determines the amount of light entering to retina (retinal illuminance, RI). Pupil
size also controls the aberrations and depth of the field of the eye in the same manner as in
camera. A smaller aperture (larger f-value) will enhance depth of field and reduce
aberrations [103].
PLR response can be divided into steady-state and transient (dynamic) component. The
steady-state component is determined by ambient light level and is characterized by neural
mechanisms that response to overall light flux changes, large dynamic range and exhibit
large spatial summation. Dynamic PLR response is very rapid to rapid light flux change as
seen in Figure 14 [102]. Observed transient constriction would need from neurons the
following properties: limited spatial summation, band-pass temporal response
characteristic, and high contrast gain. A light stimulus always depends on both components,
but the relative contribution each component makes to constriction will depend on size of
the stimulus, its luminance contrast, onset temporal characteristics and location in the visual
field. As observed in Figure 14 pupil constriction is greater with higher luminance contrast,
when pupil response is more dominated by steady-state component. Participation of steady-
state component could be even further increased with larger stimulus size.
Despite involvement of both rod and cone photoreceptors in determining pupil size [104-
106], there is an increasing amount of evidence pointing out that ipRGCs play some role in
pupillary controls as functional pupillary light reflex (PLR) has been shown to be retained
in rodent models of retinal generation (impaired cone/rod function) [107-111]. The results
of the spectral sensitivity for the pupillary reflex obtained by Alpern and Campbell [105]
can be seen in Figure 15. It can be seen that photopic pupil response is close to the photopic
spectral efficiency curve V() and the scotopic pupil response curve is close to the scotopic
spectral efficiency curve
V(). However, pupil size
has been noticed to be
smaller under light with
higher CCT [136] (8000
K) compared to light
sources with CCT=4100 K
slightly in contrast with the
curves presented in Figure
15. Pupil responses have
also been noticed to be
larger on exposure of the
nasal part of the retina
(temporal visual field)
[112], having similar
spatial characteristics as
melatonin suppression (as
later noticed) [150].

Figure 15. (A) Mean spectral sensitivity curve for the photopic pupil response
(
max
550 nm) of two subjects. Differential threshold measurements () are
plotted for 2 sec flashes of a 2 test patch centrally fixated and seen against a
continuous blue background. Interrupted line, CIE photopic luminosity
curve; solid line, mean results of psychophysical measurements of photopic
luminosity (flicker photometry) on the same two subjects with the same
apparatus. (B) Solid line-Deviations of the pupil results under scotopic
conditions (
max
500 nm) from the CIE spectral sensitivity data (25 V
criterion) and corrected for the absorption in the eye media (double
passage); , the b-wave of the ERG of the dark-adapted eye. Mean results
from two observers [105].
(A) (B)
2.3.3 Eye movements
There are four basic types of eye movements:
saccades, smooth pursuit movements, vergence
movements, and vestibule-ocular movements.
They all have their own controlling neural
circuitry. Eye movements are very important as
high visual acuity is restricted only to fovea, and
eye is always trying to direct fovea to new objects
of interest (foveation). Russian physiologist
Alfred Yarbus demonstrated in his experiments in
the 1960s the pattern of eye movements while
examining an object [113]. Yarbus used contact
lenses with small mirrors attached to them to track
eye movements. Results can be seen in Figure 17
revealing subjects gaze while viewing a bust of
Queen Nefertiti. Thin lines represent the quick,
ballistic movements (saccades) and the denser
spots represent points of fixation where the
observer paused to take in visual information (only
a few tens of milliseconds).
First types of eye movements, saccades, are rapid,
ballistic movements that abruptly change the point
of fixation. The amplitude of saccades can range
from small correction movements (with reading) to
larger (gazing around a room) movements. The
rapid eye movements during REM-sleep are also
saccades.
Time behaviors of saccades are illustrated in
Figure 16, which shows that there is about 200ms
delay if an already fixated target starts to move.
This delay is used to compute an appropriate
correction and if the target keeps moving, another
computation is needed. This is the main problem
with saccades as both the amplitude (how far) and
the direction of the movement should be computed
as accurate as possibly. The amplitude of the
movement is controlled by firing duration of lower
motor neurons of the oculomotor nuclei. Figure 18
shows the control of horizontal movement using
lateral and medial muscles.
The direction of the movement is determined by
which eye muscles are activated. In principle any
given direction could be controlled just summing
different eye muscle activity, but in reality the complexity of such mechanism would be
great. Basically the control has been divided into two gaze centers: paramedine pontine
reticular formation (PPRF) or a horizontal gaze center; and rostral interstitial nucleus or
vertical gaze center. Centers can be separately activated and the rotational movements are
determined by relative contribution of each center.
Figure 17. The eye movements of a subject
viewing a picture of Queen Nefertiti. The bust
on the left is what the subject saw; the
diagram on the right shows the subject's eye
movements over a 2-minute viewing period
[39].
Figure 16. The metrics of a saccadic eye
movement. The red line indicates the position of
a fixation target and the blue line the position of
the fovea. When the target moves suddenly to
the right, there is a delay of about 200 ms before
the eye begins to move to the new target position
[39].
Figure 18. Motor neuron activity in relation to
saccadic eye movements. The experimental
setup is shown on the right. In this example, an
abducens lower motor neuron fires a burst of
activity (upper trace) that precedes and extends
throughout the movement (solid line). An
increase in the tonic level of firing is associated
with more lateral displacement of the eye [39].
Computation of the movements does not take place at gaze centers as they get their input
from the superior colliculus of the midbrain and region called frontal eye field (Brodmanns
area 8) as seen in Figure 19. Both areas respond to visual
stimuli and have specific visual and motor maps equivalent to
retinotopic mapping. The responses of superior colliculus are
better known than frontal eye field.
The simplified relation between superior colliculus and
frontal eye field is the following: the frontal eye field projects
to the superior colliculus and the superior colliculus projects
to the PPRF on the contralateral side (Figure 19), as it does
also to vertical gaze center which is excluded from the
picture for the sake of clarity. The frontal eye field then
controls the eye movements by activating selected
populations of superior colliculus neurons. It can also project
directly to PPRF and control eye movements independently
of the superior colliculus. Frontal eye field is also responsible
for systematic scanning of visual field to locate an object of
interest from background noise.
It was thought in early 1970s when the collicular maps were
found that saccadic movements could be easily estimated
using visual/motor map matching. However later it has been
found that saccade movements dont necessarily even need
visual stimuli. As seen in Figure 20, nonvisual stimuli like
auditory or somatic stimuli can activate motor neurons and
produce saccade movements. Also it has been discovered that
animals can be trained not to make saccades when an object appeared to visual field, which
led to a development of more complex models as seen in Figure 20. We can see that theres
a direct connection between motor and visual neurons, which probably provide the
substance for the very short latency (~100ms) reflex-like express saccades, which have
been notices even after the destruction of the frontal eye fields.
The second type of eye movement, smooth pursuit movements are much slower tracking
movements designed to keep a moving stimulus on the fovea. Smooth pursuing movements
are under voluntary control as person can decide
whether to follow some object or not. However only
highly trained individuals can make smooth pursuing
movement without actual moving target to follow, in
reality most people just end up making a saccade.
Traditionally these movements were tested placing a
subject inside a rotating cylinder with vertical stripes,
but nowadays same test can be done using a screen
with series of horizontally moving vertical stripes.
The eyes follow the stripe end of their excursion
followed by a quick saccade to opposite direction for
a pursuit of new stripe. This kind of mixed fast and
slow movement of the eyes is called optokinetic
nystagmus. This is illustrated in Figure 22, where
after a quick saccade eyes are able to follow the
moving target smoothly.
Vergence movements align the fovea of each eye with
targets located at different distances from the
Figure 19. The relationship of the
frontal eye field in the right
cerebral hemisphere (Brodmann's
area 8) to the superior colliculus
and the horizontal gaze center
(PPRF) [39].
Figure 20. The superior colliculus receives
visual input from the retina and sends a
command signal to the gaze centers to
initiate a saccade. The terminals of the
visual neuron are located in the same
region as the dendrites of the motor
neuron [39].
observer. But unlike other eye movements,
vergence movements are disconjugate (or
disjunctive) meaning that eyes move to opposite
directions, converging for close objects and
diverging for far objects. Convergence caused by
near-field stimuli (or near reflex triad) involves
also pupillary constriction to increase depth of
field. Vergence movements are the slowest speed
eye movement although latency being less than
with saccades. They are also very small in
amplitude, typically a few degrees.
The last types of eye movements, vestibulo-ocular
movements, mean the compensation of eyes to
movement of head. When tilting your head you
notice that your fixating point remains more or
less at same point of your retina. The name vestibulo comes from
vestibular system, which main element is vestibular nuclei that is
situated in inner ear acting as accelerometer and spatial position
guide. The system extends through a large part of the brainstem;
simple clinical tests like the vestibulo-ocular response can be
used to determine brainstem involvement and possible damages,
even on comatose patients.
The vestibular system detects brief, transient changes in head
position and produces rapid corrective eye movements. However
it is relatively insensitive for slow changes. For example if the
vestibulo-ocular reflex is tested with continuous rotation and
without visual cues about the movement of the image (i.e., eyes
closed), the compensatory eye movements cease after only about
30 seconds. A person with vestibular damage finds it difficult or
impossible to fixate on visual targets while the head is moving, a
condition called oscillopsia (bouncing vision).

2.4 LIGHT CHARACTERISTICS
In this chapter the light characteristics linked to the novel photoreceptor are reviewed in
regard to human circadian rhythms. The basic understanding of this chapter is essential in
designing the measurement equipment for light exposure.

2.4.1 Spectrum
The peak wavelength of circadian responses is shifted towards the blue end of the spectrum
compared to the traditional visual spectral sensitivities for photopic (V(),
max
=555nm),
mesopic (
max
between photopic and scotopic peak wavelengths) and scotopic (V(),
max
=508nm) vision. According to current knowledge, the peak wavelength seems to be
around 480 nm [2] for ipRGCs. A series of action spectra are presented in Table 1
concurrent with the discovery of melanopsin (Provencio et al. [114], 1998) and ipRGCs
(Berson et al. [1], 2002).

Figure 22. The metrics of smooth pursuit eye
movements. These traces show eye movements
(blue lines) tracking a stimulus moving at three
different velocities (red lines). After a quick
saccade to capture the target, the eye movement
attains a velocity that matches the velocity of the
target [39].
Figure 21. Vestibulo-ocular eye
movement (slow) resulting
from head rotation. This slow
component is also called
physiological nystagmus, Fast
eye movement are saccades
that reset the eye position [39].
Table 1. Analytic action spectra for circadian, ipRGC, and ocular responses (modified from Brainard, 2006 [85]).
Species Biological responses Stimuli tested
Peak
[nm]
First
Author Year
Human (Homo sapiens)
Plasma melatonin
suppression
8 fluence-response curves (hbw
10-15nm)
Est. max=464
(446-477)
Brainard
[115] 2001
Human (Homo sapiens)
Plasma melatonin
suppression
5-13nm)
Est. max=480
(457-462)
Thapan
[116] 2001
Mouse (Mus musculus) Pupillary light reflexes
6 fluence-response curves (+/+)
(hbw 10nm) (rd/rd cl)
Est. max=480
or 508
Lucas
[117] 2001
Human (Homo sapiens) Cone cell ERG-wave
10nm) Est. max=479
Hankins
[118] 2002
Rat (Rattus norvegicus)
ipRGC cellular
depolarization
6/10 fluence-response curves
(hbw 10nm) Est. max=484
Berson
[1] 2002
Mouse (Mus musculus) Circadian phase shift
7 fluence-response curves (rd/rd
cl) (hbw 10nm) Est. max=481
Hattar
[119] 2003
Mouse (Mus musculus),
purified mouse
melanopsin in vitro
Melanopsin-catalyzed GTP-
-
35
S uptake
Single irradiances of 4
restricted bandwidths (hbw 10-
30nm)
Est. max=424
(420-44)
Newman
[84] 2003
Monkey (Macaque
nemestrina)
ipRGC cellular
depolarization
10 fluence-response curves
(hbw 15-20nm) Est. max=482
Dacey
[2] 2005
Wild-type and retinally degenerate strains are indicated by (+/+) and (rd/rd cl).
Est. = Estimated max from fitting data to spectral sensitivity curves or to visual photopigment nomograms.
hbw =half-bandwidth (hbw smaller than 10nm is considered monochromatic).

The recent range for
max
of circadian responses has been from 459 to 484 nm with the clear
exception of 420 nm by Newman et al. [84], which study was done in vitro conditions and
does not necessarily represent the in vivo behavior of melanopsin as already reviewed with
melanopsin. Neither the study by Lucas et al. [117] does not identify a
max
in the blue part
of the spectrum in pupillary responses of wild-type (+/+) mice, which was also found in
earlier studies [120-122] for phase shifting locomotor activity. It could be that the intact
rodent retina combines input from ipRGCs and classic visual photoreceptors (cones more
likely) for phase shifting and pupillary responses. In contrast when mice do not have
functional cones or rods, their retinal sensitivity appear to shift towards shorter wavelengths
[119,122,123].
In photometry, Abney's Law for additivity [124] has been used as a hypothesis for the
linear behavior of luminance perception. Additivity means that the total luminance of a
non-monochromatic light is the sum of the weighted spectral radiations of the component
wavelengths. However, additivity does not hold for all lighting conditions. Additivity
failures occur both in photopic and mesopic vision [125], also referred as the Abney Effect
[126], that recognizes the failure of the basic law. To make things even more complex this
Abneys Effect is known to be in error also [127]. In photopic vision, additivity failure
called sub-additivity occurs when the perceived brightness is less than the sum of the
component perceived brightnesses. This phenomenon is apparently due mainly to non-
linear cone-cone interactions and is also called the Helmholtz-Kohlrausch effect [128]. For
example mixing monochromatic red light with monochromatic green light of equal
brightness can be seen less bright than either of the two lights alone [129]. In mesopic
vision only the magnocellular channel appears to obey Abney's law of additivity [130].
The first research by Figueiro et al. [131] studying the circadian spectral opponency in
humans compared the melatonin suppression effects of blue light emitting diodes (LEDs)
and clear mercury (Hg) vapor lamps. Blue LEDs produced an illuminance of 18 lx (29
W/cm
2
) at subjects eyes when the 175 W Hg lamp produced an illuminance of 450 lx
(170 W/cm
2
) at the eye. The radiant power of polychromatic Hg lamp was set to produce
at least equal or higher melatonin suppression than the blue LED if additivity was to exist
in circadian response, following the univariance principle [132]. Results revealed a
statistically significant difference between the LED
and Hg lighting conditions, with the LED condition
resulting stronger melatonin suppression in contrast to
the theory of additivity. The best-fitting function from
the results is shown Figure 23 which are relatively
close match to the empirical action spectrum for
melatonin suppression by Brainard et al. [225]
(r
2
=0,86) and by Thapan et al. [116] (r
2
=0,84) both
from 2001. In conclusion the larger melatonin
suppression by photopically less-powered LED would
indicate that spectral opponency exists in human
circadian system, and the results from studies done
with monochromatic light sources could not be
generalized to normal polychromatic sources used in
architectural lighting.
The first circadian phototransduction model to
incorporate the suggested spectral opponency [131]
was presented by Rea et al. [133] in 2005. Compared to the previous models [91,134,356],
it is much more ambitious while still maintaining relatively simple mathematical format. It
is not limited on modeling the ipRGCs or melanopsin, but it incorporates the basic
mechanisms of other retinal neurons involved in circadian phototransduction, as cones and
rods are also been proposed to be involved in circadian responses [119,135]. However,
while the model is based upon a synthesis of a wide range of existing literature in
neuroanatomy, electrophysiology, and psychophysics, main emphasis is on the results got
on melatonin suppression. Rea et al. [133] admit that this model is highly likely to be
changed as it lacks the more advanced features of circadian phototransduction, but it still is
a large step towards more realistic models. Figure 24 shows the action spectra of the
proposed model. The proposed model [133] was later tested by the same authors [136] with
the results showing a relatively good fit to the proposed model when tested with two
polychromatic light sources.
The conventional views has been after the
discovery of ipRGCs that all non-image
forming (NIF) functions have the same
action spectra as it for example found that
short-wavelength light (460 nm) is more
effective in alertness-promoting than light
at 550nm [137-139], but a recent study by
Revell et al. [140] revealed that light at
420 nm was more effective in alertness-
promoting than light at 470 nm. This
would mean that the action spectrum
presented for melatonin suppression
[116,133,225] would not be accurate for
alertness promotion. This could mean that
human melanopsin could be really most
sensitive to short wavelengths at 420-430
Figure 23. Hypothetical opponent action
spectrum for melanopsin consistent with
the present [131] and previous results
[116,225]. Curve from Figuiero et al.
[131].
Figure 24. Predictions of the model to the constant
criterion spectral sensitivity data of Brainard et al. [225]
and of Thapan et al. [116]. Graph by Real et al. [133].
nm as shown in some studies [83,84]. However, this peak wavelength of 420-430 nm is in
contrast with the other data from melanopsin action spectrum [2,81,82], cone ERG [118],
and circadian phase shifting [141].
Human eye undergoes age-related changes in total and in wavelength-dependent
transmittance. It would be natural to assume that these changes would have some kind of
impact to circadian phototransduction as well. As in both early studies by Brainard et al.
[225] and Thapan et al. [116] the action spectra were corrected for absorption in the lens (as
authors wanted to obtain an action spectrum that applies to the irradiance level at the
retina), it is reasonable to study what are the real differences in circadian responses due to
properties of cornea, aqueous, lens and vitreous, which light has to pass before reaching the
retina. As noticed already in Figure 11, corneal transmittance is relatively constant between
the range of 400 nm to 600 nm and above all the corneal transmittance does not differ
significantly as a function of age at any wavelength [100]. Although absorption and scatter
in humours may have minor effects, the most relevant part of the human eye is the
crystalline lens as it has been noted to yellow with age thus attenuating short-wavelength
light. Another significant age-related change in ophthalmologic optics is the senile miosis
[142], where pupil diameter changes with age under both light-adapted (diameter
decreases) and dark-adapted (diameter increases) conditions. The relative pupil area has its
maximum value at the age of about 15 years and is reduced throughout adult [99], and it
this factor alone reduces the retinal illuminance to half in the eye of a 70-year-old. The
following equation can be used to calculate the relative efficiency of light for suppression
of melatonin with regard to the age according to Charman et al. [99]:
=

d ) S( A ) ( T ) ( T ) ( E R
L C
(4)
Where, R = effective irradiance at the retina
E
() = spectral irradiance of the source at the cornea

T
C
() = transmission of the cornea (near-axial path)
T
L
() = transmission of the lens (near-axial path)
A = pupil diameter (near-axial path)
S() = melatonin action spectrum
According to this formula, the efficiency of light should decrease with increasing age;
however an experimental study failed to verify this assumption [143] and concluded that
there is no correlation between efficiency of melatonin suppression and age of the subjects.
No gender-related differences in melatonin suppression have been yet discovered [144].
The values of T
C
(), T
L
() and A are measured when light enters the eye along a near-axial
path assuming that no effects of the Stiles-Crawford type [145,146] will occur, as the
ganglion cells lie anterior to the outer segments of the receptors which are responsible for
any waveguiding effects.

2.4.2 Spatial distribution
Relatively little is known about the spatial distribution of melanopsin-containing ganglion
cells (ipRGCs) in human eye. This knowledge is important in knowing where to place the
lights in order to produce the maximal biological responses. The results from various
studies [147-150] indicate that a significant gradient in density of melanopsin-containing
retinal ganglion cells is present both in the horizontal and in the vertical direction. The
highest density of melanopsin-containing retinal ganglion cells (ipRGCs) would seem to
occur in the inferior nasal area of the retina corresponding to upper (superior) temporal
(lateral) visual field. The ratio between temporal retina and nasal retina for melatonin
suppression was 0.54 in the study by Visser et al. [147] and 0.59 in the study by Rger et
al. [150]. The difference was even larger between upper (superior) and lower (inferior)
retina in the study by Glickman et al. [149] where melatonin suppression was ~6,3% for
upper retina whereas it was ~29,1% after a 90 minute 200 lx polychromatic light exposure
(percentages plotted from the graphs). This would indicate a ratio of 0.22 between upper
and lower ratio.

2.4.3 Intensity
Despite of the relatively large amount of studies on circadian phototransduction, only a few
systematic studies [157,192] have been done on the influence of light intensity on the phase
shifting and melatonin suppression. The early studies done with subjects which allowed to
self-select their sleep-wake cycle showed that only bright light could affect human
circadian rhythms [151,152], one study reporting a threshold of 1500 lx [153] and the
others showed a significant phase shift with illuminances as high as 4000 lx [154] and 5000
lx [155]. In the human study by Boivin et al. [156] the phase resetting response was
reported to increase with light intensity in a nonlinear manner. In the study by Zeitzer et al.
[157] the intensity response curve (IRC) between illuminance and the phase resetting
response was also found to be nonlinear. This found nonlinearity is consistent with a cube-
root compression of illuminance as a function of the illuminance and (phase resetting)
response, reported
previously for visual
perception [158]. In non-
human mammals, the
intensity dependence of
both phase shifting of the
circadian pacemaker and
acute suppression of
melatonin have been well
characterized [159-161].
In general, the results
obtained by Zeitzer et al.
[157] are the most
commonly used as a
reference for the light
intensity required for
melatonin phase shift
(Figure 25A) and melatonin
suppression (Figure 25B).
As little as ~100 lx of
(corneal) light could
produce half of the
maximal phase delay shift
found at 10000 lx and that
90% of the asymptotic
maximum response could be achieved with 550 lx. This would indicate that human
circadian pacemaker is highly sensitive to ordinary room light and that minor changes in
room light intensity could have a major impact on entrainment of the human circadian
pacemaker. This is not consistent with some previous studies [154,162,163] which failed to
Figure 25. Illuminanceresponse curve of the human circadian pacemaker.
The shift in the phase of the melatonin rhythm (A), as assessed on the day
following exposure to a 65 h experimental light stimulus, has been fitted with
a four parameter logistic model using a nonlinear least squares analysis.
Acute suppression of plasma melatonin (B) during the light exposure also has
been fitted with a four parameter logistic model using a nonlinear least
squares analysis. The logistic models predict an inflection point of the curve
(i.e. the sensitivity of the system) at 120 lx. Saturation of the phaseshift
response is predicted to occur with 550 lx and saturation of the
melatoninsuppression response is predicted to occur with 200 lx. Individual
subjects are represented by , the model by the continuous line, and the 95%
confidence intervals by the dotted lines [157].
find significant phase resetting with room light but is however supported by several studies
[164-166,192] with similar results.
However, it should be noticed that there seems to be maximal melatonin suppression rate
that is independent of the light intensity used [167,168]. Results of McIntyre et al. show
approximately a rate of 1,5% per minute of light exposure until reaching an asymptotic
level between 30 and 60 min. Similar observations have been made from animal studies
[169-171]. A comparable is found in electronics and known as the slew rate, whereby the
output of an amplifier cannot keep up with rapid changes in the input. Maximum nocturnal
melatonin suppression would be about 45-50% after 30 minute of bright light.
The accurate measurement of retinal illuminance is more difficult than measuring
horizontal task illuminance as retinal illuminance depends on the angle of gaze, position of
the head, pupil size [172], lens transmission [99], and possible photophobic response such
as squinting [173-175]. For example, Sliney [175] estimated that squinting results in a log
unit reduction in retinal illuminance compared to the estimated retinal illuminance using
photometric and pupillometric measurements. In practice this means that higher corneal
illuminance can produce smaller melatonin suppression than lower corneal illuminance
even though pupil size is measured continuously as occurred in a study by Figueiro et al.
[136]. An example of the relation between photopic illuminance at cornea can be seen in
Table 2 from the study by Figueiro et al. [136], where it can be seen that light source with a
CCT (correlated color temperature) of 8000K produced larger melatonin suppression with
1000 lx than with 300 lx. It can be also seen that as corneal illuminance increased the pupil
size decreased, and the mean pupil are area was smaller with light source with higher CCT.

Table 2. Corneal irradiance, mean pupil area, retinal illuminance value and mean melatonin
suppression (meanS.E.M.) for each lighting condition [136].
Light source
Photopic illuminance
at cornea (lx)
Irradiance at
cornea (W/cm2)
Mean pupil
area (mm2)
Retinal illuminance
(lx mm2)
Mean melatonin
suppression (%)
30 8.2 19 573 -3% (11%)
100 27 12 1150 10% (4%)
300 82 8.9 2670 38% (7%)
4100 K
1000 270 5.8 5800 38% (6%)

30 9.7 16 492 10% (8%)
100 32 10 1010 32% (7%)
300 97 8.2 2460 47% (4%)
8000 K
1000 320 5.0 5000 34% (9%)

2.4.4 Timing
The amount by which a discrete light pulse can change the timing of the circadian system is
phase dependent, and this phase dependency is described by phase response curves (PRC).
In general, there are two general PRC morphologies: a low amplitude PRC with maximal
phase shifts of a few hours (Type 1), and a high amplitude PRC with phase shifts as large
as 12 h (Type 0) [176,177]. In Type 0 resetting, the resetting stimulus affects both the phase
and amplitude, and a stimulus of appropriate strength applied at a critical phase can in
theory reduce the amplitude of oscillation in zero (singularity) [177-179]. Single bright
light elicits phase shifts in humans consistent with Type 1 PRC [180,181] showing typically
phase advances of ~2 h and maximum phase delays of ~3 h. In both the Type 1 and Type 0,
phase shifts in response to light are observed during the biological night when humans are
habitually asleep in the dark.
A recent study by Khalsa et al. (2003) [182] was the most comprehensive study on human
PRC so far. In this study a 9 day in-laboratory study protocol was used preceded by 2
weeks of regular 8 h sleep schedule based upon subjects (n=43) habitual sleep and wake
times. The results [182] supported previous findings [183,184] that there is no dead zone
(when no phase shift is elicited by bright light) in the human PRC. Three different PRCs
from the study can be seen in Figure 26, which differ by the phase markers used. Figure
26A uses melatonin midpoint, Figure 26B dim light melatonin onset (DLMOn), and Figure
26C dim light melatonin offset (DLMOff) as the phase marker for circadian rhythm (for
phase marker details see Figure 3). The transition from delays to advances in the critical
region (CT 0) is rapid, while the transition from phase advances to phase delays during the
subjective day is more gradual. The phase shifts measured by DLMOff are smaller than
those measured by DLMOn [182], which is consistent with the results obtained from rodent
studies. It has been hypothesized that there may be two coupled oscillators, an evening or E
oscillator associated with melatonin onset, and a morning or M oscillator associated with
melatonin offset [185-188].

2.4.5 Duration
Traditionally bright light experiments have consisted of 2 to 8 hour continuous exposures
[189-192], based on the assumption that bright light exposure is consistent with the
Bunsen-Roscoe law that states that the effect is independent (within a certain general time
frame) of the duration of exposure as long as the radiant exposure is the same [91,193].
However evidence from animal experiments [194-196] would suggest that the same phase-
shifting than with continuous exposure could be achieved with intermittent light exposure
with less radiant energy. The response of human circadian system has not been very well
quantified even though the exposure to bright light is typically intermittent in everyday life
[197-200].
Kronauer et al. [201,202] have proposed a revisal model for the resetting effect of light.
The model is partly based on experiments comparing the effects of continuous and
intermittent bright light stimuli (~9 500 lx) over a ~5-h period. The results of a study by
Rimmer et al. [203], designed to test the model of Kronauer et al. [201,202], suggest that
an intermittent bright light stimulus, interrupted by intervals of complete darkness that
exceed the light exposure can significantly phase shift the human circadian pacemaker.
When bright light occupied only 31% of the total stimulus, 70% of the median resetting
response was observed. Furthermone, when bright light occupied 63% of the total stimulus,
nearly 90% of the median resetting response was preserved. These findings also indicate
that the brief intermittent exposures to bright light that are normally encountered in
everyday life (during the night and day) [197,199,200] may have a greater impact on
circadian entrainment than was previously recognized [198-200,204,205]. Studies by
Boivin and James [206], by Baehr [207], and Gronfier et al. [208] also support this
Figure 26. Phase advances (positive values) and delays (negative values) are plotted against the timing of the centre
of the light exposure relative to the melatonin on the pre-stimulus CR (defined to be 22 h), with the core body
temperature minimum assumed to occur 2 h later at 0 h. Using A) melatonin midpoint, B) dim light melatonin
onset (DLMOn), and C) dim light melatonin offset (DLMOff) as marker for circadian phase. Data points from
circadian phases 618 are double plotted. The filled circles represent data from plasma melatonin, and the open
circle represents data from salivary melatonin in one subject. The solid curve is a dual harmonic function fitted
through all of the data points. The horizontal dashed line represents the anticipated 0.54 h average delay drift of
the pacemaker between the pre- and post-stimulus phase assessments. The fitted peak-to-trough amplitude of the
DLMOn PRC (5.41 h) appears slightly larger than that of the DLMOff PRC (4.60 h) [182].
C B A
proposed model [201,202] indicating that sustained periods of intensely bright light are not
necessary for resetting the human circadian system.

2.4.6 Photic history
It has been shown that resetting response of circadian pacemaker can be attenuated by a
preceding nonsaturating stimulus in animals [209], and phase shifting in mammalian has
been shown to be maximal after prolonged exposure to complete darkness before a stimulus
[210,211]. Also a study by Hebert et al. [212] made in humans showed significant
differences (with large inter-individual variability) differences in melatonin suppression
after different (dim vs. bright) light history. These studies would suggest that the light-
mediated melatonin suppression could also be modulated by prior photic history.
Study by Smith et al. [213] revealed a significant difference in melatonin suppression
between two lighting history conditions, with a mean suppression of 71,2% (7,1%) in the
approximately 200 lx prior light history condition vs. a mean suppression of 85,7% (6,5%)
in the approximately 0,5 lx prior light history condition. The results [213] demonstrate that
a prior light history alters light-mediated melatonin suppression, while it is impossible to
determine whether dim background potentiates or relatively bright background diminishes
the strength. It would seem important always to control the prior light history when
examining melatonin suppression. Findings suggest that a controlled photic history of 63
hours before a light stimulus is sufficient to change the suppression effect of the subsequent
light stimulus. However it is not possible to determine the exact time from this study [213]
to be a sufficient control time and further investigation is needed for more quantitative
results.

2.4.7 Polarization
The differences between nonpolarized and vertically polarized light to melatonin
suppression were investigated by Brainard et al. [214] in 2000. Six subjects participated in
the study and they were exposed to four different light intensities: 20, 40, 80 and 3200 lx
(for saturation response) with their pupils dilated with cyclopentolate HCl. The results of
the study [214] revealed hat there is a significant correlation between the light intensity
used and melatonin suppression, but no significant differences between nonpolarized and
polarized light.
Eye and photometric measurements 27
3. EYE AND PHOTOMETRIC MEASUREMENTS
Literature review is done on the available methods to measure eye movement, pupil size
and light entering the eye for proper quantification of circadian effective light exposure.
Also the electrical activity recordings of the eye ERG and/or EOG are reviewed as they can
be used for further quantification of physiological responses of light. Even though within
the scope of this work they are not integrated to the dosimeter device but the possible
recording of EOG/ERG should be taken account when designing the dosimeter.

3.1 ELECTRICAL ACTIVITY
Two the most typical measurements of the electrical activity of the eye are
electroretinogram (ERG) and electrooculogram (EOG). ERG is more clinical utility used
for the diagnostics of various eye diseases but it can also be used to measure circadian
responses as done by Hankins et al. [215]. EOG is commonly used in studies measuring
changes in alertness as well as in EEG (electroencephalography) studies for the elimination
of the eye blink artifacts in EEG recordings.

3.1.1 Electroretinogram (ERG)
Electroretinogram (ERG) is a device measuring the electrical activity of the eye. Figure
27A [216] shows schematically the basic measurement setting with a special saline filled
contact lens with an Ag/AgCl electrode placed on top of cornea As it is shown in Figure
27B [216], light pulse induces a potential change and four common ERG waveforms (the a,
b, c, and d waves) are marked to the picture. It should be noted that notations can differ in
literature.
The first (a) component is early-receptor potential (ERP), which appears almost
instantaneously after onset of light. The amplitude of the ERP depends directly upon
stimulus intensity and the concentration of visual pigment in the outer segments of the
photoreceptors. Therefore, the ERP is believed to reflect dipole changes in the visual
pigment molecules due to conformational changes that are elicited by photon absorption.
The ERP has been used in research to follow non-invasively the concentration of the visual
pigment during light adaptation and in the dark following an exposure to bright light that
causes substantial pigment bleaching [217].
This is followed by (b) late-receptor potential (LRP), which has a small latency (1-5ms)
and is found to be maximal near the synaptic endings of the photoreceptors therefore
Figure 27. (A) The transparent contact lens contains one electrode, shown here on horizontal section of the right eye.
Reference electrode is placed on the right temple. (B) Typical vertebrate ERG waveform in response to a 2 s light
flash [216].
reflecting the outputs of the photoreceptors. ERG and b waves can be used to study the
diurnal variation in the cone pathway [218] which is related to the diurnal transition
between processes optimized for high (photopic) and low (scotopic) light levels [219-222].
Cone b wave-implicit time appears to be regulated by environmental irradiance as an
adaptation to the varying demands of the solar cycle [222]. This regulation seems to be
driven by the novel photoreceptor (ipRGC), and by studying the irradiance and wavelength
dependent reduction in b wave-implicit time it is possible to study the spectral sensitivity of
the novel photoreceptor as done by Hankins et al. [223]. Even though ERG has not been
used in further studies examining the non-image forming (NIF) responses in humans, it
could be added to some experimental designs to provide supplemental information in
addition to typical measures (e.g. melatonin, CBT). For example Hankins et al. [223]
controlled retinal illumination by using a custom-built Ganzfeld dome illuminator [224]
(similar apparatus as Goldman perimeter [225,226]) with the ERG electrodes attached
bilaterally beneath each eyelid with a forehead reference ground [222].
The c-wave is now known to originate in the pigment epithelium after the discovery of
potassiumretinogram (KRG) [227]. C-wave is also called 'The standing potential of the
eye'. Although the c-wave originates from the pigment epithelium, it depends upon the
integrity of the photoreceptors, because light absorption in the photoreceptors triggers the
chain of events leading to the decrease in extracellular concentration of potassium ions.
Therefore, the ERG c-wave can be used to assess the functional integrity of the
photoreceptors, the pigment epithelial cells and the interactions between them. The d-wave
is only evident when the ON and OFF phases of the ERG response are separated in time, by
using light stimuli with long duration (>100ms). With shorter durations d-wave tends to be
combined with the b-wave.
ERG measurements can be also used to determine the perception of flickering lights as with
100 Hz fluorescent lamp flicker [228,229]. Even though no visual perception of flicker
exist the response to flicker can be seen in ERG, and this flicker perception will most likely
cause the problems associated with clearly visible flicker such as headaches and fatigue.
Also cone and rod ERG responses can be isolated using different (colored) stimuli as seen
in Figure 28A [231]. Rods are also incapable of following long light flicker (not really
evident in short timescale of Figure 28A [231]), and it is possible to determine the
involvement of rods and cones.

(A)
(B)
Figure 28. (A) Cone and rod ERGs can be isolated using dim flash stimuli into photopic (cone) and scotopic (rod)
signals [231]. (B) Using different rates (flicker) of stimulus presentation also allows rod and cone contributions to
the ERG to be separated. Even under ideal conditions rods cannot follow a flickering light up to 20 per second
whereas cones can easily follow a 30 Hz flicker, which is the rate routinely used to test if a retina has good cone
physiology [231].
3.1.2 Electooculogram (EOG)
The electrooculogram measures the potential that exists between the cornea and Bruch's
membrane at the back of the eye. The potential produces
a dipole field with the cornea approximately 5 millivolts
positive compared to the back of the eye, in a normally
illuminated room. Although the origin of the EOG is the
pigment epithelium of the retina, the light rise of the
potential requires both a normal pigment epithelium and
normal mid-retinal function. Elwin Marg named the
electrooculogram in 1951 and Geoffrey Arden [230]
developed the first clinical application [231]. It far less
invasive method compared to ERG as seen in Figure 30
[231]. The electrodes of the EOG are normally placed at
the outer canthi of each eye, one slightly above the
cantomeatal place, the other slightly below [232]. EOG
is also the abbreviation for electro-olfactogram, which is
used to determine electrical responses of different smells
and scents, and thus is totally different device [233].
EOG is frequently the method of choice for recording
eye movements in sleep and dream research
[234], in recording eye movements from
infants and children, and in evaluating
reading ability and visual fatigue. And the
most important application within this work
is its use in slow eye movement (SEM)
measurement with EEG to assess alertness.
Figure 29 [231] shows a 10-second periods
of eye movement back and forth between
two red LED lights placed 30 degrees apart
inside a Ganzfeld measurement device.
After training the patient in the eye
movements, the lights are turned off. About
every minute a sample of eye movement is
taken as the patient is asked to look back
and forth between the two lights.
As various types of eyelid and eye movement patterns have
been shown to respond to sleep loss and to correlate with
sleepiness in a variety of protocols [235-237] indicating that
EOG could be in theory used to assess sleepiness objectively
[238]. However, in practice the EOG recordings have shown
too large inter-individual differences making objective
alertness assessment still a thing of the future [239-241].
Aserinsky and Kleitman [242] described SEMs during
drowsiness preceding sleep onset and during light sleep.
Kuhol and Lehmann [243] found that SEMs became larger
and more regularly sinusoidal when simultaneous showing of
the EEG was noted during sleep onset. Slow (0,25 Hz),
pendular, horizontal eye movements were seen as the first
sign of drowsiness in 50,5% of the 200 US Air Force flight
Figure 30. Placement of the electrodes
for recording an EOG [231].
Figure 29. EOG eye movement
recordings. Light-adapted pre-EOG,
dark adaptation phase and light-rise
phase [231].
Figure 31. An illustration of the electro-oculogram
(EOG) signal generated by horizontal movement of the
eyes. The polarity of the signal is positive at the
electrode to which the eye is moving [245].
Figure 32. Recording in a normal
control (upper), an atypical
(middle-continuous line) and a
melancholic patient (lower-dotted
line). The control subject has
Arden ratio = 224, the melancholic
Arden ratio = 295, and the atypical
patient Arden ratio = 248 [246].
personnel in a field study by Maulsby et al. [244]. Furthermore, wake-sleep transition was
characterized by the disappearance of large eye blinks (EBs) and fast eye movements [235].
An illustration of EOG signal generated by horizontal movement of the eyes can be seen in
Figure 31 [245]. The movement of the eyes produces a change of potential, which is
recorded by the electrodes. After the recording of several movements of the eyes, the
averaging of potentials gives the mean potential for the given conditions (interaction of
time with lighting conditions, Figure 32 [246]). There is no difference of the recorded EOG
curves between the two eyes [247]. The most widely used indices for the interpretation of
the EOG are the Arden ratio [248,249]:
100
trough dark
peak light
Ratio Arden
=
(5)
The normal values of this index lie between 162 and 228, but values under 180 should be
considered as borderline. Another index, which also takes into consideration the baseline
potential is the A criterion [250]:
( ) ( ) [ ] h dark troug 91 , 0 potential baseline 61 0, - peak light Criterion A + = (6)
Over 70% of healthy subjects have A-Criterion values over 80 and all over zero [247].

3.2 EYE TRACKING
Eye movements or eye tracking has been used as a tool over hundred years to study variety
of cognitive processes in humans [251]. Eye tracking research has been divided
chronologically into four different eras [252]. The first (ca. 1879-1920) was defined by the
discovery of many basic eye movement facts (saccade suppression and latency, perceptual
span); the second (ca. 1930-1958) was characterized by a more applied research focus,
coinciding with the behaviorist movement in experimental psychology; the third (1970-
1998) was characterized by improvements in eye recording systems. The fourth era that the
research is entering is distinguished by the emergence of interactive applications.
Eye tracking applications can be broadly categorized as diagnostic or interactive.
Diagnostic applications are typically represented by the unobtrusive use of the eye-tracking
device, whereas interactive system must respond to users behavior which requires online
computing power. Such interactive systems can be further
divided into two subtypes: selective and gaze-contingent.
Selective systems use the point of gaze as pointing
devices (e.g. mouse), whereas gaze-contingent system
uses the gaze information to facilitate the rapid rendering
of complex displays (e.g. graphical environment) which
can be further divided in terms of display processing, as
seen in [251].
Eye trackers are used diagnostically for example in neuroscience, psychology, industrial
engineering, and marketing among others [251]. In lighting research, eye tracking can be
for example used to define the direction the worker is normally looking at in an office
environment. This data can be then used to quantify the light exposure over the day when
the illuminance distribution is known in an office environment measured for example with
a luminancephotometer. This can be further weighed mathematically or with a fixed
circadian optical filter to assess the circadian dose of light that a worker experiences
during the day as studied by Hubalek et al. [253]. Eye tracker algorithm could be also
Figure 33. Hierarchy of eye-tracking
applications [251].
modified to primarily measure only pupil size and either measure eye movements as
secondary parameters or not measure them at all, which would make the system cheaper as
no scene camera would be needed.
The study of saccade eye movements is indispensable in obtaining a complete
understanding of the human vision [254,255]. A study with monkeys showed that some of
the V1 neurons carry information about saccadic occurrences and directions, whereas other
neurons code details of the retinal image [256]. A eye tracking study by Asaad et al. [257]
found support for the evidence that prefrontal (PF) cortex would be the central to the ability
to shift attention and choose actions appropriate according to specific sensory, motor, and
cognitive demands. Furthermore zyurt et al. [258] used eye movement recording with
functional brain imaging (fMRI) to track a subjects fixation point while simultaneously
recording cortical activity during attentional tasks. The results of zyurt et al. [258]
revealed significant task-related activity in the striate and extrastriate cortex, the frontal eye
fields, the supplementary motor area, the parietal cortex and angular gyrus, the frontal
operculum, and the right prefrontal area 10. This type of research is helpful in identifying
the functional brain structures in attentional mechanisms.
In psychology, eye tracking is used to in reading processing [259], scene perception
[252,260,261], perception of art [261,262-265], generation of aesthetically pleasing art by
computers [266], perception of film [267], visual search tasks [252,268], auditory language
processing [269,270]; and in natural tasks such as making tea [271], food preparation [272],
mathematics [252], and sports [252] among others. The applications in industrial
engineering and human factors include aviation [251,273], driving [251,274,275], and
visual inspection [251,276] among others. In marketing, eye tracking have been used to
study copy testing [277] and print advertising [278,279] among others. Eye tracking have
been used in interactive computer interfaces [280], including eye typing [281], drawing of
pictures [282], icon selection [283], object selection [284], and in virtual reality
applications [285,286] among others.
Two types of imaging approaches are typically used in eye tracking, visible and infrared
spectrum imaging [287]. Visible spectrum imaging is a passive technology that uses
ambient light reflecting from the eye. In this type of imaging it is best to use the contour
between iris and the sclera known as the limbus (Figure 53). The disadvantage of visible
spectrum imaging is that uncontrolled ambient light can contain multiple specular and
diffuse components. Infrared imaging eliminates uncontrolled specular reflection by
actively illuminating the eye with uniform and controlled infrared light. The further benefit
of infrared imaging is that the pupil, rather than limbus is the strongest feature of the
contour in the image. Both the sclera and the iris strongly reflect infrared light while only
the sclera strongly reflects visible light. Pupil is a preferable parameter as its contour is
smaller and more sharply defined than the limbus and due to its size is less likely to be
occluded by the eye lids. However, infrared imaging cannot be used outdoors during
daytime due to the ambient infrared illumination [288].
Infrared eye tracking typically uses either a bright-pupil or dark-pupil technique [288] (or
combined use of them both [289]). The bright-pupil technique illuminates the eye with a
source that is on or very near the axis of the camera, the results is a clearly demarcated
bright pupil region due to the photoreflective nature of the back of the eye. In dark-pupil
technique, the eye is illuminated with an off-axis source so that the pupil is the darkest
region in the image, while the sclera, iris and eye lids all reflect relatively more
illumination [288]. Both visible and infrared imaging techniques have been used in remote
video-based eye tracking. The main reason to use remote eye-tracking system that it can be
completely unobtrusive compared to more obtrusive techniques like electrooculography,
magnetic eye-coil tracking [290]. Several promising remote eye tracking approaches exist
[288,291] but at the moment it seems that a head-mounted system has a greater potential to
achieve a reasonable compromise between cost, flexibility and quality [288].

3.2.1 Pelz et al. (2000, 2004)
Pelz et al. [292,293] have developed a
lightweight head-mounted video-based
eyetracking device. Recent improvement in
commercially available micro-lens cameras and
other parts have made portable eyetrackers even
cheaper and more widely used in behavioral
studies [294-297]. Previously, the problems with
eyetrackers have been the high price ranging
from 5,000 to 40,000 US dollars, limiting their
use to high-end specialty products. Typically
commercial products have also been platform specific and difficult to use. An open-source
system would virtually allow anyone to explore eyetracking in many ways. This is partly
accomplished by Pelz et al. [292,293] while their system requires high-cost proprietary
equipment.
The prototype of Pelz et al. [292,293] using dark-pupil technology can be seen in Figure 34.
The scene and eye cameras are mounted to a low-cost pair of safety glasses with most of
the plastic lens cut away. The nose bridge in glasses provides the best stability, preventing
large movements of the headgear during use. The prototype uses one small infrared LED
(IRED) for the illumination of the eye, positioned next to
the eye camera as shown in Figure 35. The IRED
(=5mm,
max
=940 nm) is off-axis with respect to the
cameras focal axis so that the resulting pupil image is
dark as illustrated in Figure 36. It is important to drive the
IRED at the proper forward voltage (V
out
) which is
achieved by using an adjustable voltage regulator
(LMT317T) with a 5k potentiometer and V
out
of 1,2 volts
for the IRED. It is also critical to limit the irradiance of IRED on the eye to a safe level. An
irradiance (mW/cm
2
) level less than 10 mW/cm
2
is considered safe for chronic IR exposure
in the 720 1400 nm range [298-300]. The IR illuminator in the prototype produces
adequate illumination for the camera with an
irradiance of only 0.8 mW/cm
2
.
The chosen micro-lens video camera is
Supercircuits PC206XP, which houses a 0.36cm
black and white CMOS imager with 380 lines of
resolution. The camera measures only 0.95cm
square by 1.6cm so its occlusion of the subjects
field of view is minimal. Despite its size, it is able
to provide adequate image quality for threshold
and edge detection algorithms. The focusable lens
provides an 80 degree field of view, and the
camera is powered with 12 volts DC at 20 mA. In
order to avoid visible light from entering the
camera sensor, Kodaks 87c Wratten filter is
placed on top of sensor after unscrewing the eye-
camera lens. The color Supercircuits PC53XS
Figure 34. Dark-pupil eyetracking headgear
[293].
Figure 36. Dark-pupil illumination
[293].
Figure 35. Closeup of the IRED, eye, and scene
cameras [293].
CMOS scene camera was one of the smallest commercially available color cameras. The
camera provides a frame of reference by capturing
the scene from the observers point of view. It
weighs 9,5 grams and consumes 50 mA at 12 volts
DC. The base of the camera is 1.62cm square, with
a lens extending to 2.67cm.
Video-based commercial eyetracking systems, such
as Applied Science Laboratories and ISCAN, use
regular grid of calibration points for calibration. In
this system, a laser diode and 2D diffraction grating
are used to split the laser beam into a grid of 9-
points that can be projected onto a wall or a flat
surface in front of the person wearing the headgear.
The 9-point grid is imaged by the scene camera and
thus provides a reference for calibrating the eye
position with respect to the scene image. The
system uses a Digikey 3B-102-ND adjustable focus
laser diode (17.25 x 6.4 mm) coupled with a 13,500
lines per inch double-axis diffraction grating
(www.rainbowsymphony.com). The diffraction grating is sandwiched against the lens of
the laser diode after the desired beam is adjusted. Also it should be noted that voltage
regulator (3 V in this system) is needed for the proper function of laser diode. The mounted
laser module and a conceptual projection of the 9-point target are seen in Figure 37.
The other components needed depend on whether eyetracking is done in real-time or
offline. Real-time eyetracking is required when the data is used for some interactive task as
described earlier, whereas in other cases raw video can be captured and processed through
the eyetracking algorithm later. Offline analysis requires that both the eye and scene
cameras images be stored, then synchronized on playback. The system uses offline eye and
scene capture housed in a back bag as illustrated in Figure 38. The backpack with an
additional recording box include a small LCD display, and external laptop battery, a Sony
DCR-TVR19 Digital Video Camera, and a video
splitter that combines the eye and scene images into a
single video image. The benefit of offline processing
is that parameters such as field-averaging, region-of-
interest windowing, and threshold values can be done
more freely and changed more accurately during the
recording. Offline processing also makes calibration
easier as it is possible to freeze-frame to ensure a
stable eye and scene image for proper calibrations
which in online processing can fail due to a blink for
example. The prototype meets the need for low-cost
eyetracker for research even though price could have
been pressed down a bit more.

3.2.2 Li et al. (2006): openEyes
Li et al. [288] further developed the idea of a low-cost head-mounted eyetracking solution
of Pelz et al. [292,293]. Their [288] open-source system is called openEyes, which consists
of low-cost off-the-shelf components and a set of open-source software tools for digital
image capture, manipulation, and analysis in eye-tracking applications. The total cost of the
Figure 37. (A) Close up of the laser diode. (B)
Illustration of laser projection system (note
that the points must be projected onto a flat
surface, i.e. a wall, table, etc.) [293].
Figure 38. Off-line eye and scene capture
housed in a backpack [293].
system by Pelz et al. [292,293] was not given in their publication, but Li et al. [288] claim
that their system is much cheaper. Aside from a desktop or laptop computer to process
video, the system costs approximately 350 US dollars to construct. Authors have also
developed a novel video-based eyetracking algorithm called Starburst [301], provided both
as a cross-platform Matlab implementation and as a C implementation for Linux platforms.
Both the hardware construction plans and the software that implements the algorithm are
freely available (http://hcvl.hci.iastate.edu/openEyes/).
The hardware design (Figure 39) of Li et al. [288] is similar to the one by Pelz et al.
[292,293] with the eye and the scene camera mounted to a low-cost pair of safety glasses. It
also uses dark-pupil technique (Figure 39, right). It would be also possible to place the
cameras either above the eyes, on
top of the head or above the ears
but that configuration would
require the integration of mirror
or prism in the cameras optical
path and that would make the
system more expensive. It could
be argued that in lighting
research where the eye tracking
device is shading the ambient
lighting that is to be measured,
an indirect approach with optical components could be more accurate in quantifying the
light exposure. However, as the components are attached to the head gear and thus static in
the users visual field, they are easily ignored as normal eye glasses are ignored [288].
Li et al. settled upon using an inexpensive (~100 US dollars [302]) Unibrain Fire-I IEEE-
1394 web camera [303] with Sony ICX098BQ CCD sensor [304]. The bandwidth of these
cameras (400Mbit/sec) is sufficient to capture video simultaneously from two cameras at a
resolution of 640x480 pixels with a frame rate of 30 Hz.
Additional benefits of IEEE-1394 compared to USB 2.0,
was that IEEE-1394 cameras on the same bus will
automatically synchronize themselves and that the IEEE-
1394 is well supported under Linux. The infrared LED
(IRED) was powered from a free USB port on the laptop.
The infrared blocking filter was removed from the original
lens from the camera and replaced with an 87c Wratten filter
to block visible light and allow only infrared light to pass.
Original 4.5 mm lens with a field of view (FOV) of 111 was
replaced with a 12 mm lens with a FOV of 56 and
significantly less radial distortion typical of wide field of
view lenses. The new lens allowed tracking eye movements
with an accuracy of approximately 1 degree of visual angle.
In contrast to the dependence of an offline hardware and
software processing purchased from a production house in
the system by Pelz et al. [292,293], Li et al. [288] use totally
open-source approach referred as Starburst algorithm [301].
Typically eye-tracking algorithms can be classified into two
approaches: feature-based and model-based approaches
[301]. Feature-based approaches detect and localize image
features related to the position of the eye. The tracked
features vary widely depending on the application but normally intensity levels or intensity
Figure 39. (left, center) 4
th
generation of openEyes, a low-cost head-
mounted eye-tracking solution. (right) The image captured using
infrared illumination. Note that the infrared illumination strongly
differentiates the pupil from the the iris in the image. Also note the
presence of a specular reflection of the LED. This is an important
benefit as the corneal reflection can be tracked and used to
compensate for head gear slippage [288].
Figure 40. Schematic diagram of
Starburst algorithm [301].
gradients are used. For example, in infrared images created with the dark-pupil technique,
an appropriately set intensity threshold can be used to extract the region corresponding to
the pupil. The intensity gradient can be used to detect the limbus in visible spectrum images
[305] or the pupil contour in infrared spectrum images [306]. Model-based approaches find
the best fitting model that is consistent with the image rather than explicitly detecting
features. For example, integro-differential operators can be used to find the best-fitting
circle [307] or ellipse [308] for the limbus and pupil contour. The model-based approach is
capable of producing a more precise estimate of the pupil center than a feature-based
approach given that a feature-defining criteria is not applied to the image data. However, a
gain in accuracy of a model-based approach is obtained at a significant cost in terms of
computational speed and flexibility. Notably however, the use of multi-scale image
processing methods [309] in combination with a model-based approach hold promise for
real-time performance [310].
The Starburst algorithm [301] combines feature-based and model-based approaches to
achieve a good tradeoff between run-time performance and accuracy for dark-pupil infrared
illumination. The algorithm consists of six different phases: noise reduction; corneal
reflection detection, localization and removal; pupil contour detection; ellipse fitting;
model-based optimization; and homographic mapping and calibration as seen in Figure 40.
The noise reduction is needed due to the use of low-cost cameras. The shot noise is reduced
applying a 5 x 5 Gaussian filter with a standard deviation of 2 pixels. The spurious line
noise and it can be optionally reduced by applying a normalization factor line by line to
shift the mean intensity of the line to the running average derived from previous frames.
Line noise reduction is not necessarily needed when the algorithm is used in combination
with an eye tracker capable of capturing less noisy images.
The corneal reflection then corresponds to one of the brightest regions in the eye image
(Figure 36). Thus the corneal reflection can be obtained through thresholding. Adaptive
thresholding technique is used in each frame instead of a constant threshold technique. The
ratio between largest candidate region (the brightest region) and the average area of other
regions is calculated as the threshold is lowered. At first, the ratio will increase because the
corneal reflection will grow in size faster than other areas, and at some point ratio will start
to drop as false candidates become more prominent. The threshold that generates the
highest ratio is chosen as the threshold.
Radial interpolation is then used to
remove the corneal reflection. First,
the central pixel of the identified
corneal reflection region is set to the
average of the intensities along the
contour of the region. Then for each
pixel between the center and the
contour, the pixel intensity is
determined via linear interpolation. An
example of this process is seen in
Figure 43 (compare a and b).
Authors [301] have also developed a
novel algorithm feature-based method
to detect the pupil contour (pseudo
code seen in Figure 41). Normally
feature-based approaches apply edge
detection to the entire image which is
computationally wasteful as the pupil contour occupies typically very little of the image. In
Figure 41. Feature-point detection method.
Starburst algorithm only edges along a limited number of rays are detected that extend from
central best guess of the pupil center (Figure 42a). This method takes advantage of the
high-contrast elliptical profile of the pupil contour present in dark-pupil technique images.
Feature points are found computing the
derivatives along rays extending radially
until threshold is exceeded. In the first stage,
the candidate feature points are detected
from a starting point. In the second stage, for
each of the candidate feature points, the
feature-detection process is repeated using
the candidate feature points as the starting
point. The second stage tends to increase
ratio of the number of feature points on the
pupil contour over the number of feature
points not on the pupil contour. This two-
stage process iterates by replacing the
starting point with the center of the detected
feature points until the position of the center
converges. The second stage improves the
robustness of the process especially with the
images obtained at low frame rates (e.g. 30
Hz) when the eye can rapidly change
positions from frame to frame.
Given a set of candidate feature points, the
next step of the algorithm is to find the best
fitting ellipse. Other algorithms commonly
use least-squares fitting of an ellipse to all
the feature points (e.g. [311]) where gross errors made in feature detection stage can
strongly influence the accuracy of the results. To address this issue, authors [301] have
chosen to apply Random Sample Consensus (RANSAC) paradigm for model fitting [312].
RANSAC is frequently used in computer-vision problems [313], but according to the
authors this is the first time when it is used in eye tracking applications. RANSAC is an
effective iterative procedure for model fitting in the presence of a large but unknown
percentage of outliers in a measurement sample. An inlier is a sample in the data
attributable to the mechanism being modeled whereas an outlier is a sample generated
through error and is attributable to another mechanism not under consideration. In our
application, inliers are all of those detected feature points that correspond to the pupil
contour and outliers are feature points that correspond to other contours, such as that
between the eye lid and the eye. While the accuracy of the RANSAC fit may be sufficient
for many eye tracking applications, the result of ellipse fitting can be improved through a
model-based optimization that does not rely on feature detection.
At last, in order to calculate the point of gaze of the user in the scene image, a mapping
between locations in the scene and an eye-position measure (e.g. the vector difference
between the pupil center and the corneal reflection) must be determined. Typically this is
achieved during a calibration procedure [314], where the user is required to look at a
number of scene points for which the positions in the scene image are known (Figure 41).
The whole algorithm procedure is illustrated in Figure 43. Authors [301] still would like to
improve the robustness of the algorithm to variations of its free parameters. Other possible
improvements could be to ignore corneal reflection removal as it can be computationally
heavy, use a Kalman filter to predict the pupil center, and the implementation of automatic
Figure 42. Feature detection. (a) Pupil contour edge
candidates are detected along the length of a series of
rays extending from a best guess of the pupil center.
Pupil contour candidates are marked using crosses.
Note that two contour candidates are incorrect -one ray
reaches the border and does not generate a candidate.
(b) For each pupil contour candidate another set of a
rays are generated that create a second set of pupil
contour candidates (c) pupil contour candidates not on
the pupil contour can lead to additional feature points
not on the contour however these are typically not
consistent with any single ellipse.
calibration as manual calibration can become tiresome. Given that the source code is freely
available under the GNU public license (GPL), it could be in theory modified to measure
only the pupil size as it is more important parameter in measuring the light exposure.
3.3 PUPIL SIZE
As the biological responses of light depend on the illuminance coming to the retina, and the
amount of light reaching retina depends also the pupil size it would be useful somehow to
measure the pupil size. Measuring pupil diameter is becoming also increasingly important
in many optometry and ophthalmological applications such as in refractive surgery
(LASIK, PRK), corneal transplantation and advanced contact lens fitting [315]. For
example it has been noted that the outcome of refractive surgery is worse in patients with
large pupils [316]. The importance of pupil size in ophthalmological applications also mean
that there is a clear driving force to develop even better measurements devices which will
ultimately benefit the measurements done in illumination engineering.
Traditionally pupil size has been estimated using specially designed millimeter rulers or
gauges and a method called Rosenbaum card, in which the pupil diameter is estimated with
a series of increasing half-circle diameters. This have proved to be inaccurate and
underestimating the real pupil size [317] as well as depending largely on the examiner
itself. More sophisticated methods are infrared pupillometers such as hand-held Colvard
pupillometers (Figure 49A [318]) or a video-driven infrared pupillometers (Figure 49B
[318]). Latest emerged method has been the use of standard consumer digital photography
in pupil size determination. Also it is possible to use technique called photoretinoscopy,
which is used in human factor applications [319] (driving, etc.) to measure ocular
accommodation.
As the traditional rulers and Rosenbaum cards have been proved to be inaccurate, and the
Colvard pupillometer would require very close measuring distance to the eye, we wont
examine them any further. There is also a need for continuous measurement in mesopic and
circadian lighting measurements, which is not possible with the traditional methods. That
leaves us then video-driven infrared pupillometer, digital photography and
photoretinoscopy. Other main problem in addition to inaccuracy in pupil size measurements
have been the individual variability. It is possible to get significantly different results from
same condition when done by skilled technician compared to inexperienced trainee. This
Figure 43. (a) The original image with noise reduction. (b) The image with the corneal reflection removed. (c)
Candidate feature points. (d) Ellipse fitted using least-square method. (e) The inliers (green crosses) and outliers
(red crosses) differentiated by RANSAC. (f) Another example with many more outliers. (g) Best-fit ellipse using
only inliers. (h) Best-fit ellipse using model-based minimization.
has caused a pressure to develop even more automated methods to exclude this error source
from the measurements, and when choosing a pupillometer for measurements the ease of
use and the level of variability should be checked before making the decision.
Several variables in addition to the examiner variability also influence the ability to
measure pupil size accurately. Precise pupil diameter can be performed only in
ophthalmological applications if the patients pupillary behavior in general is taken into
consideration [320]. The parameters that describe pupillary behavior are pupillary unrest
(hippus, PU) and anisocoria (unequal size of the pup). Usually video-driven digital
infrared pupillometers provide dynamic pupillometry and they should give quantitative
information about the behavior of the individual pupil [321]. In practice this should be a
problem only in pre-surgery measurement and not be a problem in lighting measurements
as the continuous measurement of the pupil size is needed. Also the pupil size measured
through the cornea is approximately 14% larger than the anatomic pupil size [322]. Other
factors include the emotional state of the patient, the degree of light adaptation, eye
irritation and sensitivity, systemic and ocular medications, and illumination intensity
[323,324]. However, only the pupil size error because of cornea is relevant in lighting
applications as we are only interested of the amount of light getting to retina.

3.3.1 Video-driven infrared pupillography
Video-driven infrared pupillography offers the easiest solution to monitor pupil size in
laboratory studies. And as reviewed with eye tracking solutions, the portable pupil size
recording can be also done by using either dark-pupil or light-pupil technology illuminating
the eye with infrared light. In laboratory environment,
continuous pupil size recording can be used to measure the
level of arousal or daytime sleepiness for example after bright
light exposure [325] (PUI, Pupillographic Sleepiness Test
[326]). For this purpose there is also commercial system (e.g.
AMTech PSTxs [327]), which combines the IR-video camera
with mathematical algorithms defining the pupil size and
sleepiness index (Figure 44). The PUI measurement is done in
quiet and dark room for 11 minutes so there is no advantage by
using a portable IR-video camera as used in eye tracking
applications. However, if a proper IR-video camera with a chin
rest is not available the IR-video camera in eye tracker could be
used for this purpose also.
Figure 45 [328] shows an example of an implementation scheme of the bright-pupil
illumination method opposite to the dark-pupil technology utilized by the eyetracking
devices by Pelz et al. [292,293] and Li et al.
[288]. IR LED is used as a light source with
1.0mm-diam pinhole (PH) serving as a point
source. Focusing lens (FL) collimates the light
to a beam splitter (BS), and the bright pupil is
recorded using a IR-video camera (IS image
sensor) with a taking lens (TL) and IR filter
(IF). Slight angular biasing of the illuminator
with the axis might be needed due to possible
smearing caused by excessive corneal
reflection.
Figure 44. AMTech PSTxs for
Pupillographic Unrest Index
(PUI) measurement [326].
Figure 45. An implementation scheme of the bright-
pupil illumination method. The figure is not drawn to
scale [328].
(A)
(B)
Figure 49. (A) The Colvard pupillometer. The device is held 5-8 cm from the eye, and a millimeter ruler is
superimposed by a reticule in the device, which allows direct measurement [318]. (B) The VIVA (Video Vision
Analyzer, Fortune Optical). Three images of the pupil size are taken by infrared light. The photographs are taken
with room light, although the measurements in this study were taken under low-light conditions [318].
Figure 48. Measurement of pupil diameter using an
infrared video-computer system. The image was
obtained with an infrared video camera. It was then
captured, and the pupil diameter was measured using
a computer program [340].
Figure 47. Instruments used for pupil measurements:
(A) Digital camera; (B) infrared video camera (behind
digital camera); (C) fiber-optic illuminator.
Figure 46. (A) Photoretinoscopy setting with PowerRefractor. (B) plusoptiX PowerRef II [329].
(A)
(B)
3.3.2 Photorefractometry
Last and maybe the most promising method for lighting practices is the infrared
photorefractor. It is a unique technique allowing to measurement of accommodation,
vergence, refractive errors and pupil size in both eyes simultaneously, objectively, remotely
(typical distance between subject and camera is 1 meter as illustrated in Figure 46 [329]
and Figure 50B [330].) and continuously [319]. It was first introduced already in 1974
[331] when it suffered from poor accuracy and limited range, and was only limited to static
refractive error measurements. However the situation has changed drastically after the
introduction of commercially available photorefractometer PowerRefractor (PlusoptiX,
Erlangen, Germany) of which current brand name is plusoptiX PowerRef II, and plusoptiX
S04 especially for measurements with children.
PowerRefractor uses eccentric [332] technique of photorefraction (other being orthogonal
[331] and isotropic [333]), with an infrared light source located on the edge of a mask,
eccentric to the optical axis of the camera as seen in Figure 50A [330]. The infrared light is
reflected from the eye and the camera can calculate refraction, pupil size, gaze direction
and interpupillary distance from the reflection, an example output can be seen in Figure 51
[330]. The adult model not shown in pictures essentially has the same specifications.
What is also interesting about the PowerRefractor that it can record pupil information in
video mode with a sample rate of 25 Hz (or 25
frames per second) however only for 10 seconds.
However other light sources in the room can disturb
the measurement [334] making it unsuitable for
bright circadian measurements but probably suitable
for mesopic conditions. Also the apparatus can be
used successfully by ophthalmologically unskilled
personnel with special training [335]. And as it
intended mainly for refraction measurements there
is practically no research done in regard to its
accuracy in pupil size determination; and the
research is limited to its accuracy in refraction [334-
337]. That can be partly because many
ophthalmological pupil size measurements do not
necessarily require long distance or continuous
measurement.
Figure 51. Readings: Refraction in Sphere,
Cylinder and axis; Pupil size in mm; Gaze
charts, visualization of the optic axis. 45mm is
the interpupillary distance with the angle [330].
(B) (A)
Figure 50. (A) Picture of S04. Fixation lights are needed to attract the child's attention towards the camera.
Loudspeakers are for sound signals to enhance the fixation lights. Infrared LEDs are responsible for the actual
measurement and the lens is placed in the centre of the camera. (B) Measurement can be done without headrest
only with the aid of a laptop computer while headrest would maybe give a better accuracy [330].
It would be interesting to see a research where PowerRefractor is compared to infrared
video and digital photography measurements. Pupil size could be estimated also by using a
slit lamp or videokeratoscope [338], but slit lamp is not suitable for lighting measurements
and the accuracy of videokeratoscope have been questioned for eyes with dark irides [339]
and they were not reviewed here.

3.3.3 Digital photography
In a study by Twa et al. [340] it was studied how well digital photography compared to
infrared video system. Normal consumer digital camera (Nikon 990) was used to determine
the pupil size (Figure 47), Sony XC-ST70 being the compared infrared video camera.
Photographs of the pupil were taken with auto-flash function and 8ms exposure, which was
shorter than the 180ms minimum latent period of the pupillary response to the flash [323].
Camera was handheld at a
preset focal distance, which
caused some unsuccessful
photos (12/270 photos) due
to misalignment.
Photos were then graded
(pixel to millimeter
transformation, example in
Figure 48 [340]) manually
with Adobe Photoshop 5.5
while also other suitable
software existed for this
task like NIH Image (Mac) and its Windows equivalent Scion Image. Figure 52 shows the
variability in photographing between two examiners (A) and between two graders (B)
(manual pixel to millimeter transformation).
There was some variability in taking the
photograph while there was a good
repeatability in grading, which was also
evident with the infrared video method (not
shown here).
The differences between different methods
were compared and the results are shown in
Table 3. It shows that there were no
significant differences between digital
photography and infrared video at any
illumination level. However the repeatability
was better with infrared video especially under bright light
conditions than digital photography. In conclusion the digital
photography method provided an inexpensive and accurate method
of pupil measurement while better suited for clinical research in
which accuracy and repeatability have priority over speed and
simplicity.
And while the camera is not capable of continuous tracking of the
pupil size it is not that essential in circadian measurements as there
is more relevant to know the long-term integration of light and 1-2
s intervals in picture taking should provide sufficient information
on pupil behavior. And the fact that normal digital camera could be
Table 3. Comparison of mean pupil size estimations
with each measurement method by illumination level.
Values are means SD. Statistically significant results are
indicated in bold (P<0,01). Template=Rosenbaum card
[340].
Figure 52. (A) Difference between 2 examiners digital photographic
observations. (B) Difference between 2 graders pupil measurements from
digital photographs [340].
(B) (A)
Figure 53. Limbus, thin
area that connects the
cornea and the sclera [345].
used with free software (Scion Image) makes it one possible way to measure pupil size.
However it should be noted that in the study setting by Twa et al. they used a flash before
each photograph in order to get photo properly exposed. This was followed by 2 minute
break required for dark adaptation. This kind of arrangement is not possible in low light
measurements but it should be suitable for continuous measurement in photopic conditions.
Studies by Iskander et al. [315,341] studied the possibility to determine pupil size
automatically from digital images. In addition to normal pupil size determination, the pupil
location with respect to other anatomical structures of the eye was incorporated to the
method. The center of the pupil is close to the major optical axis and decentration is
responsible for asymmetries in the optical system of the eye. The changes of pupil size are
not necessarily concentric in relation to optical axis and other ocular landmarks [342].
Shifts of up to 0,7 mm has been observed for dilated pupils [343], and other sources report
smaller shifts from 0,4 to 0,5 mm [342,344]. And as these properties in addition to plain
pupil size are important in refractive surgeries, they naturally have to be able to measure
carefully while this doesnt necessarily have any effect in lighting applications.
Current commercial pupillometers do not
measure the location of the pupil center in
reference to the corneal limbus (Figure 53 [345]),
which means that the magnitude and direction of
changes in the pupil center with light level
changes cannot be directly performed. Also, most
commercial pupillometers assume that the outline
of the pupil is circular while in reality is
noncircular with irregularities that are often
visible with the unaided eye [346].
Authors initially experimented with traditional
image processing techniques used in eye tracking
applications [347,348] such as thresholding and
edge detection [349], and the Hough
transformation. Also a custom technique for eye
biometrics, called Purkinje image [350] was
considered. However these traditional algorithms
had problems with light reflections in the pupil
and with low light intensity levels. This led the
authors to a development of novel customized
algorithm, which took some influences from a
previous study by Barry et al. [350] on Purkinje
image algorithms.
The proposed [315] algorithm is seen in Figure
54. Procedure starts with the acquisition of a
digital image of the eye. The subject is
positioned in a head-rest at approximately 20
cm from the camera lens, and for scale reference
two crosses separated by 30 cm was placed on
the side of head-rest. Gray-scale images are
used, and the images used in the procedure
contain original raw information (no brightness,
sharpness or histogram adjustments).
Next step is to locate initial origin of the XY
axes and the approximate center of the pupil.
Figure 55. The image of the eye with
superimposed estimated limbus (solid line) and
pupil outlines (dashed line) [315].
Figure 54. Flowchart of the procedure for
automatic pupillometry [315].
Traditionally pupil location is assumed to be the image area of low intensity but this has
proven to be inaccurate method. Instead they use a technique introduced by the authors
called quadruple axes symmetry indicator (QSI) [351], while other more sophisticated
methods based on multiple light sources [352] and curvature algorithms existed [353].
The next step is to set the initial limbus area sectors, which is defined as an image area
where the transition from the iris to the sclera is visible. Thus, the limbus sector depends on
the individual properties and its direction of gaze, and is emphasized by authors these
sectors could be different for left and right eyes or for Caucasian versus Asian eyes.
For most application it is sufficient to model the limbus outline with a circle [354,355] as
the authors have chosen to do. The pupil outline detection is similar to limbus extraction
while eyes with dark irides, this transition may not be clear and cause extra problems to the
algorithm. In simple cases it is sufficient to use a circular model for iris, but a better
estimate can be obtained using more detailed analysis, a finite Fourier series [346]. The
simple estimate with circular limbus and pupil can be seen in Figure 55. Original
publication [315] provides the more exact mathematical details of the process but within
this paper we wont go into details. In conclusion, according to the authors they were able
to develop a robust algorithm for pupil and limbus size estimation. The model could have
been improved by applying more advanced edge detection techniques, but it was proposed
that this wouldnt necessarily brought the desired improvements as each human eye have
very unique features which are often hard to generalize. The method is currently under
clinical studies and can provide an efficient way to measure pupil size easily and accurately
without any manual grading.

3.4 DIGITAL-IMAGING CIRCADIAN PHOTOMETRY
As noticed with Figure 10 the retinal illuminance depends on the size of the light source
and the distance from eye, and equal corneal illuminance can correspond to different retinal
illuminances. This means that the ambient luminance (or radiance) distribution should be
known for proper quantification of circadian responses of light. This can be achieved in
practice using either a standard luminancephotometer with a circadian optical filter
weighing the normal photopic spectral sensitivity V(), non-scientific digital camera or by
using the scene camera of the eye tracker device. The first two methods have been studies
and are reviewed here. The use of scene camera for luminance distribution is in practice
limited by the poor quality and resolution of the recorded video but could be possible in
future as technology develops.

3.4.1 Circadian-weighed luminancephotometers (Gall et al., 2004)
Model of circadian action spectra was presented by Gall
et al. [356] in 2004. Its basic idea is the same as with
Rea et al. to provide a circadian action function c()
based on the findings of Thapan [116] and Brainard
[225] (Figure 56), which enables the derivation of
circadian quantities from photometric quantities using a
circadian action factor a
cv
. The measurement of values
is possible by using either spectroradiometers, c()-
adapted detectors or as a first approximation the CIE
standard colored on the peak wavelength of 460 nm
suggested by Thapan et al. [103] and Brainard et al.
[225], and does not take into account the proposed
spectral opponency.
Figure 56. Averaged circadian action
function c() [356] based on the findings
of Thapan [103] and Brainard [225].
By using circadian action function c(), it is possible to calculate circadian radiation
quantities X
ec
: (constant K = 1)
=

d ) ( c X K X
e ec
(7)

Where, X
e
= L
e,
= Spectral radiance
(
sr , nm ,
2
m
W

The ratio of the integrals of the circadian and the photometric quantities is called by Gall
and Lapuente [357] the circadian action factor a
cv
:
d ) ( V X
d ) ( c X
a
e
e
cv
(8)
Where, V() = Photopic spectral luminous efficiency function
This action factor allows a comparison of different light spectra. The relation between
circadian quantities and photometric quantities X
v
is as follow:
v
m
cv
ec
X
K
a
X =
(9)
Where, K
m
=

Maximum spectral luminous efficacy 683
(
W
lm
.
These equations can be used to calculate the circadian quantities from the spectral power
distribution measured by spectroradiometers. It would also be possible to manufacture a
custom c()-filter for a measurement camera. Authors have used luminancephotometer
LMK color [358], which gives graphic distribution of a
cv
-values within an area of
measurement (Figure 57A). The first approximation with the CIE standard color-matching
function

z , the a
cv
circadian action can also be measured. For example, a tristimulus
colorimeter can be used with the Y-detector to measure the photometric quantity, where x,
y, and z are CIE color coordinates:

y
y x 1
y
z
d ) ( V X
d ) ( z X
a
e
e
cv

= =

(10)
Figure 57B shows the lines with similar a
cv
-values in the CIE standard chromaticity
diagram. This enables the circadian evaluation of the light sources with correlated color
temperature (CCT). As the circadian response depends heavily on the illuminance at the
eye rather than on task areas, the final response can be calculated taking into account the
reflectance characteristics of the environment. Even though the chosen peak wavelength
seems to be wrong according to latest information [359] and the spectral opponency is not
included in the model, these results could be as one possible basis when developing better
models. One benefit of this model would be that it allows direct transformation from
photometric quantities to circadian quantities measured with traditional lighting
measurement devices or with spectroradiometers. However the model is lacking the data on
pupil size.

3.4.2 Digital photography (Hollan et al., 2004)
The measurement of circadian effective luminance can be also done with non-scientific
cameras that offer raw format. Hollan
[360] compared two commercial digital
cameras (Fuji S5000 and Canon EOS
D60) for the match of the sensitivity of
blue pixels to the action spectrum of the
non-imaging forming (NIF) human
visual system. The action spectrum used
in the study was a compound graph
(Figure 58) modeled from the results by
Brainard et al. [225], Thapan et al.
[103], and Hankins and Lucas [223].
Left wing of the curve was corrected
with the les transmissivity curve taken
from Stockman et al. [361]. The
modeled formula consists of two parts,
for violet (V) and green (G) wing
separately. The wings match at the maximum sensitivity (in the energy domain, not a
photon domain) at a wavelength of maxS nanometers, maxS = 460. For x = wavelength / 1
nm,
( ) ( )
3 2
maxS x bV maxS x aV ) x ( actspV + = (11)
( ) ( )
3 2
maxS x bG maxS x aG ) x ( actspG + = (12)
the constants are, aV = -7.57e 5
bV = 5.59e 6
aG = -1.30e 4
bG = 3.06e - 7
Figure 57. (A) The distribution of a
cv
-values within an area of measurement.. (B) a
cv
-values in the CIE standard
chromaticity diagram [356].
(A)
(B)
Circadian action factor in the CIE
standard chromaticity diagram.
Figure 58. Action spectrum of melatonin suppression by light
after Brainard et al. [225], Thapan et al. [103], Hankins and
Lucas [223], corrected for lens absorption after Stockman et
al. [361]. Graph from Hollan [360].
The examined cameras were calibrated using a solar spectrum. The images have been taken
(Figure 59) with the appropriate angular height of the Sun in the sky, so that its light went
through 1,5 times the thickness of the atmosphere. A CD-
based cardboard spectroscope (with a lit from two razors)
had been used, after a series of attempts. Solar spectrum
has a lower intensity at a handful of wavelengths, so-called
spectral lines. After processing the images, the solar
spectrum graph as recorded by the three types of camera
pixels has been obtained. The results can be seen in Figure
60, with the comparison of CCD-colors (Fuji S5000,
Figure 60A) and CMOS-colors (Canon EOS D60, Figure
60B) to the three sensitivity functions (photopic, scotopic,
metabolic or circadian).
From the two graphs, it can be seen that at least some CCD cameras can measure
melatonin-affecting light rather well. All the needed software is available at
http://amper.ped.muni.cz/light/luminance for calibration of the camera. However, it is
pointed out that it is not easy to use, but what is important that the effective amount of
radiation affecting melatonin secretion can be documented for further use. It should be also
noticed that the spectral sensitivity curve for circadian visual system and the blue CCD-
sensor differ significantly from the shape of the sensitivity curve proposed by Rea et al.
[133] (Figure 24). This could be naturally corrected with specific optical filters placed in
front of the lens. But given the uncertainty of proper spectral sensitivity curve for circadian
visual system and the possible spectral differences in alertness promotion [140] and
melatonin suppression [116,133,225] makes this kind of measurement inflexible. At the
moment, it would seem better approach to use spectroradiometer for the measurement of
irradiance, as the spectral data could be then weighed mathematically to match current
knowledge. This approach would also allow the re-analysis of the raw spectral data when
knowledge increases on the spectral sensitivity curves for different non-image forming
(NIF) functions.
The examples of the b-luminance (blue = circadian effective luminance) measurements
with Fuji S5000 digital camera can be seen in Figure 61. The b-luminance distribution
illustrated using color-coding. As the study by Hollan [360] was a part of scotobiology (the
study of biology as affected by darkness [362]) research, the introduced method could be
used to quantify the light pollution affecting human and animal physiology as this area is
relatively unknown [363,364]. For example 5% of Czech population perceives unwanted
artificial light from outdoors as one of the two main causes of their sleep problems [365].
(B) (A)
Figure 60. Comparison of the camera sensors to photopic, scotopic and proposed metabolic (circadian) spectral
sensitivity function. (A) Fuji S5000 CCD-sensitivity, and (B) Canon EOS D60 CMOS-sensitivity. The photopic and
scotopic curves are taken from Stockman and Sharpe [63]. Graph from Hollan [360].
Figure 59. Calibrating the cameras
using a solar spectrum [360].

3.5 DOSIMETERS
Dosimeters in regard to this work refer to a device that records the light exposure
experienced by a single person [366]. A
decade before the discovery of the novel
photoreceptor, Koller et al. [367] studied
the correlation of photopic illuminance
and alertness in day and night watches
using a light dosimeter mounted on a
frame of spectacles. This type of simple
dosimeter is usually implemented to
actigraphic measurements in people with
sleeping disorders and in circadian
studies [368,369]. Actigraph is a small
measurement device that has been used
to record movement and light exposure.
Actigraph is basically an accelerometer
measuring movement via acceleration
changes. The use of actigraph wrist
Figure 62. (A) BASIC Mini-Motionlogger actigraph.
Movement sensor is a piezo-electric beam with capability of
detection in all three axes. Dimensions are 4.44 x 3.30 x 0.96
cm, 57 grams with 32 kB memory. Uses easily replacable
lithium batteries for run time of up to 30 days. (B) Wireless
single sensor (temperature, light, sound) units. Light sensor
records only ambent light with a 1 part in 256 resolution and
a range of 0-4,096 lx. 32 kB memory allows for 27 days of
light recording. [370].
(B) (A)
(A) (B)
Figure 61. Examples of showing and summing color-coded b-luminances (blue) of scene in a logarithmic scale
taken with Fuji S5000. Middle of the red colour range corresponds to 1 cd/m
2
, the green to 10 cd/m
2
, yellow to 100
cd/m
2
etc. Luminance of the face around the eyes is about one candela per square metre (or one nit, using a
convenient non-SI name of the unit). (A) A scene from Childhood Leukemia Conference. The black spot means
oversaturated pixels. Average luminances of the tiles are given at their bottom, the number in the centre is the
average green pixels raw reading. (B) Westiminster Abbey. Its luminances are in one nit and one decinit range.
Note the obsolete glaring luminaires at right (the only light which should be visible is the red traffic light [360].
monitors (e.g. Figure 62A [370]) enables the automated sleep score recording compared to
the option that subjects would manually write down the wake and sleep onset times.. The
scores from the raw data can be calculated using validated algorithms [371,372]. Typically
the light sensor is worn like a medallion and does not quantify the light exposure very well,
and in addition to light sensor additional temperature and sound sensors [373] can be
connected to the actigraph to get more comprehensive recordings.

3.5.1 LichtBlick (Hubalek et al., 2004)
LichtBlick [253] was a project focusing
on the statistical data of exposed
illuminances at work places, and the
frequency distributions of eye
movements associated with luminance
distributions at work places. Authors
developed 10 low-cost measurement
devices to record the illuminance as well
as the effective irradiance regarding
circadian effects. Two different sensors,
one with photopic spectral sensitivity
[V()] and other with approximative
circadian spectral sensitivity [c()], are
fixed at the frame of the glasses (Figure
64). Only the sensors are carried on the
head, and via twisted cable they are
connected to a control unit and the data
recording mini-computer, worn in a bag
around the waist. Thus, the measuring unit
is light-weight and easily worn all day
long.
Sample rate for the light recording is 5 Hz,
and values range from 0 to 5,000 lx and
from 0 to 700 W/cm
2
. The f
1
-error (the
degree to which the relative spectral
responsivity matches V() is characterized
by means of the error f
1
[374]) for the
V() sensor is 9 % at 0 angle of
incidence. Both sensors have a cosine corrected hemispherical sensitivity with a f
2
-error for
V() of 19 % and of 17 % for c(). To consider people wearing glasses, all measured data
values were decreased by about 10 % a value based on measurements and literature [375].
While effective facial irradiance can be measured with the developed system, the
conversion of retinal to facial data is not possible with a single multiplier [376]. As light
from upper temporary visual field has turned out to be most effective in circadian sense
[149,150] the proper quantification of
retinal irradiance becomes even more
difficult. An example of the recording
can be seen in Figure 63,
As the effective retinal irradiance (see
Figure 10) depends on the size of the
light source, the illuminance
Figure 64. The two sensors are fixed at the frame of the
glasses. On the right side the graph shows the spectral
distribution of c() and V() together with the spectral
response of the two sensors at an angle of light incident of
0(data from manufacturer HAMAMATSU) [253].
Figure 63. Data from subject 05 for the time at work only.
Top down: illuminance in lx, blue-sensor data in W/cm2
and the ratio a
cv
[356] of both. Clearly visible is the sun
turning towards West and thus into the office. During
lunch break more light came into the subjects face. Also the
blue-sensor shows higher values. The elevation of the a
cv
is
quite remarkable: it drops down below 1.0 at 13:00 hrs.
This indicates that the person might have stayed in a zone
with less daylight and more artificial light [253].
Figure 65. The dark-pupil eyetracking device (SMI iViewX
HED) is shown at the left hand side. Aside are images from
the eye tracker video, showing from left to right the gaze to
the monitor, to the keyboard and to a paper [253].
measurement solely does not give information about the distribution of the effective
irradiance on the retina. For this purpose luminance measurements (e.g. Figure 57) need to
be carried out, and LMK Mobile Rollei d31flex videophotometer [377] was used for this
purpose Furthermore, head movements need to be distinguished from eye movements.
Therefore, it turned out to be reasonable, to collect data about the gaze position the point
in the subjects field of vision where the eye is actually focused. For this purpose, authors
[253] used commercially available dark-pupil eyetracking device SMI iViewX Hed [378]
with an ability to record video at a frame rate of 25 Hz.
With the luminance camera, fish-eye photographs with an angle of 180 were taken, and
based on these photographs a fragmentation into different sectors (linked to objects such as
telephone and monitor) has been carried out
(Figure 66A). Four different tasks were
carried out by the subject (Figure 66B): 3
VDU (Visual Display Unit) task totaling
about 8 minutes (top left), 2 VDU with
scripture totaling about 8 minutes (top
right), 4 times with desk work totaling about
15 minutes (bottom left) and 2 telephone
calls totaling about 9 minutes (bottom right).
It can be seen that the line of vision
concentrates pretty much on the used artifact
as with the VDU task the monitor draws the
attention of 69,6% of the gaze duration.
Conversely VDU with the scripture draws
only 39,2 % of the gaze duration to the
monitor. While the gaze in telephone task
seems to be related to the conducted work
task, the eye movements start rambling
being mostly attracted by the big plant on
the right hand side. Authors [253]
hypothesize that differences in eye
movements depend on luminance variance
and degree of contrast intensity. Indications
of the study could be then used to design
visually comfortable luminance environment
that does not constrain eye movements.

3.5.2 Daysimeter (Bierman et al., 2005)
In Lighting Research center of Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute (USA), a device called
Daysimeter was developed by Bierman et al. [379] to address the problems [380] in
circadian photometry and the lack of proper measurement devices. As noticed earlier, the
circadian phototransduction differs in terms of quantity [157,381], spectrum [133,137-140],
spatial distribution [149,150], duration [203,206], timing [182], and the significance of
previous photic history [212,213] from conventional photometry including photopic,
scotopic, and mesopic lighting conditions. The name Daysimeter comes from its ability to
record circadian optical radiation in the sense of quantity and duration for 24 hours for its
memory. Figure 69 shows the basic schematics and photograph of Daysimeter. The key
functionalities include photopic and estimated circadian radiation exposure measurements,
head angle and activity measurements and data logging.
(A)
(B)
Figure 66. (A) The fish-eye photograph shows the office
work place of one subject with closed Venetian blinds.
Aside the used fragmentation of the scene is presented.
(B) Frequency of gaze durations on different plains
conducting different tasks [253].
Two photosensors separately measure photopic and blue signals where blue is used to
estimate the circadian radiation exposure. Figure 67 illustrates the instruments photopic
and blue spectral response curves (characterized using a grating monochromator) along
with the photopic luminous efficiency
function [V()] and a circadian spectral
response function defined by Rea et al. [382].
It should be noticed that the spectral response
curve was derived from the studies by Thapan
et al. [116] and Brainard et al. [225] which do
not seem to perfectly represent spectral
dependency of circadian or non-image
forming (NIF) effects of light (see review by
Brainard et al. [85]). The blue spectral
sensitivity function is a linear function
although Figueiro et al. [131] had shown that
circadian system responds to light through a
non-linear, sub-additive mechanism that
cannot be modeled with a simple additive
function as shown in Figure 67. However, an
additive spectral response was utilized for the
blue sensor with the expectation that in future,
post-detector processing could be employed
to correct the linear function to non-linear
function.
The photopic sensor used is a Hamamatsu
S1223-01 silicone photodiode [383] in a
hermetic package. Its relatively large 13 mm
2

area provides a bare cell sensitivity of 0,13
A per lux for Illuminant A [384]. A multi-
element substractive glass filter matches the
silicon cell response to the photopic luminous
efficiency function. An opal glass diffuser is
used to modify the spatial characteristics of
the sensor to be Lambertian (Figure 68 [385]),
Figure 69. Schematic and photograph of the prototype Daysimeter [379].
Figure 68. Spatial response of the Daysimeters light
sensors [385].
Figure 67. Shown as solid and dashed lines are the
photopic luminous efficiency function (V) and a
spectral response of the human circadian system
reported by Rea et al. [382], respectively, normalized
for equal output when integrated over wavelength
with CIE Illuminant A as a light source [379].
mimicking the eyes spatial response as reported by van Derlofske et al. [380]. The cell,
filter and diffuser stack are mounted in a thin-wall brass tube to provide mechanical
protection, electrical shielding, and a way to mount the detector to the printed circuit board
by soldering. The photocell/filter/diffuser combination has a responsivity of 450 pA/lx.
The blue sensor is a Hamamatsu G1962 GaP photodiode [386]. The response curve of the
blue sensor in Figure 67 shows how it responds only to light of wavelengths shorter than
570 nm with peak sensitivity at 470 nm. The sharp long-wavelength cutoff is generated by
the bandgap cutoff of the sensors photodiode material. To limit unwanted UV sensitivity
of the blue sensor and provide the proper short-wavelength cutoff, a colored glass filter was
used (Schott Glass GG 19 [387]). The notch in the blue response at approximately 440 nm
is the result of an added gel filter (Roscolux #08, Pale Gold [388]) chosen to fine-tune the
match to the circadian action spectrum from Rea et al [382]. A photocell with an active area
of 5.2mm2 was chosen to maximize sensitivity while keeping the detector package small.
As with the photopic sensor, the blue sensor incorporates an opal glass diffuser and is
similarly mounted in a brass tube. The sensor assembly has a peak responsivity of 60
nA/Wm
2
.
The two sensors provide current outputs, which are converted into voltages using a standard
transimpedance amplifier (Texas Instrument OPA2349 [389]). As light levels can vary
from 100,000 lx in direct sunlight to less than 1 lx at night, a significant challenge was to
incorporate some kind of automatic gain selection to provide the desired linear response.
This is accomplished by switching between one of the five feedback resistors combinations
using a four-channel CMOS analogue multiplexer. The range selection is under
microprocessor control and the gain resistors have values of 10
8
, 10
7
, 10
6
, 10
5
and 10
4
.
12-bit analogue-to-digital converter (ADC) integrated with the processor provides for a step
size of 0.008 nA on the most sensitive scale, and 0.08 A on the least sensitive scale. The
full scale ranges are 21 nA full scale and 210 A full scale, respectively. These values
correspond to a photopic illuminance resolution of 0.018 lx and a full scale maximum
reading of 467,000 lx.
The both prototype instruments were evaluated to
ensure that they had the same spectral response
curves. The closeness of the spectral match for
one instrumented is quantified by the f
1
figure of
merit, which is 0.038 for the one shown and
0.054 for the other (Figure 67). This closeness of
spectral matching is comparable to portable,
commercial illuminance meters. The linearity of
the system was also verified by comparing it to a
Photo Research LRS 450 Light Standard system
capable of producing illuminance levels ranging
from 0.3 lx to 15,000 lx at the exit port of a 152
mm integrating sphere, while maintaining a
constant relative spectral output that closely
matches CIE Illuminant A at 2856 K. Figure 70
shows the ratio of the instrument and LRS 450
Light Standard as a function of irradiance, normalized to unity at the highest irradiance
level. Deviations from a linear response are within a few per cent over the three and a half
decades of irradiance levels tested. It can be noticed that measurements of lower irradiance
have degraded linearity due to lower signal-to-noise ratios and a greater relative
dependence on specifying an accurate zero irradiance level value. Authors [390] claim that
this wouldnt be a necessarily a problem as they cite to a study [133] with 30 lx threshold
Figure 70. Results of linearity verification for
one instrument. Plotted is the ratio of the
instrument under test to the LRS 450 Light
Standard as a function of light level, normalized
to unity at the highest light level for both the
photopic and blue channels [379].
with white light. However, as little as 1,5 lx have shown [391] to be sufficient entrain
humans to a light/dark cycle, and it could be that during dark periods (night) even very light
levels (e.g. light pollution [364]) can disrupt human physiology [392-394]. The range-
setting resistors have a tolerance of 1% and it should show some discontinuity in the
response (100 M being the most sensitive due to leakage current induced errors) as the
range changes but these are not discernible in Figure 70 so this does not appear to be a
major factor.
Head angle and activity measurements are done with a monolithic integrated circuit (IC)
accelerometer (Analog Devices ADXL311 [395]) provides information on head position
and movement. The two-axis accelerometer is mounted vertically and provides signals that
are digitally processed to indicate head angle. Head inclination angle is provided at each
logging interval with a resolution of 0.1. A
measure of activity is provided by the root-mean-
square (RMS) value of the ac component of
acceleration in the x and y directions. Activity is
reported in units of milli-g RMS (i.e., a value of 1
= 1/1000g of force) and is calculated as a moving
average over a 5 s period. Figure 71 shows an
example of the two-axis acceleration data
recorded by Daysimeter.
A microprocessor (Texas Instruments MSP430
[396,397]) digitizes the amplified photosensors
signals, provides a time clock, performs
calculations and controls data storage and
retrieval functions. The processor stores
calibration data for the sensors, which are used to
process the downloaded data to provide calibrated output. The processor incorporates a 12-
bit ADC with up to eight multiplexed inputs and an extensive library of functions to reduce
power. A dual clock system enables it to go into a low-power sleep mode when not taking
measurements. It also supports an RS232 serial link port that is used to issue commands to
the system and retrieve data. The processor stores the digital data in an Atmel EEProm
flash memory unit. This type of processor is used extensively in high-volume consumer
applications, making it easily available and low cost.
Power is supplied by an external battery providing a minimum of 3.5 V and 30 mA of peak
current to the on-board 3.3 V voltage regulator. The external battery is connected to the
Daysimeter by a thin cable. For simplicity and to limit power requirements, the supply does
not use a negative rail. In the interest of cost and availability, a 9 V alkaline battery was
used and provides more than one week of continuous operation when logging at a rate of 1
Hz. The system is controlled via the RS232 serial link to the host computer. The libraries of
commands used to control the system consist of start logging, stop logging and retrieve
data. The start logging command sets the data-logging rate. Typical rates are 0.1 Hz to 1
Hz. The stop logging command sets the system to a low-power sleep mode. The retrieve
data command downloads the data from the flash memory to a file in the host computer.
The file is a text file consisting of date and time, photopic and circadian light levels, head
tilt and activity measures. The data storage capacity is 120,000 readings (2 MB).
To use the instrument, it must first be zeroed and then calibrated to a known standard. The
dark calibration command (instrument placed in total darkness) sets the zero level for the
digitizer. The system is then exposed to an incandescent light source (CIE Illuminant A)
and the photopic and blue signal channels are calibrated separately using the same light
source and are set to provide the same numerical values for CIE Illuminant A. It should be
Figure 71. Two-axis acceleration data recorded
by the Daysimeter showing sensitivity to
movement and the inclination of the subjects
head [385].
noted that this calibration procedure is different from that used in conventional photometry,
whereby the blue action spectrum would have been set to provide 683 lumens per watt at
555 nm [398]. Since the blue action spectrum has almost no sensitivity at 555 nm, it was
deemed more appropriate to calibrate the blue signal to produce the same numerical values
as the photopic signal for the well-characterized CIE Illuminant A. Thus, the blue channel
was calibrated in relative units of blue radiation, or b-lux. During field use then, exposure
to commonly available incandescent sources similar to that used for calibration will provide
data with equal values from the photopic and blue channels. Exposure to sources with more
radiant power at short wavelengths (e.g., daylight) will cause the blue channel to display a
numerically higher blue channel value than the illuminance value generated by the photopic
channel.
Figure 72 shows illustrative data of the Daysimeter as a practical research tool. Figure 72A
shows values obtained worn at the office and then for the drive home at night. It could be
speculated that due to sampling rate of 0.5 Hz, the recorded signal likely underestimates the
magnitude and extent of the transients. Figure 72B shows the data when performing a
computer-based numerical verification task. The room was illuminated throughout the
experiment with fluorescent lamps having a CCT of 3500K. Towards the end of the
experimental session, the photopic illuminance was approximately 1,000 lx whereas the
blue sensor recorded approximately 3000 b-lux due to increased daylight in the room. In
conclusion, without the Daysimeter (or a system equivalent) it would be difficult to
accurately determine peoples circadian radiation exposure, owing to the wide range of
lighting conditions commonly encountered.
Figure 72. (A) Daysimeter data showing the recording of the photopic and blue sensors when worn at the office
and then for the drive home at night. Local time is displayed on the abscissa, and the coordinate is in units of
photopic lux and b-lux. Annotations on the graph provide a description of some of the lighting conditions
experienced by the subject. (B) Daysimeter data showing the recording of the photopic and blue sensors when
worn by a subject during a 5 h experimental session while seated in an electrically illuminated room next to a
north-facing window. Local time is indicated on the abscissa, as is the occurrence of sunrise. Values on the
coordinate are in units of photopic lux and b-lux. Breaks taken away from the window are evident by light level
drops in both channels [379].
(B) (A)
Dosimeter design and simulation 54
4. DOSIMETER DESIGN AND SIMULATION
In this chapter the possible improvements and general design principles involved in light
dosimeters are discussed. The cost of components is also considered as in field studies
many dosimeters are simultaneously needed and the cost of individual device gets
important. The main difference in the proposed dosimeter compared to the previous
dosimeters is the implementation of pupil measurement to the dosimeter. The main goal of
this chapter is to briefly overview the requirements of the measurement device while not
going in details of the electronics design.

4.1 EYETRACKER AND/OR PUPIL SIZE MEASUREMENT
Like already mentioned with eye trackers, their main
function in circadian photometry is not necessarily to
track eye movements but to record pupil size. Given
that the openEyes concept (Figure 73) by Li et al.
[288] provided the software and hardware freely
available, it can be used as a basis for the pupil size
measurement device. Step-by-step instructions for the
hardware construction were also provided [399]. The
detailed component with the prices paid by the authors can be seen in Table 4-Table 11
[400]. The total price of all components is $530 (417) with the video cameras (eye and
scene) being the most expensive components. If the scene camera is removed enabling only
pupil recording, the cost can be reduced as the components Table 8 and Table 9 typed in
italics become unnecessary. With the unnecessary components removed, new cost
estimation for the system is $350 (275).
x
Table 4. Radioshack (http://www.radioshack.com/). Total $27.53 [400].
Item Part No. Price
33 Ohm Resistor 271-1104 $0.99
14 pin dip socket (4 @ $1.20) 900-7243 $4.80
IR LED 276-143 $1.79
Aluminum Project Enclosures (2 @ $2.99) 270-238 $5.98
Electrical Tape 64-2375 $3.19
Solder 64-009 $8.39
Heat Shring Tubbing 278-1627 $2.39

Table 5. 9th Tee Enterprises (http://www.9thtee.com/zipties.htm). Total $11.55 [400].
Item Part No. Price
Zip Ties ZIPTIEASST1000 $11.55

Table 6. RAM electronics (http://www.ramelectronics.net/catalogbyProdID.asp?prodid=mem-90072). Total $15.90
[400].
Item Part No. Price
10' Cable, DB15 Male to Female (2 @ $7.95) MEM-90072 $15.90

Table 7. McMaster-Carr (http://www.mcmaster.com/). Total $30.18 [400].
Item Part No. Price
Aluminum Wire (14 gauge, 1/4 lbs coil) 8904K73 $5.91
Aluminum Wire (9 gauge, 1/4 lbs coil) 8904K75 $8.89
DB15 Female Connectors (package of 6) 2146T13 $7.69
DB9 male Connectors (package of 6) 2146T11 $7.69

Figure 73. openEyes, eyetracking solution
[399].
Table 8. Unibrain (http://www.unibrain.com/). Total $282.95 [400].
Item Part No. Price
Fire-I Board Camera B/W 2057 $154.00
Fire-I Digital Camera 2035 $109
12.0mm Zoom Lens 2041 $19.95

Table 9. Marshall Electronics (http://www.mars-cam.com/). Total $104.13 [400].
Item Part No. Price
Eye camera lens (5.7mm, 38) V-4305.7-1.6 $27.15
Wide Angle Lens (1.9 mm) V-4301.9-2.0FT $38.00
Medium Lens (3.6 mm) V-4303.6-4 $27.15
Lens Holder (17 mm)* V-LH3A $6.00
Lens Holder (13.5 mm*) V-LH08 $6.00
* Lens holder sizes were not specified for the eye and scene camera, so the other one is needed for the design with
only eye camera.

Table 10. Edmund Optics (http://www.edmundoptics.com/onlinecatalog/displayproduct.cfm?productID=1493).
Total $56.00 [400].
Item Part No. Price
FILTER WRATTEN IR #87 NT54 518 $56.00

Table 11. These items may be purchased from almost any hardware store [400].
Item
2-56 x 1/2 Stainless Steel Screws
Nylon Spacers (1/4 long)
Nylon Washers

It should be noticed that the authors [288] were using some kind of DC power supply to
provide the 1A at 12 V for the camera, but if the system is wanted to be totally mobile some
kind of battery solution is needed. One possible solution is to use traditional 12 V lead
battery while having to make a compromise between the weight and energy density as the
battery needs to be carried in a back bag or some such. ExtraCell ELB4.2-12 [401] provides
4.2 mAh while weighing around one 1 kg with a price of 11.70. The supply voltage needs
to be regulated also with a voltage regulator for which one example is LM-317 adjustable
voltage regulator [402] with a price of 0.50-1. The system also needs a laptop or a pocket
computer for the recording of the video, but normally laptop computer is found nearly in
every laboratory and this cost can be excluded from this analysis.
One clear disadvantage of the proposed openEyes concept in field measurements is the
inability to measure pupil size in outdoors. The system uses IR light to illuminate the eye
and in outdoor conditions there is an excess of uncontrolled IR radiation from the sun that
makes accurate measurement of pupil size too difficult. In indoor (e.g. office simulation) it
is possible to use light sources that do not contain significant IR radiation making the
measurement more accurate.
Maybe the largest problem of the pupil size measurement system is the pupil detection
algorithm itself. The authors provided the Starburst algorithm [301] for Matlab
environment with a main emphasis to give out the data on eye movement rather than the
pupil size. However as seen in Figure 42, the pupil contour is detected enabling the
extraction of pupil size data after a slight modification of the Matlab algorithm. The
modification of the algorithm is not within the scope of this work as it would require further
knowledge of digital image processing.

4.2 DOSIMETER
The dosimeter design can be based either low-cost photodiodes or high-cost
spectroradiometers. The authors with Daysimeter [379] had chosen the photodiode
approach which allows cheap production of many dosimeters to be used in field
experiments. Given that in laboratory studies it seems better to use Ganzfeld dome or
Goldman perimeter based study settings [149,225] with the retinal light exposure known,
the spectroradiometer-based light dosimeter do not appear very appealing.

4.2.1 Photodiode-based dosimeter
The design by Bierman et al. [379] of Daysimeter can be chosen as the basis for the design
of improved dosimeter or the dosimeter part of a larger measurement system incorporating
also pupil size and eye tracking measurements. The authors [379] themselves did not
provide a cost estimate for the Daysimeter, but this can be done by using the internet as
components were given, and the estimated cost is given in Table 12 for main components.
It can be seen that the circadian photodiode is clearly the most expensive component.

Table 12. Estimate of the cost of Daysimeter excluding passive components (like resistors and capacitances), cables
and circuit board.
Item Price Refs
Hamamatsu S1223-01 (photopic photodiode) 8,33 [403]
Hamamatsu G1962 GaP (circadian photodiode) 46,67 [386]
Texas Instruments OPA2349 op amp (x2) 0.62 /1000pcs [404]
Texas Instruments MSP430 microcontroller 3.75-10.35 /1000pcs [405]
Atmel EEProm flash memory unit, e.g. AT29C020-90PI 5.00 [406]
4-channel CMOS analogue multiplexer, e.g. MAX4694 1.02 /1000pcs [407]
1,2 V voltage reference, e.g. TI TL431CLP 0.45 [408]
3,3 V voltage regulator, e.g. AS1351 1.10 [409]
> 3.5 V battery, e.g. GP17R8H NiMH 9V 170mAh 7.40 [410]
Analog Devices ADXL311 accelerometer 3.35 /1000pcs [411]
Opal diffuser (x2), e.g. RPC Photonics HiLAM 6.90 [412,413]
Photopic filter for S1223-01, e.g. UGQ (=12,5mm) 58.00* [414]
Schott Glass GG 19 UV-filter (=25,4mm) 17.30 [387]
Roscolux #08, Pale Gold (50 x 60 cm sheet) 4.45 [388,415]
= 113.86 + 58.00*
* In reality the used photopic filter was more likely cheaper than the 58.00 listed as an example

Authors [379] had used unspecified opal diffusers in front of the photodiodes to transform
to photodiode response to Lambertian (Figure 68) even though this is not very likely the
case with circadian responses as seen in chapter 2.4.2. It would seem more accurate to use
opal diffuser with a selective transmissivity according to the results obtained from
melatonin suppression studies. However, this is slightly complicated as the studies have
been done comparing only four different retina regions (upper-temporal, upper-nasal,
lower-temporal, lower-nasal) to full retinal exposure meaning that a diffuser with specific
transmissivity gradient could not be manufactured. In theory if the melanopsin-containing
cell distribution in the retina was known with supporting melatonin suppression data, a
custom neural density filter could be placed between photodiode and opal diffuser. The
losses in the optical system (diffuser and filters) should be naturally taken account into
when determining the actual retinal light exposure.
When measuring low light levels, the noise and thus the low signal-to-noise ration (SNR)
can become a limiting factor in accurate measurements. Figure 74A [416] shows the circuit
for the photodiode and operational amplifier (op amp) system along with the equivalent
circuit modeling the noise sources in Figure 74B [416].
Photodiodes shot noise I
sn
is given by:
( ) ( )B I PR q 2 B I I q 2 I
d d p sn
+ = + =

(13)
Where, I
sn
is photodiodes shot noise [A]
q is charge of an electron, 1.610
-19
C
I
p
is photocurrent [A]
I
d
is dark current [A]
B is noise bandwidth [Hz]
P is light intensity [W]
R
is photosensitivity [A/W]
Johnson noise I
jn
of the photodiodes shunt resistance is given by:
sh
B
jn
R
TB k 4
I = (14)
Where, I
jn
is shunt resistances Johnson noise [A]
k
B
is Boltzman constant, 1.3810
-23
J/K
T is temperature [K]
R
sh
is shunt resistance []
Johnson noise I
f
of the feedback (gain) resistance is given by:
f
B
f
R
TB k 4
I = (15)
Where, I
f
is feedback resistances Johnson noise [A]
R
f
is feedback resistance []
(B) (A)
Figure 74. (A) Simple circuit of the photodiode-based light measurement [416]. (B) Equivalent circuit to (A) with
the noise sources modeled as current and voltage sources [416].
Noise current I
n
of the op amp is given by:
B i I
n n
= (16)
Where, I
n
is noise current [A]
i
n
is noise current density given by the manufacturer [A/Hz
]
Noise current I
n,e
from e
n
of op amp is given by:
B
R R
R R
e B i I
f sh
f sh
n e , n e , n
+
= =
(17)
Where, I
n,e
is noise current from e
n
[A]
i
n,e
is noise current density from e
n
[A/Hz
]
e
n
is input voltage noise density given by the manufacturer [V/Hz
]
As every noise current source is independent from each other, the total noise current can be
given as a square of sum.
2
e , n
2
n
2
f
2
jn
2
tot , n
I I I I I I
sn
+ + + + = (18)
Where, I
n,tot
is total noise current [A]
The signal-to-noise ratio is then the logarithm of the relation of measured light intensity and
total noise current:
|
|
|
\
|
+ + + +
=
|
|
\
|
=

2
e , n
2
n
2
f
2
jn
2
tot , n
p
I I I I I
R P
log 20
I
I
log 20 SNR
sn
(19)
Where, SNR is signal-to-noise ratio [dB]
The value of feedback (gain) resistance depends on the measured or maximum photocurrent
and the maximum output voltage that is wanted from the circuit:
= =
R P
V
I
V
R
max
max
max , p
max
f

(20)
Where, V
max
is maximum output voltage [V]
I
p,max
is maximum photocurrent [A]
P
max
is maximum light intensity [W]
Table 13 shows the typical values for noise (current and voltage) components among some
low-cost and low-noise op amps. It depends on the application whether current or voltage
noise is more important parameter when choosing an op amp.

Table 13. Operational amplifiers comparison.
Op amp i
n
[pA/Hz
] e
n
[nV/Hz
] Price Refs
LT1028 4,7 1 20.20 /1pcs [417] [418]
OP07 0,32 10 0.46-1.27 /1000pcs [419] [420]
OP27 1,7 3,5 0.75-24.16 /1000pcs [421] [422]
OP497 0,02 17 2.87-4.61 /1000pcs [423] [424]
OPA2349 (Daysimeter) 0,004 300 0.62 /1000pcs [425] [389]
Table 13 shows the technical specifications needed for noise calculation of some
photodiodes. Hamamatsu S7686 (Figure 76) and OSI Optoelectronics PIN-10AP are
directly suitable for photopic measurements as their response is according to V().
Hamamatsu G6262 was chosen as a cheaper alternative for Hamamatsu G1962 with
relatively similar spectral response (Figure 75) to the proposed spectral sensitivity for
melatonin suppression (Figure 24) by Rea et al. [133]. It naturally needs to be corrected
using off-to-shelf optical filters in a similar manner as the authors [379] with Daysimeter
had done.

Table 14. Photodiode comparison [379].
Photodiode I
d
[pA]
R
sh
[M]
R
(550nm)
[A/W]
R
(480nm)
[A/W]
Price
Refs
Hamamatsu G1962 (Daysi.)
+
2,5 40 0 0,05 46,67 [386]
Hamamatsu G6262 50 80 0,02 0,18 15,00 [426]

Hamamatsu S1223-01 (Daysi.)* 200 ? 0,35 0,27 8,33 [403]
Hamamatsu S1337-1010BQ 200 200 0,3 0,24 85,33 [427]
Hamamatsu S7686 2 ? 0,38 0,05 16,67 [428]
OSI Optoelectronics PIN-10AP ? 20 0,27 ? ? [429]
* Photopic photodiode,
+
circadian photodiode in Daysimeter

Using the equation 19, the signal-to noise ratio (SNR) can be simulated easily for example
with MS Excel. The used 6 different feedback (gain) resistors have the same values of 10
8
,
10
7
, 10
6
, 10
5
and 10
4
as with Daysimeter. The resistor switching as a function of light
intensity is determined by using the equation 20. Temperature T is chosen to be a constant
298 K and noise bandwidth B as 10 Hz. Figure 78 shows the results of the SNR simulation
for different photodiodes when using OPA2349 op amp. It can be seen that the differences
between different photodiodes is minimal in regard to noise performance and the linearity
in regard to physiological spectral response seems to be more important parameter which is
not simulated here. Figure 77 shows the similar SNR simulation comparing the different op
amps when using Hamamatsu S7686 photodiode. Significant differences in low light levels
Figure 76. Spectral response of Hamamatsu S7686
silicon photodiode. Spectral response similar to
human sensitivity, high-speed response, For
illuminator, luminance meter [428].
Figure 75. Spectral response of Hamamatsu G6262
GaAsP photodiode accompanied by G7169 and G5645
which both share similar spectral characteristics
[426].
can be seen with OP497 and OPA2349 providing the best SNR as their noise current
density is the lowest in compared op amps. The significance of voltage current density
would be larger if smaller feedback (gain) resistors were used in low light levels.
Figure 78. SNR simulation of different photodiodes as a function of light intensity when using OPA2349 op amp.
Photodiode SNR Comparison
With 6 fixed feedback (gain) resistors
-30,00
0,00
30,00
60,00
90,00
120,00
150,00
180,00
210,00
240,00
1,0E-12 1,0E-10 1,0E-08 1,0E-06 1,0E-04 1,0E-02 1,0E+00 1,0E+02
Light intensity [W]
S
N
R

[
d
B
]
S1223-01
S1337-1010BQ
S7686
PIN-10AP
G6262
G1962
Figure 77. SNR simulation of different op amps as a function of light intensity when using S7686 photodiode.
OpAmp Comparison
Practical situation with 6 fixed feedback (gain) resistors while using S7686 photodiode
-90,00
-60,00
-30,00
0,00
30,00
60,00
90,00
120,00
150,00
180,00
210,00
240,00
1,0E-12 1,0E-10 1,0E-08 1,0E-06 1,0E-04 1,0E-02 1,0E+00 1,0E+02
Light intensity [W]
S
N
R

[
d
B
]
LT1028
OP07
OP27
OP497
OPA2349
Table 15 shows a new cost estimate for the light dosimeter after slight modification. The
change from Hamamatsu S1223-01 to Hamamatsu S7686 eliminated the need for a separate
photopic filter as the S7686 has a V() responsivity. The change in circadian photodiode
from G1962 to G6262 cut the costs with about 30, and it would be possible to cut costs
even further if chosen a photodiode with a responsivity only between 400-600nm as no
UV-filter would be needed. In the Hamamatsu product range there are e.g. G1735 [430]
GaAsP photodiode with a spectral responsivity between 400-760 nm (
max
=710nm).
However, the shape of spectral response curve differs largely from the proposed spectral
sensitivity curve so that G1735 would most likely require a custom filter to produce similar
spectral response and that would increase the costs but could produce more accurate
response. It can be seen that the optical components and photodiodes are the most
expensive components in the light dosimeter and no other major savings can be achieved.
The cost of prototype dosimeter naturally can be dropped by asking samples from the
manufacturers when doing designing the actual dosimeter as a project work, Bachelors
thesis or some such.

Table 15. Cost estimate of the modified Daysimeter.
* Estimate of the needed correction filter to create the notch around 500nm
Item Price Refs
Hamamatsu S7686 (photopic photodiode with V() responsivity) 16.67 [428]
Hamamatsu G6262 (circadian photodiode) 15.00 [426]
Texas Instruments OPA2349 op amp (x2) 0.62 /1000pcs [404]
Texas Instruments MSP430 microcontroller 3.75-10.35 /1000pcs [405]
Atmel EEProm flash memory unit, e.g. AT29C020-90PI 5.00 [406]
4-channel CMOS analogue multiplexer, e.g. MAX4694 1.02 /1000pcs [407]
1,2 V voltage reference, e.g. TI TL431CLP 0.45 [408]
3,3 V voltage regulator, e.g. AS1351 1.10 [409]
> 3.5 V battery, e.g. GP17R8H NiMH 9V 170mAh 7.40 [410]
Analog Devices ADXL311 accelerometer 3.35 /1000pcs [411]
Opal diffuser (x2) 6.90 [412,413]
Schott Glass GG 19 UV-filter (=25,4mm) 17.30 [387]
Roscolux #08, Pale Gold (50 x 60 cm sheet)* 4.45 [388,415]
83.63

4.2.2 Spectroradiometer-based
The more expensive and more flexible alternative to photodiode-based dosimeter is a
spectroradiometer-based dosimeter. The benefit of a spectroradiometer is the recording of
raw spectral radiation which can be freely weighed mathematically using a computer after
the actual measurement in contrast to photodiode-based system where the weighing is done
with an optical filter in front of a photodiode. This naturally provides greater flexibility as
there is no final certainty about the action spectrum of non-image forming (NIF) responses
and it could even be that the spectral dependency is different for alertness promotion and
melatonin suppression [140]. However, given the high cost (> 790) of a
spectroradiometer, only some commercial options are shortly reviewed and left
unsimulated for noise and overall performance. It should be noticed that even though that
the compact spectroradiometers are relatively large, they could be simply be mounted to a
waist bag or back bag and use optical fiber as the primary detector mounted on safety
glasses for example enabling very light-weight design.
Table 16 and Table 17 show the technical specifications of two possible CCD-based
spectroradiometers to dosimeter design from OceanOptics. Both of them are very light-
weight devices with a sampling frequency (inverse of integration time) more than adequate
for light dosimeters where high sampling frequencies are not needed. However, it should be
noticed that the signal ratio is significantly worse compared to a photodiode-based system
which could limit the accuracy at low light levels. Table 18 shows the technical
specification for Avantes AvaSpec 102-USB2 spectroradiometer which is based on
photodiode array and weighs more than 3 times compared to the ones from OceanOptics. It
also offers slightly better dynamic range and more outputs but in general doesnt differ
largely from OceanOptics USB4000.

Table 16. OceanOptics USB650 Red Tide Spectrometer for Education [431]

Dimensions: 89.1 x 63.3 x 34.4 mm
Weight: 190 g
Detector: Linear silicon CCD array
Detector range: 350-1000 nm
Signal-to-noise ratio: 250:1 (at full signal) 48,0dB
A/D resolution: 12 bit
Dark noise: 3.2 RMS counts
Corrected linearity: >99.8%
Sensitivity: 75 photons/count @ 400 nm
Optical resolution: ~2.0 nm FWHM
Integration time: 3 ms to 65 s (15 s typical max)
Dynamic range: 2 x 10
8
(system), 1300:1 (single acquisition)
Computer interfaces: USB
Price: starts from $999 (~790)

Table 17. OceanOptics USB4000 Miniature Fiber Optic Spectrometer [432].

Dimensions: 89.1 mm x 63.3 mm x 34.4 mm
Weight: 190 g
Detector: Toshiba TCD1304AP Linear CCD array
Wavelength range: 200-1100 nm
Signal-to-noise ratio: 300:1 (at full signal) 49,5dB
A/D resolution: 16 bit
Dark noise: 50 RMS counts
Corrected linearity: >99.8%
Sensitivity: 130 photons/count at 400 nm; 60 photons/count at
600 nm
Optical resolution: ~0.3-10.0 nm FWHM
Integration time: 10 s to 65 seconds
Dynamic range: 2 x 10
8
(system), 1300:1 (single acquisition)
Power consumption: 250 mA @ 5 VDC
Computer interfaces: USB 2.0, 480 Mbps; RS-232, 115.2 kbauds/s

Table 18. Avantes AvaSpec-102-USB2 Fiber Optic Spectrometer [433].

Dimensions: 175 x 110 x 44 mm
Weight: 716 g
Detector: Photo diode array, 102 pixels
Wavelength range: 360-1100 nm
Signal-to-noise ratio: 1000:1 =60dB
A/D resolution: 14 bit, 2 MHz
Sensitivity: 1000 counts/W -per ms integration time
Optical resolution: 1.4 64 nm, depending on configuration
Integration time: 0.08 msec - 10 minutes
Power consumption: 440 mA @ 5 VDC (from USB)
Digital IO HD-26 connector, 2 Analog in, 2 Analog out, 3
Digital in, 12 Digital out, trigger, sync.

Conclusions 63
5. CONCLUSIONS
In this work, the technology available for circadian photometric field measurements was
reviewed. The complete system needed for the proper quantification of circadian light
exposure consisted of a light dosimeter, pupil size measurement with a video camera,
eyetracker video camera. In addition to these a luminancephotometer or a digital camera
was needed for the measurement of the ambient light distribution for example in office
environments. The field measurement device is important to be as cheap as possible while
still allowing adequate measurement accuracy. Given that many field measurements can be
done without eye tracking function, the scene camera recording the task area can be
removed from the very low-cost design. In devices basic version, the pupil size
measurement could also be removed to further cut costs. However, this would limit
significantly the usefulness of the device when measuring simultaneously physiological
markers such as melatonin suppression as the effective retinal illuminance affecting
melatonin levels depends on the pupil size [136].
In theory, the eye camera recording the pupil size could be used to record photophobic
behavior (such as squinting) with proper algorithms as for example can further reduce the
retinal illuminance by one log unit compared to the value received from pupil size
measurement [136]. However, according to current knowledge of the author, this type of
algorithm does not exist as yet and it should be further developed for example using the
Starburst algorithm by Li et al. [301] as a basis for the development. The measurement of
photophobic behavior would also help to design optimal lighting for example for alertness-
promoting purposes. It does not seem beneficial to increase the vertical illuminance if it at
the same time increases photophobic behavior, thus reducing the effective retinal
illuminance as implied by the results by Figueiro et al. [136].
The difficulty in converting facial illuminance to retinal illuminance [376] also complicates
the accurate measurement of retinal illuminance as retinal illuminance depends on the
distance and the size of the light source (Figure 10). Given the uncertainty of the
measurement of retinal illuminance, the proposed light dosimeter is poorly suitable for
accurate laboratory studies measuring the physiological responses of light exposure.
However, the cheap light dosimeter can be used for relatively accurate estimation of the
light exposure experienced for example by a normal office worker. The conversion error
when converting facial illumination to retinal illumination can be reduced by measuring the
circadian ambient light distribution in workplace and using an eyetracker allowing fairly
accurate estimation of the size of the light source in the visual field. Also the poor control
of environmental variables (e.g. temperature, noise, food, sleep) in field studies makes
practically impossible to study accurately the possible biological effects of light with the
light dosimeter. Normally constant routine (CR) procedure [434,435] is used in circadian
experiments to eliminate all periodic changes in behavior, in addition to maintaining a
constant environment. The large amount of these interfering factors in field studies (such as
office work simulation) can distort or hide light-induced (or other measured variables)
effects, and are called masking factors.
Another large shortcoming of the proposed measurement device is the action spectrum for
non-image forming (NIF) effects of light used in the design. There is yet no consensus on
the actual action spectrum for NIF effects as the involvement of different photoreceptors is
not known [133], and it seems possible that light-induced alertness has a different action
spectrum than melatonin suppression for example [140]. Given that the proposed light
dosimeter uses fixed filters to correct the sensitivity of the photodiode according to
proposed action spectrum, it cannot simultaneously quantify both alertness-promoting
Conclusions 64
effects of light and melatonin suppression. One possible solution for this problem would to
incorporate a third photodiode to measure the light exposure being the most effective in
promoting alertness (
max
=480 nm [140]), and to measure the light affecting melatonin
suppression with the other circadian photodiode. More sophisticated method to correct
this problem would be to use a portable spectroradiometer, but given the relatively high
cost (minimum of ~800) this possibility does not go along with the low-cost approach.
However, the use of spectroradiometer would allow the measurement of raw spectral
radiation which could be then mathematically weighed for photopic and various NIF
effects, with the possibility to change the weighing curves as more knowledge is gained on
the action spectra of NIF functions.
In conclusion, the measurement device design reviewed in this work is best suitable for
circadian field photometric measurements for rough estimates of the experienced light
exposure. The approximative cost for the light dosimeter without pupil size recording is
around 85 and with the pupil size recording capability around 360 using the cheapest
components available while still maintaining adequate measurement accuracy. The added
pupil size recording capability (possibly with the measurement of photophobic behavior)
significantly improves the versatility of light dosimeter compared to the Daysimeter
concept proposed by Bierman et al. [379]. Due to possible inaccuracy in measuring
effective retinal irradiance, the proposed system can not be used in laboratory studies
examining for example the action spectrum of physiological responses (melatonin
suppression, phase shifting, pupillary light response or light-induced alertness). In
laboratory studies, better approach is to use either Ganzfeld dome or Goldman perimeter
which allows more accurate measurement of effective retinal illuminance as well as the
spectral power distribution (SPD) [149,225].
References 65
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