Chapter 3:

Uses and Effects of mass media

Chapter 2 focused on the various theories of communication and the effects that the tools of media have on the
audiences.
This chapter will focus on the several types of communication classified on the basis of the social group in which it
takes place and upon the technical tools used for its facilitation. The various types are:
Intrapersonal Communication
Intrapersonal communication is one-way communication. Individual contemplation, internal reflection, prayers, etc.
are types of intrapersonal communication. This type can also be termed as a form of internal persuasion. There are
two types of messages, nonverbal and verbal. Examples of nonverbal communication are facial expressions, posture,
gestures, tone of voice, touching, spacing and systematic use of time. Verbal communication can be divided into
three disciplines; syntactics, semantics, and pragmatics.
In the persuasion context, one person is attempting to induce change in the belief, attitude, or behavior in one other
person. For example: Jane persuading her sister Sarah to lend her pearls for Janes school party.
In the persuasion context, there are various theories that explain internal communication
Balance Theory
This theory advocated by Fritz Heider and Theodore Newcomb in 1946 states that when tensions arise between or
inside people, they attempt to reduce these tensions through self-persuasion or trying to persuade others. Balance
theory proposes that there are three ways in which a person can feel balance. First the source and receiver can both
dislike as well as like each other, so they experience comfort and balance. Second, the source and receiver can have
a positive attitude toward an object or idea and display positive feelings toward one another, therefore experiencing
comfort and balance. Third, the source and the receiver can disagree about an idea or object and also dislike each
other, therefore experiencing comfort because they know that they disagree about the values of certain objects or
ideas.
Example:
Mary likes to do things in a planned, orderly manner and Joe does not like orderliness in everything. Yet Mary likes
Adam, and values their relationship therefore this system is now in imbalance. If Mary would change her attitude
about orderliness in everything, this system would be in balance.
Cognitive Dissonance Theory
This theory propagated by Leon Festinger in 1962 says that human beings often have conflicting beliefs with actions
they take, or other beliefs they have. This dissonance creates a tension and tension reduction is automatically sought
by changing our evaluations by some degree. Cognitive Dissonance is when you have two good choices and you
make your decision then you find yourself unsure or in doubt about the choice you made. The theory of Cognitive
Dissonance implies that when there is tension we change a belief or an action. Many times selective exposure is
used which prevents dissonance. This theory also implies that we experience more dissonance when the issue is
more important, when we put off a decision and the decision is permanent.
Example:
When marketers want to persuade their audience to buy a product they must convince them that this is a good action
and if their beliefs do not match this action, they must persuade them to change their beliefs. For instance if a health
drink is introduced in the market, and some consumers feel that it is really not essential that they switch over to the
new product from their usual cereal, the advertisers will have to focus on the fact the health drink contains health
benefits such as cholesterol fighting, fat reducing ingredients that their usual cereal lacks.
Information Manipulation Theory (IMT)
Theorist Steve A. McCornack propounded this theory in 1992. This states that a speaker purposefully and covertly
violates one of the conversational maxims of quantity, quality, relation and manner with the intention of deceiving
his/her listener.
Example:
X has an important school project due Wednesday. His professor does not accept late papers. Monday night he went
to the soccer match and didn't start on the paper. Tuesday night he browsed the net for information related to the
project and managed to almost finish the project. Wednesday morning, X overslept and arrived only after class was
over. He goes to see his professor immediately after. How will he answer his professor on why he wasn't in class to
turn in his paper?
Quantity: "I am sorry professor. I overslept."
Quality: "Our power got cut and my alarm didn't go off."
Relation: "I've had a really bad week. I had a fight with my roommate, I forgot to pay the electricity bill, the electricity
was turned off and my boss has threatened to fire me if Im late again."
Manner: "I badly need to score well in this project. My paper was already finished, I just overslept".
The Inoculation Theory (1961) by William McGuire states that inoculation is used to describe the attribution of
greater resistance to individuals or the process of supplying information to receivers before the communication
process takes place in the hope that the information would make the receiver more resistant. This theory stresses on
the importance of the nature of the presentation of the message. One method involves passive reading in which
receivers read the defensive material. Another method is to read the material and underline the passages relating to
the arguments presented in the defense. Next, experimenters supply an outline where the defensive material is to be
written out. The last method is to write out the arguments without any help.
Example:
McGuires basic method included constructing a persuasive message attacking a cultural
truism such as, An apple a day, keeps the doctor away. This message would contain
statements like eating too many apples can cause digestive problems. Prior to this
message, material would be introduced that should strengthen the belief in the truism.

Rank's Model of Persuasion, 1976 (Theorist: Hugh Rank) states that persuaders use two major strategies to
achieve their goals. These strategies are nicely set into two main schemas known as (1)intensify, and (2) downplay.
The persuader will do this in one of four methods.
1) Intensify their own strong points.
2) Intensify the weak points of the opposition.
3) Downplay their own weak points.
4) Downplay the strong points of the opposition.
Example:
While arguing about their favorite movies, Damien continues to insist to Joey that the Terminator movies were much
better than the Matrix movies. Rank's Model contends that Damien will use one of four main strategies to argue his
point to Joey. He will either:
1) Stress the great performances that were given by Terminator lead actor Arnold Schwarzeneger, while pointing out
the acclaim that he received for the movies, OR
2) Stress what he believed was poor acting by Matrix lead actor Keanu Reeves, OR
3) Downplay the weak points of the Terminator movies, OR
4) Downplay the terrific performance by the Matrix actors.
Interpersonal Communication is an interactional process between two people, either face-to-face or through
mediated forms. It is, in other words, a dialogue or conversation that is personal, direct and intimate. A lot depends on
the relationship between the two individuals, their equality of status, the socio-cultural environment in which the
exchange takes place etc. When a mechanical device mediates in an interpersonal exchange, it is termed
interpersonal mediated communication. Feedback is instantaneous and easy to measure. The following
important aspects are stressed on:
Relational (Qualitative)
Communication in which the roles of sender and receiver are shared
by two people simultaneously in order to create meaning.
Situational (Contextual)
Communication that occurs between two people in a specific context.
Quantitative
Dyadic interactions, including impersonal communication.
Functional (Strategic)
Communication for the purpose of achieving interpersonal goals.
Group Communication is an interactional process that occurs among
three or more people interacting in an attempt to achieve commonly recognized goals either face-to-face or through
mediated forms. The larger the group, the less intimate and personal is the possibility of exchange. Feedback is the
key word here. Feedback is not instantaneous and is difficult to measure.
Groupthink is an important aspect in group communication. This occurs when a homogenous highly cohesive group
is so concerned with maintaining unanimity that they fail to evaluate all their alternatives. Groupthink members see
themselves as part of an in-group working against an outgroup opposed to their goals. Groups engaged in groupthink
tend to make faulty decisions when compared to the decisions that could have been reached using a fair, open, and
rational decision-making process. Group thinking groups tend to:
1- fail to adequately determine their objectives and alternatives,
2- fail to adequately assess the risks associated with the group's decision,
3- fail to cycle through discarded alternatives to reexamine their worth after a majority of the group discarded the
alternative,
4- not seek expert advice,
5- select and use only information that supports their position and conclusions, and does not make contingency plans
in case their decision and resulting actions fail.
Group leaders can prevent groupthink by:
1- encouraging members to raise objections and concerns;
2- refraining from stating their preferences at the onset of the group's activities;
3- allowing the group to be independently evaluated by a separate group with a different leader;
4- splitting the group into sub-groups, each with different chairpersons, to separately generate alternatives, then
bringing the sub-groups together to hammer out differences;
5- allowing group members to get feedback on the group's decisions from their own constituents;
6- seeking input from experts outside the group;
7- assigning one or more members to play the role of the devil's advocate;
8- requiring the group to develop multiple scenarios of events upon which they are acting, and contingencies for each
scenario; and
9- calling a meeting after a decision consensus is reached in which all group members are expected to critically
review the decision before final approval is given.
Mass Communication
Mass Communication represents the creation and sending of a homogeneous message to a large heterogeneous
audience through the media. Mass communication studies the uses and effects of the media by many as opposed to
the study of human interaction as in other communication contexts.
Group communication has now been extended by the tools of mass communication: the press, radio, television, video
and cinema. A lot of discussion has been generated on the power of the mass media (termed by Daniel
Learner as mobility multipliers and by Schramm as magic multipliers). A mass media, according to
Schramm, is essentially a working group organized around some device for circulating the same message, at about
the same time to large numbers of people. Mass media are founded on the idea of mass production and mass
distribution.
Functions of The Mass Media
The following are the basic functions performed by the mass media:
1- Information: Surveillance of the environment relates to news about the happenings in society. The mass media
carry out this function by keeping us informed about the latest events in and around the world.
2- Entertainment: Mass media help us relax with family and friends and pass time. They also fulfill our psychological
and social needs.
3- Symbolic Function: Mass media provide a shared symbolic environment. George Gerbner sees television as the
central symbol of American culture.
4- Development: The mass media in developing countries of Asia, Africa and Latin America perform the function of
facilitators of development communication focusing on the socio-economic needs of the backward sections of
society.
5- Advertising: This is a commercial function that helps keep the economic status of a country healthy. At the same
time it would be suicidal to let this function dominate over the other functions of the mass media.
Effects
The word effects connotes different meanings for different people. For e.g. a sociologist talks about social
effects. A psychologist has psychological effects in mind while employing the term; an anthropologist -
cultural effects, the advertiser - the market effects and so on.
Bernard Berelson arrived at the conclusion that some kinds of communication on some kinds of issues, brought
to the attention of some kinds of people under some kind of conditions have some kinds of effects.
Theories Of Media Effects

The Medium Not the Message

Marshall McLuhan said The medium is the message. No matter what the contents of the programmes, he
argued that the audiences will watch televisionit commands their attention as no other medium has. Mass
Communications are neither good nor bad, but rather mystical devices that possess powers to change the way
humans lead their lives.

Reinforcement
McLuhans theory did not find total support. Joseph Klapper and other theorists believed in the reinforcement
function of mass media. Only after reinforcing existing values and attitudes can programmes of the media be popular
with the majority of social groups interested in perpetuating their own traditions and status.
Narcosis
Lazarsfeld and Merton held that the mass media could not be relied upon to work for changes, even minor ones, in
the social structure. They perceived in mass communication a narcotising dysfunction that distracts and
prevents audiences from facing real problems. Exposure to a flood of information serve to narcotize rather than
energize the average audience.. This theory is now outdated as the media today have a galvanizing effect in bringing
about many revolutionary changes example, bringing about an end to the Vietnam War, bringing about Nixons
exit through Watergate exposure etc.
Catharsis

Seymour Feshbach, the main exponent of this theory, argued that the media may have a cathartic effect
on the audiences and purges them of anti-social or unfulfilled desires and frustrations. A study was conducted on a
group of college students. They were subject to savage insults and criticisms by experimenters. A portion of the
group was shown an aggressive film of a brutal boxing match, another portion was shown a dull control film.
It was found that those students who had seen the aggressive film felt less hostile to their experimenters than those
who had seen the control film.
But in a parallel study conducted by Berkovitz, it was found that the aggressive film was responsible for the
aggressive response of the students. Other experiments have shown that children are likely to imitate violence in
films.

Manipulation

The manipulation theory by Ernst Van Haag is an extreme view that states that mass communications are
demeaning, depersonalizing instruments of manipulation. But it is to be noted that social and economic
circumstances and not mass media alone foster such hedonism.

Windows On The World

Edward Shils and David M. White are of the view that mass media constitute windows on the world dealing
in new and popular culture that bring more of the good to more people than ever before in history. But White
talks about the gate-keeper aspect of the editor who sees to it that only those events which he believes to be
true should reach the audience.
Corruptive

Frederick Wertham also holds an extreme view that the content of the media is corruptive and inculcates
materialism and anti-social behaviour towards others.

Receiver Factors

Several factors determine media influence. The role played by primary, secondary and reference groups and by
public opinion leaders are important. Receiver factors are related intimately to every aspect of the personality of the
audience and must not be considered in isolation. The main receiver factors are attitudes, beliefs, opinions, interests,
motivation and the manner of processing, retaining and rejecting of information.