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SGD Physiology Endocrine and Metabolism

Essay Questions

1. Define hormone. Describe the differences between endocrine and exocrine glands.

Hormone is a chemical messenger produced by the endocrine glands that controls and
regulates activity of certain cells or organs.

Glands are group of epithelial cells or structures derived from epithelial cells that produce
secretions.

Exocrine gland Endocrine gland
Product Enzymes Hormones
Secrete through Secretory ducts None (Ductless)
Release secretion into External/internal surface
tissues
(Skin, lining of stomach, lining
of pancreatic ducts)
Directly into blood vessels
Exert influence on Direct influence Target tissues/organs situated
at a distance from the gland
Storage of product Released as fast as they are
produced
*Within glandular cells
(pituitary)
*Extracellular storage (thyroid)
*Released into blood (adrenal
cortex)
Examples Sweat glands, salivary glands,
mammary glands, stomach,
liver, pancreas
Pituitary, thyroid, adrenal,
pancreas

2. Describe the function of endocrine system in homeostasis.

Homeostasis is the maintenance of a relatively constant internal environment. The
endocrine system maintains homeostasis within the body by a system of cycles and
feedback. Feedback control regulates the secretion of relevant hormones. There are
negative feedback and positive feedback.

Negative feedback is self-limiting. It means that some feature of hormone action, directly or
indirectly, inhibits further secretion of the hormone. For example, after a stimulus causes
the release of a hormone, conditions or the products resulting from it tends to suppress
further release of the hormone. The net result is that when the hormone levels are judged
to be adequate or high, further secretion will be inhibited or when the hormone levels are
judged to be inadequate or low, secretion of the hormone is stimulated. For example, action
of hypothalamic hormones may be inhibited by long feedback loops from target gland
hormone and by short feedback loops from the pituitary hormone. This prevents
oversecretion of the hormone or overactivity at target tissue or organ.

Positive feedback is uncommon. Some feature of the hormone action causes more secretion
of the hormone. It is self-augmenting and leads to an explosive event when it does occur. An
example of an explosive event is parturition. Dilation of the cervix causes posterior pituitary
to secrete oxytocin. In turn, oxytocin stimulates uterine contraction, which causes further
dilation of the cervix. Once parturition is over, typical negative feedback of hormone
secretion is then exerted.

Secretion cycles are used to maintain physiological control.

3. Discuss similarities and differences between nervous system and endocrine system in
maintaining homeostasis.

Nervous system Endocrine system
Similarities

Both maintain homeostasis
Both secrete chemicals.
Nervous system: Secrete neurotransmitters
Endocrine system: Secrete hormones

Differences
Faster response Response lasts longer
Impulses travel via neurons
Anatomically continuous
Hormones travel via
bloodstream
Anatomically discontinuous


4. Discuss mechanisms of hormonal action.

Hormones bring about physiological responses by altering the permeability of cell
membrane, by activating intracellular enzymes or by activating the genes.

Hormone actions on target cells begin when hormone binds to receptors. The receptors may
be present in the plasma membrane or located intracellularly, either in the cytoplasm or in
the nucleus. Receptors located in plasma membrane utilize secondary messenger
mechanisms and is used by most amino acid-based hormones as they are water soluble and
cannot pass through the plasma membrane to incite a direct response. Receptors located
intracellularly are involved in direct gene activation and is used by steroids and thyroid
hormones that are lipid soluble which is able to pass through the plasma membrane and into
the cell.

Lipid soluble hormones such as steroid hormones diffuses through the plasma membrane
and bind to receptors that are located either in the cytoplasm or in the nucleus. For
receptors that are located in the cytoplasm, the steroid hormone binds with the cytoplasmic
receptor and form hormone-receptor complex (H-R complex) and then it enters the
nucleus. The H-R complex binds to specific regulatory regions of the DNA known as Hormone
Response Elements (HRE). It facilitates transcription of adjacent gene thus increase the rate
of mRNA synthesis. The mRNA is then translated into proteins. The newly synthesised
protein will finally induce cellular responses. For receptors that are located in the nucleus, a
lipid-soluble hormone such as thyroid hormone diffuses through the plasma membrane and
enters the nucleus where it binds with nuclear receptor and form H-R complex. The H-R
complex will similarly produce proteins that will induce cellular responses in the end.

Receptors that are located in the plasma membrane binds to hormones that are not able to
pass through the plasma membrane to induce cellular responses. Therefore, secondary
messenger systems are used to relay message into the cell across the plasma membrane.
When a water soluble hormone binds to a membrane receptor to form hormone-receptor
complex, the complex is coupled to effector proteins by G proteins. The effector proteins are
usually enzymes, either adenylyl cyclase or phospholipase C. Once G protein stimulates the
effector enzyme, secondary messenger systems are activated.

There are 2 secondary messenger systems that can be involved. First one is adenylyl cyclase
mechanism with cAMP as the secondary messenger. In this mechanism, the hormone-
receptor complex will cause the dissociation of -subunit. The -subunit binds to and
activates adenylyl cyclase enzyme which will convert ATP to cAMP. cAMP attaches to
inhibitory subunit of protein kinase and then dissociates inhibitory subunit to activate the
protein kinase. Protein kinases will then activate or inhibit other proteins by
phosphorylation. cAMP is finally degraded by the enzyme phosphodiesterase. Second one is
phospholipase C mechanism with DAG and IP
3
as secondary messengers. Hormone-
receptor complex formed activates G protein. G protein then activates enzyme
Phospholipase C. The enzyme cleaves PIP
2
(phosphatidyl inositol diphosphate) into
diacylglycerol (DAG) and IP
3
. IP
3
causes the release of Ca
2+
from the intracellular stores in the
endoplasmic or sarcoplasmic reticulum that acts as the third messenger. Together, Ca
2+
and
DAG activates protein kinase C which phosphorylates proteins and thus induce physiological
actions.


5. Describe functional relationship between the hypothalamus and the pituitary.

Hypothalamus and pituitary gland function in a coordinate fashion. Pituitary gland, also
known as hypophysis, consists of a posterior lobe (neurohypophysis) and an anterior lobe
(adenohypophysis).

Neurohypophysis secretes 2 peptide hormones, namely vasopressin (ADH) and oxytocin. The
connection between hypothalamus and neurohypophysis are neural. Neurohypophysis is
actually a collection of nerve axons whose cell bodies are located in the hypothalamus.
Therefore, hormones secreted by neurohypophysis are neuropeptides. ADH is primarily
synthesised in supraoptic nuclei while oxytocin is primarily synthesised in paraventricular
nuclei in the hypothalamus. Once synthesised in the cell bodies, the hormones are
transported down the axons in neurosecretory vesicles and stored in nerve terminals in
neurohypophysis. Once cell bodies are stimulated, the neurosecretory vesicles are released
from nerve terminals via exocytosis. The secreted hormone then enters nearby fenestrated
capillaries and as the venous blood from neurohypophysis enters systemic circulation, the
hormones are delivered to their target tissues.

The adenohypophysis is primarily a collection of endocrine cells. The connection between
adenohypophysis and hypothalamus is both neural and endocrine. They are linked directly
by hypothalamo-hypophyseal portal blood vessels. Hypothalamic-releasing and release-
inhibiting hormones are synthesised in cell bodies of hypothalamic neurons travels down the
axons to median eminence of hypothalamus. Upon stimulation, these neurons secretes
hormones into surrounding hypothalamic tissues which enters the nearby capillary plexus.
The blood from these capillaries drain into hypophyseal portal vessels and delivered directly
to adenohypophysis. There, the hypothalamic hormones act on the endocrine cells of
adenohypophysis where they stimulate or inhibit the release of anterior pituitary hormones.
The anterior pituitary hormones then enter systemic circulation, which will be delivered to
the target tissues. For example, thyroid releasing hormone (TRH) synthesised in the
hypothalamic neurons are secreted in the median eminence where it enters the nearby
capillary plexus and then enters hypophyseal portal vessels. Its then delivered to the
adenohypophysis where it stimulates thyroid stimulating hormones (TSH) secretion. TSH
then enters systemic circulation and delivered to its target tissue, thyroid gland, where it
stimulates thyroid hormone secretion.

6. Discuss the role of feedback mechanism and neuroendocrine reflex in the control of
hormone secretion.

Neuroendocrine reflex initiates milk ejection by the breasts by the suckling stimulus on the
nipple. The receptors involved are touch receptors that are abundant in the breast,
especially around the nipple. The signals are transmitted through sensory nerves to the
paraventricular and supraoptic nuclei in the hypothalamus which causes the release of
oxytocin by neurohypophysis. The hormone oxytocin is then carried by blood to the breasts
where it causes the contraction of myoepithelial cells. The contraction of myoepithelial cells
that line the ducts of the breast causes the alveoli of the lactating breast to squeeze milk out
into large ducts and finally out of the nipple. In 30 seconds to 1 minute of the beginning of
suckling, the milk begins to flow. The milk continues to flow throughout the suckling
stimulus by positive feedback that ensures continuous flow of milk. Once the stimulus stops,
negative feedback mechanism then inhibits the release of oxytocin thus stops milk ejection.

7. Iodine deficiency causes enlargement of thyroid gland. Explain the statement in relation to
hypothalamo-pituitary-thyroid axis.

Depends upon the hypothalamus, pituitary gland and thyroid gland. When the
hypothalamus senses low circulating levels of thyroid hormones T3 and T4 and then
responds by releasing thyrotropin-releasing hormone (TRH). TRH stimulates pituitary to
produce thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH). TSH, in turn, stimulates thyroid to produce
thyroid hormone until levels in blood returns to normal. Thyroid hormone exerts negative
feedback control over hypothalamus as well as anterior pituitary, thus controlling the
release of both TRH from hypothalamus and from anterior pituitary gland.


8. Discuss growth hormone (GH) actions and regulation of GH secretion.

Actions of growth hormone are diabetogenic effect, increased protein synthesis and organ
growth and increased linear growth. In diabetogenic effect, growth hormone causes insulin
resistance
9. Name the hormones involved in controlling serum calcium level and describe their actions.

The hormones involved in controlling serum calcium levels are parathyroid hormones,
vitamin D, calcitonin, cortisol, growth hormone, estrogen and thyroid hormone.

Parathyroid hormone increases plasma calcium levels. In bones, it stimulates calcium
resorption. In kidney, it stimulates calcium resorption in the distal tubule. In the intestine, it
stimulates calcium absorption by stimulating 1,25-(OH)
2
-D3 synthesis.

In the presence of parathyroid hormone, vitamin D stimulates calcium resorption in bones.
In kindney, it causes calcium resorption. In the intestine, vitamin stimulates absorption of
calcium.

Calcitonin decreases blood calcium level. It inhibits bone resorption by inhibiting the activity
of osteoclasts. In kidney, it inhibits tubular reabsorption of calcium. In intestine, it prevents
the resorption of calcium.

Cortisol decreases blood calcium level by inhibiting osteoclast formation. In the kidney, it
increases calcium excretion and in the intestine, it decreases calcium absorption.

Growth hormone increases calcium excretion in the kidney and increases calcium absorption
in the intestine.

Estrogen increases calcitonin. It also increases intestinal calcium absorption directly. Thyroid
hormone increases bone formation and resorption.

10. Name the hormones involved in controlling blood glucose and describe their actions.

Blood glucose level is controlled by insulin and glucagon. Insulin promotes glucose uptake by
most of the tissues. In other words, it increases peripheral glucose utilization. It increases
glycolysis in muscles, adipose tissues and liver. It inhibits gluconeogenesis. It promotes
glycogen synthesis and inhibits glycogenolysis. It directly decreases liver glucose output.

Glucagon, on the other hand, stimulates glycogenolysis. It promotes gluconeogenesis. It
increases liver glucose output.

11. It is dangerous to stop large doses of glucocorticoid treatment abruptly. Explain the
statement in relation to the hypothalamo-pituitary-adrenal axis.

Stopping large doses of glucocorticoid treatment abruptly means abrupt absence in cortisol.
The hypothalamus in no longer inhibited. The pituitary gland is stimulated to produce
adrenocorticotropic hormone.


12. Discuss the actions of adrenalin and noradrenalin on cardiovascular system.

Adrenaline dilates blood vessels, decreasing total peripheral resistance. Adrenalin causes the
widening of pulse pressure but due to insufficient baroreceptor stimulation, cardiac output
and heart rate increase. Noradrenaline vasocontricts and increases the total peripheral
resistance. Noradrenaline increases the systolic and diastolic blood pressure. The blood
pressure stimulates reflex bradycardia that decreases heart rate.

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