Maguire

background - the neural substances of long standing topographical memory has not yet been examined with functional imaging
- previous functional imaging work indicates there may be different anatomical substrates for verbal episodic and semantic memory retrieval
aim













- to examine semantic topographical memory retrieval
- to determine whether recall of spatial layout activates similar brain regions noted in other studies with reference in particular the medial temporal region
network of brain regions including right hippocampus supports semantic topographical memory retrieval, both new and recently required as noted in the
previous study

- to assess the neural instantiation of landmark knowledge, where such knowledge was not cofounded by location information about position within a large-
scale spatial layout
both retrieval of landmark knowledge and complex route activate many similar brain regions, but right hippocampus is only during routes recall

-to examine topographical memory and also non-topographical semantic memory retrieval to ascertain whether common brain region sub serve semantic
memory regardless of memory type
network of brain region showing increased activation during semantic topographical memory retrieval are entirely different from those activated during
retrieval of non-topographic semantic memory
method lab experiment
design repeated measure
variables iv : type of memory - topographical/non-topographical
dv : brain areas of increased activity
controlled : handedness, no history of physiological or neurological illness
data quantitative, acquired in 90s frame
sample 11, right-handed, male, London taxi drivers
procedure -six tasks
-two topographical knowledge
-two film tasks
T+ T-
S+ given a starting a destination points in the greater London area,
the shortest legal routes between the start and the destination
recalling and describing plots of familiar films between given points in the
story line
S- recalling and describing world-famous landmarks recalling and describing individual frames from famous films
results routes task : extrastriate regions, the medieal parietal lobe, the posterior cingulate cortex, parahippocampal gyrus, right hippocampus

landmark task : posterior cingulated gyrus, the medial parietal lobe, occipito-temporal , left inferior and middle frontal gyri

both film task : left frontal regions, middle temporal gyrus, left angular gyrus


Dematte
background - there are a few studies that have directly investigated whether the presence of an odor can cross-modally influence judgment of physical attractiveness
- a number of them have failed to demonstrate any modulation of facial attractiveness ratings when odor pleasantness was varied
aim

- to determine whether briefly presented olfactory cues can modulate visual judgments of facial attractiveness
- to ascertain whether olfactory cues of differing hedonistic values can enhance or reduce the perceived attractiveness of a face
method lab experiment
design repeated measure
variables iv : type of odor ; pleasant/unpleasant
dv : level of attractiveness
controlled : normal sense of smell, no history of olfactory dysfunction, normal or corrected-to normal vision
data quantitative,
sample 16, untrained females, University of Oxford, mean age 24
females because : females more sensitive to olfactory cues than males, females might rely more on olfactory cues in mating behaviour
procedure - 40 male faces, (13 cm w x 17 cm h) categorized into different attractiveness groups
- 4 odors; pleasant are geranium and male fragrance, unpleasant are body odor and rubber
- 3 blocks of 40 randomized trials (120 trials in total)
- I picture x 3 odor (pleasant, unpleasant, neutral)

40 /4 = 10 (5 high attractiveness, 5 low)

1. sit 70cm away from visual stimuli with chin on chin rest. Exhale when quiet tone, inhale when loud tone.
2. decide odor is present or not.
3. face appears.
4. face and smell disappear and clean air is introduced. Rate the attractiveness.
7. rest 5 min/40 trial
8. smell and rate each odor on a scale from 0 to 100 (intensity, pleasantness, familiarity)


results unpleasant odor - less attractive
pleasant and unpleasant odor perceived as more intense than clean air
unpleasant odor perceived as less pleasant unpleasant odor less familiar than pleasant odor






Dement and Kleitman
background - the study of dream activity and its relation to physiological variables during sleep necessitates a reliable method of determining with precision when
dreaming occurs
-this knowledge depends upon subjective report of the dreamer, but becomes objective if such reports can be significantly related to some physiological
phenomena measured by physical techniques
aim - to test the relation between eye movement and dreaming

3 approaches :
- dream recall during REM or NREM was elicited without direct contact between E and S
- subjective estimate of the duration of dreams was compared with length of eye movement periods before awakening, there should be a positive correlation if
dreaming and eye movement were concurrent
- the pattern of eye movements was related to the dream content, to test whether they represented a specific expression of dreaming or merely a random
motor discharge
method lab experiment
design independent measure
variables iv : eye movement; REM or NREM
dv : dream recall
controlled : eat normally, no caffeine and alcohol, sleep In bed in dark, quiet room
data quantitative
EEG - brainwave
EOG - eye movement
sample 7 adult males, 2 adult females, 5 intensively, 4 minimal
procedure - report to sleep lab
- sleep while wired to machines
- awaken by a few times by doorbell
- describe about dream they had by a recording device
results - there is a relation between REM and dream
= REM is predominantly associated with dreaming
= NREM is periods of non-dreaming

- positive correlation between estimate duration of dream and length of eye movement
= participants choose the estimate length of dream fairly accurately
= 1 p can only recall the latter part, therefore underestimated the length of dream

- association between pattern of eye movement and dream content
= vertical : climb ladders, throwing basketball
= horizontal : throwing tomatoes
= mix : looking at people/object close to them
= little : watch distant object/staring fixedly


Milgram
background Milgrams parents were killed during WWII
aim - to see if Germans would be different and Americans would administer lower level of shocks.
- to vary the factors believed to alter the degree of obedience
method controlled observation in a laboratory
design independent measure
variables iv : prods given
dv : highest level of electric shock administered
controlled : sequence of prods, choice of roles, stooge

Prod 1: Please continue or Please go on;
Prod 2: The experiment requires that you continue;
Prod 3: It is absolutely essential that you continue;
Prod 4: You have no other choice, you must go on
Special prods :
- although the shocks may be painful, there is no permanent tissue damage, so please go on
- whether the learner likes it or not, you must go on until he has learned all the word pairs correctly, so please go on

data quantitative, qualitative
sample 40 males aged between 20 and 50 obtained from newspaper advertisement and direct mail request, paid $ 4.50
wide range of occupation : clerks, high school teachers, engineers, laborers
procedure - participants were told the study was about the effects of punishment on memory
- choice of role (T, L) subject was always T
- learning task (T read series of word pairs, L pressed the correct answer)
- usage of prods
results - 26/40 administered maximum level of shock
- Signs of extreme tension; sweating, trembling and nervous laughter
-14 of them stopped before 450V
- it was not worth taking a life just for the gain in knowledge





Zimbardo
background - the research is funded by the Office of Naval Research who were interested in finding out the causes of conflict between guards and prisoners in the naval
prisons.
- dispositional hypothesis : the state of the prison is due to the nature that guards have the guards mentality , that they are sadistic and insensitive people
while the prisoners are individuals who have no respect for law and order and bring this aggressiveness and impulsivity to the prison.
aim - to study the effect of being assigned to the role of either guards or prisoners
method laboratory experiment
design independent measure
variables iv : the conditions the participants are allocated to whether as a guard or a prisoner
dv : the resulting behaviour
controlled : randomly assigned to roles, arrested at home
data - quantitative : questionnaire
- qualitative : video, audiotape, direct observation
sample newspaper advertisement, paid $15 a day, 24 normal healthy male college student, middle class, white, physically and mentally stable, most mature, least
involved in anti-social behavior
procedure - randomly assigned to the roles of guards or prisoners
- orientation meeting for guards
- prisoners are arrested at their homes, photographs and fingerprints taken,
- At the mock prison, stripped, sprayed with a delousing preparation (a deodorant spray), made to stand alone and naked in the yard, given their uniform,
(ID picture) taken
- only lasted for 6 days instead of planned 14 days

guards uniform prisoners uniform
plain khaki shirt and trousers
whistle
police night stick
reflecting sunglasses
loose fitting muslin smock with id num front and back
no underclothes
chain and lock around one ankle
rubber sandals
cap from nylon stockings
results - 5 prisoners were released early = extreme depression, fifth prisoner had psychosomatic rash
- guards were distressed by the termination of experiment, enjoyed extreme control and power
- guards never failed to come on time, worked extra hours voluntarily without pay

pathological prisoner syndrome
-loss of personal identity = weakening of self identity and deindividuation
-arbitrary control = prisoners behaviour showed signs of learned
helplessness
-dependency and emasculation = toilet, reading, lighting a cigarette,
smocks worn without underwear lessened their sense of masculinity.


Pilliavin
background - the case of the brutal murder of Kitty Genovese in New York in 1964, not one person out of 40 witnesses tried to help
- Latane and Darley carried out a lab experiment that demonstrated diffusion of responsibility
- Pilliavin recognized that lab experiment lacked ecological validity
aim - to investigate factors of helping behaviour
method field experiment with participant observation
design independent measure
variables iv : type of victim (ill or drunk), race of victim (black or white)
dv : speed of helping, frequency of helping, race of helper
controlled :
data - quantitative : speed, race, frequency
- qualitative : observation, comments made by nearby passengers
sample 4450 men and women travelling on the NY underground subway system
procedure - A team of four students, (two males and two females), boarded the train using different doors.
Four different teams, whose members always worked together, collected data for 103 trials.
Each team varied the location of the experimental compartment from trial to trial.
The female confederates sat outside the critical area and recorded data as unobtrusively as possible during the journey
The male model and victim remained standing.
The victim always stood next to a pole in the centre of the critical area.
- As the train passed the first station (approximately 70 seconds after depart-ing), the victim staggered forward and collapsed. Until receiving help, he remained
motionless on the floor, looking at the ceiling.
- If he received no help by the time the train slowed to a stop, the model helped him to his feet.
- At the stop, the team got off and waited separately until other pas-sengers had left the station.
- Proceed to another platform to board a train going in the opposite direction for the next trial.
Six to eight trials were run on any given day and all trials on a given day were in the same victim condition.
results

















- high helping behavior
-not possible to study the effect of models helping
- cane victim 62/65 drunk victim 19/38
- 60% more than one help
- slight tendency for same-race helping in drunken condition
- 90% help comes from men
- more comments on drunk than cane trials : Its for men to help, I wish I could help him - Im not strong enough
- suggest Arousal : Cost- Reward

increased reduced
arousal empathy with victim, being close to the emergency, the length
the emergency continues for
helping, seeking help from another sources, leaving the scene, deciding
the person doesnt need or deserve help
helping not helping
cost effort, embarrassment, physical harm self-blame, perceived censure from others
reward self-praise, onlookers and victim getting with own business, not incurring cost of helping

Tajfel
background - Sheriff believed that prejudice and discrimination arise from conflict between two groups, a competition
- Tajfel believed merely categorizing people into group itself produces conflict and prejudice
aim - to demonstrate that merely putting people into groups (categorisation) is sufficient for people to discriminate in favour of their own group and against
members of the other group
method lab experiment
design independent measure
variables - iv : type of allocation they were asked to make
- dv : choices they made (fair or discrimination)
- controlled : randomly allocation into groups, visual stimuli
data quantitative
sample and
procedure
and
results

exp 1 exp 2
64 boys aged 14 and 15 from a school in Bristol, same house same school 48 new boys
- judge number of dots
- over estimator and under estimator
- randomly allocated to groups
- given books of matrices
- reward point to ingroup and outgroup
- painting preference Klee and Klandisky

- discrimination was obvious
- the boys choose maximum difference










Bandura
background - previous experiment demonstrated that children readily imitated behavior exhibited by a model in the presence of the model
- imitative learning involves the generalization of imitative response in the absence of model
aim - to demonstrate that if children were passive witnesses to an aggressive display by an adult they would imitate this aggressive behaviour when given the
opportunity
hypothesis :
- subjects exposed to aggressive model would reproduce aggressive acts
- subjects exposed to aggressive model display more aggression than exposed to non-aggressive model
- subject will imitate the behavior of the same sex model more than opposite sex model
- boys will be more predisposed to aggression than girls
method lab experiment
design independent measure
variables iv : type of model (aggressive or non-aggressive), gender of model, gender of children
dv : level or aggression, imitative behavior
controlled : length of exposure (10 minutes), types of toys
data quantitative : level of aggression
qualitative : observation, imitative behaviour
sample 36 boys and 36 girls, Standford University Nursery School, mean age 52 months
2 models (male and female), one female experimenter
procedure












- matched pair (inter-rater reliability) for similar level of aggression based on :
- verbal aggression - aggression inhibition - aggression towards inanimate objects - physical aggression
agressive non agressive
1 assembled tinker toys, after one minute being aggressive to Bobo doll
physical : raised Bobo and pummel on head, punch in nose, kick
verbal : sock him in the nose, kick him, hit him down, pow
non aggressive verbal : he keeps coming back for more, he sure is a tough fella
ignored Bobo and assembled the tinker toys in quiet and
gentle manner
2 bring to a room with attractive toys, cannot play with them because they are reserved for other children
3 non aggressive toys : plastic farm animals, tea set, crayons, three bears
aggressive toys : mallet, peg board gun, Bobo doll
judged for 20 minutes, 5 seconds interval, 240 observations
results imitation of physical aggression : strike Bobo with mallet, sit, kick, toss in air
imitation of verbal : sock him in the nose, kick him, hit him down, pow
imitation of non aggressive verbal : he sure is a tough fella, he keeps coming back for more
partially imitative : mallet aggression - strike other objects with mallet, sits on bobo - does not aggress with it
non imitative physical : punch bobo - strikes, slaps, push aggressively
non imitative verbal : shoot the bobo, cut him, stupid ball
aggressive gun play : shoots darts or aims guns and fires imaginary shots at object in room
- children exposed to aggressive model made more aggressive response
- boys made more aggressive response than girls
- boys exposed to aggressive model made more aggressive responses if the model is male
- girls showed more physical aggression if male model but more verbal aggression if model is female
Nelson
background previous study did not present outcome information thus it is not known whether the type of outcomes affect young childrens understanding and use of
motives as moral criteria
aim hypothesis : the mode of presentation which makes both motives and outcomes explicit and salient, and available at the time of judgment, would allow
children as young as 3 years old to demonstrate sensitivity to both these
method lab experiment, quasi experiment
design independent measure
variables iv : verbal, carton implicit, cartoon explicit, age, order of stories
dv : rating of good or bad, moral judgment
controlled : randomly assigned to group to avoid selection bias
data quantitative : moral judgment using a likert scale
sample
and
procedure
and result




















exp 1 (motive first) exp 2 (outcome first)
sample 60 preschool children aged 3-4, 30 second graders aged 6-8, half
male half female, white, middle class, urban area
27 preschool boys and girls
(to investigate the possibility that the emphasis given on bad/good is
because the order of which is presented first)
procedure - children were interviewed one at a time by the experimenter
- familiarized with each point on rating scale
- told the story
- asked to rate
- recall session
results - children use motive and outcome in making judgment
- verbal only - good outcome would not overcome bad motive
- verbal plus cartoon - good outcome can overcome bad motive

- recall - 3 y/o made more error
- younger find it more difficult to remember and understand motive
because they are less cognitively developed
- if incongruent, will make them congruent so they fit together
- 7 y/o are not concerned with incongruence
- whenever motive or outcome is bad, the other cue in the pair has
diminished influence on the judgment
















Langlois
background - previous study showed that infants show a visual preference for attractive faces adult female faces
- to investigate the generality of preferences across different types of faces
aim to replicate this study with White adult female faces, male, Black female faces, other young infants
method laboratory experiment
design independent measure
variables iv : type of faces (attractive or non attractive)
dv : duration of time spent looking at the faces
controlled : seated 35 cm away from screen, trial lasted for 10 seconds, level of light on screen
data quantitative : time
sample
procedure
result

exp 1 (male and female) exp 2 (black female) exp 3
sample 100 6 month old from Childrens research lab,
University of Texas (50 disregarded - fussing,
computer failure, mother influence, experimenter
mistakes)
43 , 33 disregarded - 2 fussing, 1
equipment failure
52, 13 disregarded
procedure - seated
- parent wore occluded glass to prevent viewing and influencing
- capture infants attention
- faces projected on screen
- always saw same sex faces, presented left-right and right-left
- break after 8 trial blocks
- order of set is randomized
- experimenters blind to what type of face is on the screen
- timing was controlled by computer
result infants look longer at attractive faces
mean 7.82 / 7.557
boys look longer at male faces
girls look longer at female faces
no significant between mother attractiveness and
infant looking
infants look longer at attractive
faces
mean 7.05 / 6.52
look longer at attractive faces
mean 7.16 / 6.62







Loftus
background - we experience proactive and retroactive interference
- is it possible to implant entire false memory for something that never happened?
aim to test whether is it possible to implant false memory on someone something that never happened
method laboratory experiment
design independent measure
variables iv : events (true or false)
dv : clarity of memory, confidence to recall if given more time (likert scale)
controlled : the false event is always presented in the third position
data quantitative : ratings
sample 33 males, 21 females, aged 18-53 recruited from University of Washington
procedure - interview with relative to obtain information, not family folkfore or traumatic event that easily/painful to remember
- where, who, what, verification never lost
- lost for extended period, crying, lost at age 5, helped by elderly woman, reunited with family
-were told the false aim : the kinds of thing you may be able to remember from your childhood, how and why people remember some things and not the
other
- mailed the booklet, write what they remember, return the booklet
- two interviews
- 1
st
: tell what they remember, rate the clarity, rate the confidence
- 2
nd
: same like first, but then debriefed
results - 7/24 (later 6/24) remembered the false event
- mean true/false 138.0/49.9
- clarity false tends to be lower
- 19 choose correctly









Baron-Cohen
background - the eye test in 1997 suffered from several psychometric problems
- this is the improvements
aim - to improve the 1997 eye test, to test a group of adults with AS/HFA on the revised version test
prediction :
- AS/HFA score lower on ET, unimpaired on gender control
- AS/HFA score higher in AQ
- female normal group 2 and 3 higher than male on ET
- male in norma group 3 higher than female on AQ
- scores on AQ and ET would be inversely correlated
method laboratory experiment, quasi experiment
design independent measure
variables iv : type of participant (AS, general population control, students, IQ matched controls)
dv : ET score, AQ score
controlled : picture, ask to judge the gender
data quantitative :score on ET and AQ
sample 15 AS adult male recruited from UK National Autistic Society magazine
122 normal adults from adult community in Exeter or Cambridge public library user, range of occupation and education level
normal adult student 53 male 50 female undergraduate degree, not representative, high IQ
14 randomly selected in general population IQ matched with group 1
procedure





















- do eye test, judge gender, use the glossary

Problem improvement
involve a forced choice, high chance of getting right, low range of scores that can
reveal individual differences (only 9 points)
- increase the number of items (from 25 to 36)
- increase the numbers of response (2 to 4)

- able to reveal individual differences in ability on this test
- decrease the risk of normal performance approaching ceiling of the test
parent of children given ET scored low, have the broader phenotype since one
may carry autistic genes, the test cannot distinguish broader phenotype with AS
itself
narrow range of scores lead to normal range score being close to the ceiling of
the test, ceiling effect is undesirable because loses power to detect individual
diffrences
too easy because contained basic emotions, basic because the are recognized
universally, purely as emotions without the need to attribute a belief to the
person, recognized even young normally developing children
limited the items to complex mental states, more challenging
too easy because coulb be solved by simply checking the gaze direction excluded from the test
more female than male faces, biased have equal number
too easy because target word and foil were always semantic opposite increase level of difficulty with three foil words with the same emotional valence
it is unclear if comprehension problems with the words themselves might have
contributed to an individuals score
include a glossary of all mental state terms


results AS/HFA : 21.9 2 : 26.2 3 : 28.0 4 : 30.9
group 2 M : 26.0 F : 26.4 group 3 M: 27.3 F : 28.6
Vrij and Mann
background previous study on lying behavior lacked in real life situation
aim to examine the behaviours of liars who have lied spontaneously of their own volition in high stake situation
method controlled observation
design independent measure
variables -
data quantitative
sample 16, 13 male 3 female police suspects, theft = 9, arson = 2, attempted rape = 1, murder = 4
procedure - collect videotaped interviews
- inter rater agreement checking
results - individual differences did occur
- head movements and speech disturbances 50% increase 50% decrease
- gaze aversion 56/44
- hand and arm movement 31/69
- blinking 81 decrease
- pause 81 increase













Held and Hein
background
aim
method laboratory experiment
design independent measure
variables iv : condition (active or passive)
dv : self-produced movement
controlled : range of locomotion,
data
sample
procedure






















results