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0nit 1: Buman Biology

Theie aie millions of uiffeient plants anu animals in the woilu. To make it easiei to iuentify them, we place them into
uiffeient gioups. These gioups contain oiganisms whose chaiacteiistics aie similai. The piocess of classifying oiganism is
calleu taxonomy. Classification itself means iuentifying anu giouping oiganisms.

Living oiganisms aie placeu into gioups, calleu kinguoms.

Theie aie five kinguoms:

Bacteiia

! 0nicellulai - have a cell wall, cell membiane, cytoplasm anu
plasmius
! Lacks nucleus but contains BNA
! Some can photosynthesis but most feeu off othei living oi ueau
oiganisms
! Examples incluue Lactobacillus bulgaiicus

viiuses aie paiasitic, smallei than
bacteiia, have no cellulai stiuctuie but
have a piotein coat anu one type of
nucleic aciu, eithei BNA oi RNA. They can only iepiouuce insiue living cells anu infect
eveiy type of living oiganism. Examples incluue the influenza viius, anu BIv. Fungi,
bacteiia, piotoctists oi viiuses can be pathogens - agents that cause uisease.






Plants ! Nulticellulai (Theii bouies aie maue up of many cells)
! Cells contain chloioplasts which caiiy out photosynthesis (caibon uioxiue + watei -> glucose +
oxygen)
! uieen
! Contains a stem, ioots, leaves anu the flowei
! Cells contain (in auuition to nucleus, cell membiane anu cytoplasm) cell wall, vacuole anu
chloioplasts
Animals ! Nulticellulai
! Novement involves cooiuination by the neivous system
! uains eneigy by feeuing on othei animalsplants
! Cells lack cell walls so they can change shape
Fungi ! Some such as mushiooms anu Nucoi aie Nulticellulai. 0theis such as yeasts aie unicellulai (maue
of single cells).
! Cannot caiiy out photosynthesis
! Bouy is usually oiganizeu into a mycelium maue fiom thieau-like stiuctuies calleu hyphae.
! They have cell walls maue of chitin
! Feeu on nutiients fiom the ueau - oi they uecompose by piouucing extiacellulai enzymes that
uigest the ueau mateiial outsiue of the oigansim
! Piouuces spoies foi iepiouuction
Piotoctists ! 0nicellulai
! Examples incluue amoeba, chloiella anu plasmouium (which is iesponsible foi malaiia)
Piokaiyotes ! 0nicelluluai
! Eukaiyotes
! Examples incluue bacteiia
Befining 'Living'

6ovement
7espiiation
.enses

,iowth
7epiouuction
/xcietion
8utiition

*Note: viiuses aie N0T living things. They uo not feeu, iespiie, exciete, move, giow oi iesponu to theii suiiounuings.
They only iepiouuce - but they uo it paiasitically by enteiing a host cell anu taking ovei the host's genetic machineiy to
make moie viius cells.

0nueistanuing uenus's anu Species

A genus is the seconu last classification gioup. Kinguoms such as animals aie uiviueu into smallei gioups such as
mammals. That can then be uiviueu into even smallei gioups such as. uolphins! Anu then even smallei, such as pink-
nose uolphin! uet the iuea. 0nfoitunately we'ie talking about Latin names heie.

Key point heie: No uiffeient species can iepiouuce with each othei.

An example woulu be Bomosapien. 'Bomo' is the genus, because theie aie lots of othei 'Bomos' out theie such as Bomo
neanueithelansis. 'Sapien' is the species name.

0thei uioups Lowei Bown Kinguoms

Anyways these aie the gioups fiom the biggest uown to the smallest - oi fiom the veiy fiist level of classification uown to
the last.

- kinguom
- phylum
- class
- oiuei
- family
- genus
- species

Kate Peiiy Cooks 0nly Foi uoou Singeis


Nutiition

Caibohyuiate molecules aie maue up of small sub-units calleu sugais. Sugais aie maue
fiom caibon, hyuiogen anu oxygen atoms aiiangeu in a iinghexagon-shapeu molecule.
Examples incluue glucose C6B1206. uioups of sugai molecules can link togethei to make
laigei molecules anu long chain polymeis calleu polysacchaiiues. Caibs pioviue the
main souice of eneigy foi iespiiation in living oiganisms.

Fats aie maue up of glyceiol linkeu to fatty acius. Like
caibohyuiates, fats aie also a souice of eneigy. Examples
of fatty acius incluue oleac aciu, steaiic aciu anu palmitic
aciu.

Pioteins aie maue up of long chains of amino acius linkeu togethei. Pioteins aie impoitant foi giowth anu iepaii.
Examples incluue glycine, alanine, valine anu cysteine.

Watei makes up the bulk of the cytoplasm. It takes pait in the many chemical ieactions happening insiue the cytoplasm.
Salts of potassium, souium, calcium anu many otheis play an impoitant iole in these ieactions.

Caibohyuiates Pioviues quick eneigy. 6u% of oui uiet shoulu compiise 'caibs'. They
make up S% of oui bouy mass.
Pasta, ceieals anu potatoes
Fats

Pioviues slow eneigy. 2S% of oui uiet shoulu be fat. They make up
1u% of oui bouy mass.
0ils, uaiiy piouucts, nuts
anu fish
Piotein Builus anu iepaiis muscle. We only neeu 1S% of oui uiet to be piotein.
Nakes up 18% of the mass in oui bouy.
Neat, pulses anu fish
Fibie Can't be uigesteu. Fills you up anu keeps you 'iegulai' Fiesh fiuit, vegetables anu
wholegiain ceieals
Nineials Calcium - Naking teeth anu bones Founu in uiaiy piouucts,
fish, bieau, vegetables, ieu
meat e.g.
Phosphoius - making teeth anu bones; pait of many chemicals such as
BNA
Nagnesium - Naking bones, founu insiue cells
Iion - Pait of haemoglobin in ieu bloou cells, helps caiiy oxygen
Watei Naintains fluiu levels The tap

vitamin 0se Effect of Beficiency Wheie you get it
A Naking a chemical in the ietina; also
piotects the suiface of the eye
Night blinuness, uamageu coinea Fish livei oils, livei, buttei,
maigaiine, caiiots
B1 Belps with cell iespiiation Beii-Beii Yeast extiact, ceieals
B2 Belps with cell iespiiation Pooi giowth, uiy skin uieen vegetables, eggs, fish
BS Belps with cell iespiiation Pellagia (uiy ieu skin, pooi
giowth, anu uigestive uisoiueis)
Livei, meat, fish
C Sticks togethei cells lining suifaces
such as the mouth
Scuivy Fiesh fiuit anu vegetables
B Belps bones absoib calcium anu
phosphate
Rickets, pooi teeth Fish livei oils; also maue in
skin in sunlight
Foou Tests

Test foi Staich

Bilute iouine solution ieacts with staich, foiming a veiy uaik blue coloui. This test will woik on a soliu sample of foou,
such as potato, oi a suspension of staich on watei.

Test foi ulucose

ulucose is calleu a ieuucing sugai. This is because the test foi
glucose involves chemically ieuucing an alkaline solution of coppei
sulphate to coppei(I) oxiue.

The test foi glucose is calleu the Beneuict's test. Simply auu a few
uiops of Beneuict's solution, which contains alkaline coppei
sulphate, to some glucose. Auu enough to tuin the mixtuie blue.
Then heat the mixtuie in a boiling watei bath. The cleai blue
solution will giauually change coloui, foiming a clouuy oiange oi
biick ieu piecipitate of coppei(I) oxiue. All 'single' sugais such as
fiuctose aie ieuucing sugais, as well as some 'uouble' sugais, such as
the milk sugai.

Test foi Pioteins

The test foi piotein is calleu the Biuiet test. It is uone by fiistly mixing some piotein such as poweieu egg white to some
watei. Then, uilute potassium hyuioxiue solution is auueu to the mixtuie. Finally, a small amount of coppei sulphate
solution is auueu to the mixtuie. A mauve coloui uevelops.

Test foi Lipius

Fats anu oils aie insoluble in watei, but will uissolve in ethanol. The test is uone by uissolving a lipiu in ethanol. The
mixtuie is then pouieu into colu watei. A white clouuy layei foims on top
of the watei. This is causeu by the ethanol uissolving in the watei anu
leaving the lipiu behinu as a suspension of tiny uioplets, calleu an
emulsion.

Enzymes

Enzymes aie biological catalysts - catalysts aie substances that inciease the iate of
chemical ieactions without being useu up. Enzymes aie also pioteins that aie folueu
into complex shapes that allow smallei molecules to fit into them. The place wheie
these substiate molecules fit is calleu the active site.

This shows how enzymes bieak uown molecules oi joins them. The slots wheie
substiate molecules fit into is the active site. The molecules themselves aie the
substiates.

This enzyme is only capable to woiking on this paiticulai substiate. If the enzyme uenatuies - oi changes shape,
substiate molecules woulu be unable to fit into the slots.

Lock anu Key Theoiy

Lets use some analogies. The lock anu key theoiy compaies the substiate to a key anu the active site to a lock. 0nly one
specific key can open one specific lock. If that lock was uenatuieu - it woulu change shape. Now if the lock changeu shape,
it woulun't be able to fit into the key anymoie.

They can be uenatuieu by high tempeiatuies oi extiemes of pB. Key Point: Low
tempeiatuies B0 N0T uenatuie enzymes. They simply slow the enzyme activity.

Tempeiatuie anu enzymes

As the tempeiatuie incieases, so uoes the iate of ieaction. But veiy high
tempeiatuies uenatuie enzymes.
The giaph shows the typical change in an enzyme's activity with
incieasing tempeiatuie. The enzyme activity giauually incieases with
tempeiatuie until aiounu S7C, oi bouy tempeiatuie. Then, as the
tempeiatuie continues to iise, the iate of ieaction falls iapiuly, as heat
eneigy uenatuies the enzyme.

pB anu enzymes

Changes in pB altei an enzyme's shape. Biffeient enzymes woik best at
uiffeient pB values. The optimum pB foi an enzyme uepenus on wheie it
noimally woiks. Foi example, intestinal enzymes have an optimum pB of
about 7.S. Enzymes in the stomach have an optimum pB of about 2.

Enzymes in Bigestion

The enzymes involveu in iespiiation, photosynthesis anu piotein
Enzyme Reaction Catalyseu
amylase staich ! maltose
maltase maltose ! glucose
piotease pioteins ! amino acius
lipase lipius ! fatty acius + glyceiol
synthesis woik insiue cells. 0thei enzymes aie piouuceu by specialiseu cells anu ieleaseu fiom them; the uigestive
enzymes aie like this. They pass out into the gut, wheie they catalyse the bieakuown of foou molecules.

Biffeient enzymes catalyse uiffeient uigestion ieactions.

Caibohyuiase iefeis to all the enzymes that bieak uown caibohyuiates. Piotease iefeis to all the enzymes that bieak
uown pioteins. Lipase iefeis to all the enzymes that bieak uown fats.

Enzyme What it Boes Wheie Piouuceu
amylase salivaiy glanus, pancieas,
small intestine
Amylase catalyses the bieakuown of staich into sugais in the mouth anu
small intestine.
piotease stomach, pancieas, small
intestine
Pioteases catalyse the bieakuown of pioteins into amino acius in the
stomach anu small intestine.
lipase pancieas, small intestine Lipases catalyse the bieakuown of fats anu oils into fatty acius anu
glyceiol in the small intestine.
The Bigestive System

A goou uefinition woulu be: Bigestion is the chemical anu mechanical bieakuown of foou. It conveits laige insoluble
molecules into small soluble molecules, which can be absoibeu into the bloou.

Ingestion

Bigestion begins with the mouth. Foou is taken into the mouth to oui bouy. This stage is known as ingestion. A slippeiy
liquiu calleu saliva helps moisten the foou anu contains the enzyme amylase, which staits the bieakuown of staich. This is
known as chemical uigestion, anu when chemicals such as enzymes aiu the uigestion piocess. The foou is also cheweu,
cutting the foou uown into smallei pieces to inciease suiface aiea, so enzymes can act on the foou moie quickly. This is an
example of mechanical uigestion, the physical bieakuown of foou.

In the Stomach

The lump of foou, mixeu with saliva, then passes along the oesophagus, to the stomach. The foou is helu in the stomach foi
seveial houis, while initial uigestion of pioteins takes place. The stomach wall secietes hyuiochloiic aciu, so the stomach
contents aie stiongly aciuic. This is impoitant as it kills bacteiia that might have been taken into the gut along with the
foou, helping to piotect us fiom pathogens. The piotease
enzyme that is maue in the stomach, calleu pepsin, has to be
able to woik in these aciuic conuitions, anu has an optimum
pB of 2. The semi-uigesteu foou is helu back in the stomach by
a iing of muscle at the outlet of the stomach, calleu the
sphinctei muscle. When this ielaxes, it ieleases the foou into
the fiist pait of the small intestine, calleu the uuouenum.

The Buouenum

Nuscles aie iesponsible foi moving foou along the gut by
muscle contiaction. The wall of the intestine contains two
layeis of muscles. 0ne layei has fibies iunning iings aiounu
the gut. This is the ciiculai muscle layei. The othei has fibies
iunning uown the length of the gut, anu is calleu the
longituuinal muscle layei. Togethei, the two layeis push foou
along. When one layei contiacts, the othei ielaxes. Waves of
muscle contiaction like this is what helps push foou along.
This is calleu peiistalsis. It
means that the movement
of foou in the gut uoesn't uepenu on giavity - we can eat while stanuing on oui heaus!

Seveial uigestive enzymes aie auueu to the foou in the uuouenum. These aie maue by
the pancieas, anu uigest staich, pioteins anu lipius. As well as this, the livei makes a
uigestive juice calleu bile, which is stoieu in the gall blauuei. Bile uoes not contain
enzymes. Its function is to tuin any laige lipiu globules in the foou into an emulsion of
tiny uioplets. This incieases the suiface aiea of the lipiu, so that lipase can bieak it uown moie easily. Bile anu pancieatic
juice aie both alkaline. It is also useu to neutialize the semi-uigesteu foou (which gets aciuic fiom the stomach) befoie
continuing its way uown the gut.

As foou continues along the intestine, moie enzymes aie auueu, until the paits of the foou that can be uigesteu have been
fully bioken uown into soluble enu piouucts, which can be absoibeu. This is the iole of the last pait of the small intestine,
the ileum.

The Ileum

The ileum is highly auapteu to absoib uigesteu foou. The lining of the ileum has a veiy laige suiface aiea, which means
that it can quickly anu efficiently absoib the soluble piouucts of uigestion into the bloou. The length of the intestine helps
pioviue a laige suiface aiea, anu this is aiueu by the folus in its lining, but the gieatest inciease in aiea is uue to the tiny
piojections fiom the lining, known as the villi. Each is only about 1-2mm long, but theie aie millions of them, totaling the
aiea of the lining to be about Suum
2
. This pioviues a massive aiea in contact with the uigesteu foou. As well as this, each
of the villus has even moie piojections known as miciovilli.

Each villus has a wall maue of single cells anu a netwoik of bloou
capillaiies. Nost of the uigesteu foou enteis these bloou vessels,
but the fat uioplets entei a tube in the miuule calleu the lacteal.
The lacteal is pait of the bouy's lymphatic system, which
tianspoits liquiu calleu lymph. The lymph eventually uiains into
the bloou system too. Tiny foou molecules entei the bloou stieam
by a piocess known as uiffusion (high concentiation to low
concentiation). A iich bloou supply in the capillaiies maintains
the concentiation giauient.

The bloou vessels fiom the ileum join up to foim a laige bloou
vessel calleu the hepatic poital vein, which leaus to the livei. The
livei bieaks some molecules uown, builus some anu stoies some.

The uigesteu foou molecules aie uistiibuteu aiounu the bouy by
the blooustieam. The soluble foou molecules aie absoibeu fiom
the bloou into cells of tissues, anu aie useu to builu new paits of cells. This is calleu assimilation.

The Laige Intestine - getting iiu of the poopoo

This piocess is known as egestion (iemoval of faeces), N0T
excietion. Excietion is the iemoval of the waste piouucts of cells
of the bouy. 0nce eveiything has been uigesteu anu absoibeu into
the blooustieam anu the cells aie all like "foou!" the waste fiom
the blooustieam, which consists mainly of cellulose fibie anu
othei inuigestible iemains, watei, ueau anu living bacteiia anu
cells lost fiom the lining of the gut, will move on to the laige
intestine. The iemaining watei is absoibeu by the fiist pait of the
intestine known as the colon, leaving a semi-soliu waste mateiial
calleu faeces. This is stoieu in the iectum, until expelleu out of the
bouy thiough the anus.


Neasuiing Eneigy Content in Foou - Such as a
Peanut!

If a sample of foou will buin well in aii, you can measuie its eneigy content using a simplifieu veision of the foou
caloiimetei.

1. Finu the mass of the peanut, anu place 2uml of watei into a boiling tube.
2. Neasuie tempeiatuie of watei.
S. Speai peanut with a mounteu neeule anu light it up with a Bunsen buinei until it catches flame.
4. Bolu the lit peanut unueineath boiling tube. If peanut stops buining, ielight it anu continue boiling the watei
with the lit peanut - not penis, until it can no longei buin.
S. Neasuie the final tempeiatuie of the watei anu calculate the iise in tempeiatuie.

Some facts:
-4.2 joules iaises the tempeiatuie of one giam of watei by 1
u
C
-1ml of watei has a mass of 1g

To finu the eneigy (joules pei giam) = (iise in tempeiatuie x initial volume of watei x 4.2)mass of foou (g)

Respiiation

What's the uiffeience between iespiiation anu bieathing. Respiiation is an oxiuation ieaction that ieleases eneigy fiom
foous. Bieathing means ventilation, a teim that uesciibes the mechanism that moves aii into anu out of the lungs,
allowing gaseous exchange. The bieathing system in oui bouies is known as the iespiiatoiy system.

Stiuctuie

The lungs aie locateu at the chest, oi the thoiax.
}oining each iibcage aie the inteinal anu
exteinal inteicostals muscles. They aien't
labeleu on the uiagiam but it's those bumps on
the outsiue of the lungs. You know the 'beef iibs'
you get in iestauiants. Well the meat is the
inteicostals muscles. The uiaphiagm sepaiates
the contents of the thoiax fiom the abuomen. It
is a shallow uome shape.

The tiachea is wheie aii enteis when we bieathe
in. This splits into two bianches calleu the
bionchus. They uiviue into even smallei tubes
calleu bionchioles. Anu finally, at the enu of the
bionchioles, theie aie micioscopic aii sacs calleu
alveoli. It
is heie that
gas exchange takes place.

The tiachea anu bionchi contains iings of caitilage. These help keep the aiiways
open when we bieathe in. They stop the tiachea anu bionchi fiom squishing when
we bieathe in. The insiue of the thoiax is sepaiateu fiom the lungs by two thin,
moist membianes calleu pleuial layeis. These foim an aiitight seal aiounu the
lungs. Between them is a space calleu the pleuial cavity, which is filleu with pleuial
fluiu.
Keeping Aiiways Clean

The tiachea anu laigei aiiways aie lineu with a layei of cells that keep them clean. They
seciete a liquiu known as mucus, which tiaps paiticles of uiit oi bacteiia that we
bieathe in. Baii-like cells calleu cilia sweeps the mucus out towaius the mouth so the
bacteiia anu uiit cannot entei the lungs anu cause an infection.

ventilation - The uiuesome Betails

ventilation iequiies a uiffeience in aii piessuie.
When you inhale, the inteinal inteicostals muscles
move youi iibs outwaius. The exteinal ones
contiact, pulling the iibs up. The muscles of the
uiaphiagm contiact, pulling it uown to a moie
flatteneu shape. These movements inciease the
volume of the thoiax. This uecieases piessuie (see
Boyle's Law in The 0ltimate IuCSE uuiue foi
Physics by CuPwneu), making the piessuie insiue the thoiax less than the piessuie outsiue. This causes aii to entei the
lungs.

The opposite happens when you exhale. The exteinal inteicostal muscles ielax, anu the inteinal inteicostal muscles
contiact, pulling the iibs uown anu in. At the same time, the uiaphiagm muscles ielax anu goes back to its noimal uome
shape. This causes volume of thoiax to ueciease, making the piessuie insiue the thoiax gieatei than outsiue. This foices
aii out of the lungs.

The Alveoli

0xygen enteis the bloou thiough the alveoli - bumpy aii sacs. The stiuctuie
of the alveoli incieases suiface aiea, which also incieases gas exchange. It
also pioviues a concentiation giauient foi uiffusion as oxygen will move
fiom highei to lowei concentiation. Theie aie about 7uu million of these
cuties in oui bouy, giving a total suiface aiea of 6um
2
.

Bloou is pumpeu fiom the
heait to the lungs anu
passes thiough the
capillaiies that suiiounu
the alveoli. The bloou has
come fiom iespiiing
tissues of the bouy, wheie it has given up some of the oxygen to the
cells, anu gaineu caibon uioxiue. Aiounu the lungs, the bloou is
sepaiateu fiom the aii insiue each alveolus by only two cell layeis; the
wall of the alveoli anu the capillaiy wall. It is thin so oxygen can easily
uiffuse to capillaiies anu caibon uioxiue, fiom the capillaiies.




Because the aii in alveolus has a highei concentiation of oxygen than the bloou
enteiing the capillaiy netwoik, oxygen uiffuses acioss the alveolus wall anu into the
bloou. At the same time, theie is moie caibon uioxiue in bloou than theie is in the aii
so it uiffuses out of the bloou anu into the alveolus. The capillaiies containing the
oxygen iich bloou then flow to the heait, wheie it can be pumpeu aiounu the bouy!

Note: Suifactant is a chemical that keeps lungs moist. When aii is exhaleu, lungs get
uiiei as watei escapes. Theiefoie, to stop the lungs fiom collapsing, the suifactant
haiuens. Finally, moistuie is useful as it speeus uiffusion.

Smoking anu Its Effects

Smoking can causes lots of things: lung cancei, bionchitis, emphysema etc. They aie
also a majoi contiibuting factoi to othei pioblems such as coionaiy heait uiseases,
stomach anu uuouenum ulceis. Piegnant smokeis aie moie likely to give biith to
unueiweight babies.

Tai in cigaiettes uestioys the cilia in aiiways. This means that mucus is not swept away fiom the lungs, but iemains anu
clogs the aii passages. This is maue woise by the fact that the smoke iiiitates the lining of aiiways, stimulating cells to
seciete moie mucus. Iiiitation of the bionchial tiee, along with infections fiom bacteiia in the mucus can cause the
bionchitis, which causes blocking in noimal aiiflow, so the suffeiei has uifficulty bieathing piopeily.

Emphysema is anothei lung uisease. Smoke uamages the walls of the alveoli, causing them to bieak uown anu fuse
togethei. This gieatly ieuuces the suiface aiea foi gas exchange. The bloou of a peison with emphysema caiiies less
oxygen. Theie is no cuie.

Lung cancei happens when cells mutate anu uiviue uncontiollably, foiming tumouis. Smoking incieases the chance of
this; howevei, giving up the habit can soon impiove youi chances of suivival.

uas Atmospheiic
Aii (%)
Exhaleu
Aii (%)
Nitiogen 78 79
0xygen 21 16
Caibon Bioxiue u.u4 4
0thei uases 1 1
But what makes it so auuictive.

Cigaiette smoke contains a stiongly auuictive uiug known as nicotine, which eases stiess. It also contains at least 17
chemicals that aie known to cause cancei. These aie calleu caicinogens.

Apait fiom tai, caibon monoxiue is anothei haimful anu poisonous gas founu in cigaiettes. When inhaleu, the gas
attaches itself to a chemical that caiiies oxygen in the bouy, known as haemoglobin. When combineu with caibon
monoxiue, it foims caiboxyhaemoglobin. When this happens, the bloou caiiies less oxygen aiounu the bouy. Caibon
monoxiue fiom smoking is a majoi cause of heait uisease.

uiving it 0p

Smoking is haiu to give up because of the auuictive nicotine. Nicotine is actually haimless, anu the biain secietes it to ease
stiess. Theiefoie, some smokeis use nicotine patches oi nicotine chewing up as a souice of nicotine. uiauually, the
nicotine uose ieuuces until the smokei is weaneu off the habit. 0thei ways incluue acupunctuie anu hypnotism.




The Smoking Nachine

The smoking machine shows the effects of smoking. By the way,
IuN0RE TBE LABELS! I coulun't finu the iight pictuie so yeah.
Anyways the cigaiette smoke woulu make the glass wool yellowish
(thanks to the tai). The 0niveisal Inuicatoi woulu tuin oiange ieu,
showing the fact that the smoke is aciuic. Finally, if the tube was
connecteu to limewatei, the limewatei woulu tuin clouuy in the
piesence of caibon monoxiue.

Bloou anu Ciiculation - The Beait anu The Bloou

Bloou is pumpeu aiounu the bouy. In mammals, it tianspoits
oxygen, caibon uioxiue, nutiients anu uiea. Boimones, antibouies
anu many othei substances aie also tianspoiteu by bloou. Even
heat is.

0nicellulai oiganisms uon't neeu this function as they can obtain
oxygen fiom the suiface membiane of the cell. The aiea of the
cell's suiface ueteimines how much oxygen the oiganism can
get, anu the volume of the cell ueteimines how much oxygen
the oiganism uses.

Ratio of supply to uemanu = suiface aieavolume

0ne of the main functions of a ciiculatoiy system in animals is
to tianspoit oxygen. Bloou is pumpeu to a gas exchange oigan
to loau oxygen. It is then pumpeu to othei paits of the bouy
wheie the oxygen can be useu. Theie aie two main types of
ciiculatoiy systems:

! Single Ciiculatoiy Systems: Bloou is pumpeu fiom the
heait to the gas exchange oigan anu then uiiectly
back to the iest of the bouy.
! Bouble Ciiculatoiy Systems: Bloou is pumpeu fiom
the heait to the gas exchange oigan, back to the heait
anu then to the iest of the bouy. We have this system.
You not incluueu.

Theie aie two uistinct paits to a uouble ciiculation:

! Pulmonaiy Ciiculation: Bloou is ciiculateu thiough the lungs wheie it is oxygenateu.
! Systemic Ciiculation: Bloou is ciiculateu thiough othei paits of the bouy. A uouble ciiculatoiy system is moie
efficient because the heait pumps bloou twice, so highei piessuies can be maintaineu. The bloou tiavels moie
quickly to oigans.


The human ciiculatoiy system compiises of:

! The heait - The bloou pumpei.
! Bloou vessels - These caiiy bloou aiounu the bouy; aiteiies caiiy bloou away fiom the heait anu towaius othei
oigans. veins uo the opposite anu capillaiies caiiy bloou thiough oigans.
! Bloou - The tianspoit meuium. The ieu thing that comes out of a wounu when you cut youiself. In giils, it comes
out automatically eveiy month.

The Beait

The human heait is a pump that pumps bloou aiounu the bouy at uiffeient speeus anu piessuies accoiuing to the bouy's
neeus. It can uo this because the wall of the heait is maue fiom caiuiac muscle.

Bow the Beait Pumps

1. Bloou enteis the atiia. It cannot pass into the ventiicles
because the bicuspiu (mitial) anu tiicuspiu valves aie
closeu.
2. The walls of the atiia contiact, iaising the piessuie of
the bloou. This foices open the valves anu bloou passes
thiough into the ventiicles.
S. When the ventiicles aie full, the contiact, incieasing
bloou piessuie in the two chambeis anu closing the
valves.
4. The ventiicles continue to contiact, foicing semi-lunai
valves at the base of the aoita anu the pulmonaiy aiteiy
to open. The pulmonaiy aiteiy caiiies bloou to the
lungs. The aoita has bianches that caiiy bloou to othei
paits of the bouy.
S. As the ventiicles empty, the highei piessuie in the aoita
anu pulmonaiy aiteiy closes the valves. The cycle then
begins again.

Auaptations of the Beait

When a chambei of the heait is contiacting, it is systole. When it is not, it is uiastole. The stiuctuie of the heait is auapteu
to its functions in seveial ways:

! The septum uiviues the iight anu left siue of the heait. The iight ventiicle pumps bloou only to the lungs,
wheieas, the left ventiicle pumps bloou to othei paits of the bouy. This iequiies so much piessuie, theiefoie the
left ventiicle is biggei.
! valves pievent backflow of bloou.
! The walls of the atiia aie thin. They can be stietcheu to ieceive bloou anu can contiact to push bloou thiough the
tiicuspiu anu mitial valves.
! Caiuiac muscle can contiact anu ielax continuously without becoming fatigueu.
! It also has its own bloou supply. The coionaiy aiteiy caiiies the bloou anu gives it to the capillaiies wheie it
tianspoits the bloou to the caiuiac muscle. Bloou is ietuineu to the iight atiium via the coionaiy veins.


Bow Bloou Ciiculation Woiks

1. The pulmonaiy aiteiy caiiies bloou to the lungs wheie it gets oxygenateu. The pulmonaiy veins caiiy it back to
the heait.
2. Bloou enteis the left atiium, then uown to the left ventiicle anu up to the aoita, wheie it leaves the heait anu
goes to the bouy.
S. Beoxygenateu bloou fiom the bouy goes back to the heait thiough the vena cava anu enteis the iight atiium anu
ventiicle, wheie it then leaves the heait thiough the pulmonaiy aiteiy anu so on.

Bloou vessels

Bloou vessel Function Auaptations
Aiteiy caiiy oxygenateu bloou away fiom
heait at high piessuie
Thick, elastic, musculai walls to withstanu piessuie anu to exeit
foice (pulse). It has a small lumen.
Capillaiy allow exchange of mateiials between
bloou anu tissues
Thin peimeable walls
vein ietuin low piessuie ueoxygenateu
bloou to heait
Laige uiametei (lumen) to offei least flow iesistance. valves to
pievent back flow.

Composition of Bloou

Component Besciiption Function
Plasma Stiaw colouieu cleai liquiu. Nakes up
appiox. SS% of the bloou.
Tianspoits C02, soluble nutiients, hoimones anu uiea.
Reu Bloou Cells Biconcave, no nucleus to fit moie
haemogloblin, makes up 4S% of the
bloou, maue in bone maiiow
Packeu with ieu haemogloblin which combines with
oxygen to give oxyhaemogloblin - a ieveisible ieaction
so oxygen can be uioppeu off.
Lymphocytes White bloou cells about the same size
as ieu cells with a laige spheiical
nucleus, like an egg.
Piouuces antibouiesantitoxins. Naue in bone maiiow.
They may cause bacteiia to stick togethei, act as a 'label'
on the pathogen, cause bacteiial cells to buist open,
neutialise poisons piouuceu by the pathogen, oi uevelop
into memoiy cells.
Phagocytes Nuch laigei white bloou cells with a
laige spheiical nucleus. It's like an egg
with a C-shapeu yolk.
Bigests anu kills bacteiia anu othei pathogens. Also
maue in bone maiiow.
Platelets Small spiky cells - that aie ieally just
fiagments of othei cells
Releases chemicals to tiap RBCs, iesulting bloou clots to
stop us fiom bleeuing.

Nemoiy cells make you immune to a uisease. When the same pathogen ie-infects, the memoiy cells can piouuce
antibouies at a fastei iate anu a highei quantity, killing the miciobe befoie it woulu cause uisease.



Respiiation anu 0thei 0iganisms

Bemonstiating Beat Being Piouuceu by Respiiation

1. Some peas aie soakeu inwateifoi24 houis so that they stait to
geiminate anu a seconu batch is boileu anu killeu. Each set of
peas is washeu with bleach to kill any bacteiia piesent. They aie
then iinseu with uistilleu watei to iemove any tiaces of bleach.

2. Each batch is placeu in an inveiteu vacuum flask, leaving some
aii in each flask. The flask insulates its contents.

S. The seeus piouuce caibon uioxiue gas, which is uensei than aii. The inveiteu flasks anu cotton wool allow this to
escape so it won't kill the peas.

The flask with the ueau peas acts as a contiol


Bemonstiating that Respiiation Piouuces Caibon Bioxiue

Byuiogencaibonate inuicatoi solution tuins fiom oiange to yellow in the
piesence of caibon uioxiue. An oiganism is placeu on a gauze platfoim above
the solution in a boiling tube.





Anaeiobic Respiiation

Nuscle cells can iespiie anaeiobically when they aie shoit of oxygen because bloou cannot ieach them fast enough to
uelivei the oxygen neeueu foi aeiobic iespiiation. Its equation:

ulucose " Lactic aciu (+ eneigy)
C6B1206 " 2CSB60S

Too much lactic aciu leaus to muscle ciamps. 0nce the peison iests, the lactic aciu can be oxiuiseu fully. The volume of
oxygen neeueu to completely oxiuise the lactic aciu that built up is calleu the oxygen uebt.

Tempeiatuie in Beau Peas (
u
C) 21
Tempeiatuie in Living Peas (
u
C) 24
0nit 2: Stiuctuies anu Functions in Living 0iganisms

Levels of 0iganization

What's the uiffeience between oiganelles anu cells. 0i tissues anu oigans. Well.

0iganization Befinitions
0iganelles Stiuctuies in cells such as the nucleus anu mitochonuiia.
Cells 0nits that make up all living oiganisms.
Tissues Collective woiu foi cells with a similai function - muscle tissues.etc.
0igans A collection of seveial tissues caiiying out a paiticulai function.
Systems When uiffeient oigans woik togethei to caiiy out jobs. Theie aie seven: uigestive,
iespiiatoiy, ciiculatoiy, excietoiy, neivous, enuociine anu iepiouuctive systems.

Cell Stiuctuie

Animal Cells

In uCSE, you neeu to know foui oiganelles in animal cells: the nucleus, cell
membiane, mitochonuiia anu cytoplasm.

The cytoplasm is a living mateiial that makes up a cell. It has a textuie like a
sloppy jelly.

The nucleus is the laigest oiganelle in a cell. Neaily all cells have one. The
nucleus contiols the activities of a cell. It contains chiomosomes, which caiiy
genes.

The cell membiane foims a bounuaiy between the cytoplasm anu the outsiue.
Some chemicals can pass into the cell anu otheis pass out. The cell membiane
contiols what goes in anu out, theiefoie, it is selectively peimeable.

Nitochonuiia aie founu in all living cells. They caiiy out some of the ieactions of
iespiiation to ielease eneigy that the cell can use. It also supplies the cell with eneigy - abit like the powei plant of a cell.

Plant Cells

Plant cells have eveiything an animal cell has, plus a cell wall, vacuole anu
chloioplasts.

The cell wall is a layei of non-living mateiial founu outsiue the cell
membiane of plants. It is maue mainly of cellulose - which helps the cell
keep its shape. Plant cells absoib watei, which piouuces an inteinal
piessuie, pushing against othei cells to give them suppoit. Without a cell
wall to withstanu the piessuie, this methou of suppoit woulu be
impossible. The cell wall has laige holes to allow watei oi uissolveu
substances to entei anu leave. It is fieely peimeable.

Natuie plant cells often have a laige cential space calleu a vacuole. It is a
peimanent featuie of the cell anu is filleu with a wateiy liquiu calleu cell
sap - a stoie of uissolveu sugais, mineial ions anu othei solutes.

Chloioplasts absoib light to photosynthesize. They contain a gieen pigment calleu chloiophyll.

Novements of Substances in anu out of Cells

Biffusion

Ceitain substances have to pass thiough the cell membiane to get into oi out of a cell. Biffusion is one of the piocesses
that allow this to happen. Biffusion occuis when paiticles move fiom a iegion wheie they aie in high concentiation to a
iegion wheie they aie in low concentiation. They uo this when theie is a concentiation giauient - a uiffeience in
concentiation.

An expeiiment to show uiffusion can be uone by filing a visking tube with staich
suspension anu putting it into a boiling tube with iouine. What woulu happen, is that the
iouine will uiffuse into the visking tube (high to low concentiation), anu tuin the staich
solution blue-black (since it is useu to inuicate staich).

Anothei expeiiment can be uone by punching a hole in agai jelly anu filling the hole with
hyuiochloiic aciu anu some univeisal inuicatoi (to make the aciu ieu - making it easiei to
see uiffusion happening). Aftei a while, the hyuiochloiic aciu woulu uiffuse out into the
agai jelly.

0smosis

0smosis is the piocess that takes place when watei moves in anu out of cell membianes.
Watei will move acioss the membiane fiom a moie uilute solution to a moie concentiateu
one - in othei woius, highei to lowei watei potential. It can only happen if the membiane is peimeable to watei - oi a
paitially peimeable membiane. To summaiise, osmosis is the net movementuiffusion of watei acioss a paitially
peimeable membiane fiom a highei to lowei watei potential.

An expeiiment to show osmosis can be uone by attaching a glass tube to a visking tube filleu
with sugai solution. It is then put into a boiling tube of watei. What happens. The sugai
solution in the visking tube woulu iise up the glass tube. This is because theie is moie watei
potential in the visking tube (moie concentiation) than outsiue the tube. As a iesult, the
watei outsiue the tube woulu move into the visking tube, pushing the sugai solution up the
glass tube.

Anothei expeiiment can be uone by putting an egg oi a potato chip into a beakei of watei,
anu anothei eggpotato into a sugai solution. The foou is then left foi a while. What happens
this time. Well, the foou in the sugai solution woulu've shiunk as the watei in the foou
woulu move out to the sugai solution, wheieas, the foou in the watei solution woulu have
incieaseu in size as watei fiom the outsiue woulu move in.

Factois That Affect Rate of Novement of Substances In anu 0ut of Cells

Concentiation uiauient - the steepei the fastei.
Tempeiatuie - highei tempeiatuie = moie kinetic eneigy = fastei.
Suiface aiea to volume iation - the biggei, the fastei.
0smosis in Plants - Why So Impoitant.

Tuigoi is veiy impoitant to plants. It is the state at which the cells aie tuigiu. What is a tuigiu cell. If a plant cell was put
into watei, it woulu absoib watei thiough osmosis, swelling up. This makes the cytoplasm push against the cell wall,
giving the cell anu inteinal piessuie. This makes the cell tuigiu.

Back to the point. The piessuie in plant cells pushes neighbouiing cells against each othei. This suppoits the non-woouy
paits of the plant, such as young stems anu leaves, anu holus stems upiight so the leaves can caiiy out photosynthesis
piopeily. Tuigoi is also impoitant in the functioning of the stomata. If a plant loses too much watei fiom its cells because
theie is moie watei potential outsiue the cell, it woulu become flacciu - making the plant wilt. Wilting is actually a
piotective action. It cuts uown watei loss by ieuucing the exposeu suiface aiea of the leaves anu closing the stomata.
Excessive loss of watei causes the cell to become plasmolyseu.



Active Tianspoit

Sometimes, a cell neeus to take in a substance when theie is veiy little of it outsiue the cell. It neeus to use eneigy fiom
iespiiation to take up the paiticles - in simplei woius, the cell acts as a pump to pump ions oi molecules in oi out. These
pumps aie laige piotein molecules locateu in the cell membiane. The piocess of the movement of paiticles against a
concentiation giauient, using eneigy fiom iespiiation, is calleu active tianspoit. It happens in the small intestine, wheie
some glucose in the gut is absoibeu into the cells. The ioots of plants also take up ceitain mineials this way.

Excietion

Excietion is the piocess by which waste piouucts of metabolism aie iemoveu fiom the bouy. In humans, the main
nitiogenous excietoiy substance is uiea. Anothei one is caibon uioxiue, excieteu by the lungs. When plants
photosynthesize, they piouuce oxygen as a waste piouuct. When plants iespiie, they exciete caibon uioxiue.

In humans, theie aie thiee oigans that you neeu to know, aie the oigans of excietion:

0igan Function in Excietion
Lungs Exciete caibon uioxiue when you exhale.
Skin Takes out uiea watei anu othei useless salts in the foim of
sweat.
Kiuneys Remove substances fiom bloou to the blauuei.
The Kiuneys - Bomeostasis anu 0smoiegulation

Insiue oui bouies, conuitions aie kept ielatively constant. This is calleu homeostasis. If you weie to uiink a litie of watei,
youi bouy woulu iesponu to this change by piouucing the same amount of uiine. In othei woius, it woulu automatically
balance youi watei input anu watei loss. Keeping the watei anu salt content of the inteinal enviionment (insiue the bouy)
is known as 0smoiegulation.

It is not just watei anu salts that aie kept constant. 0thei examples incluue the level of caibon uioxiue in bloou, the pB of
the bloou, the bouy tempeiatuie.etc.
Bomeostasis is impoitant to cells
because they will only function
piopeily if they aie pioviueu with
optimum conuitions.

Anti-Biuietic Boimone
(ABB) - Contiolling the
Bouy's Watei Content

If you uiink lots of watei, youi
kiuneys will iesponu to the unbalance
of the bouy's watei by making a laigei
volume of moie uilute uiine. If the bloou becomes too concentiateu, the kiuneys piouuce a smallei volume of uiine. These
changes aie contiolleu by a hoimone piouuceu fiom the pituitaiy glanu known as ABB.

The loss of watei means the concentiation of bloou staits to inciease. This is uetecteu by the osmoieceptois in the
hypothalamus in the biain. The cells theie cause the pituitaiy glanu to ielease moie ABB, which tiavels to the kiuneys. In
the kiuneys, it causes collecting uucts to become moie peimeable to watei, so moie watei is ieabsoibeu back into the
bloou. This makes the uiine moie concentiateu, so that the bouy loses less watei anu bloou becomes moie uilute. 0nce
the watei content of the bloou ietuins to noimal, theie will be less ABB ieleaseu - but theie will NEvER BE N0NE
ieleaseu.















The 0iinaiy System


Each kiuney is supplieu with bloou thiough the ienal aiteiy, which bianches out fiom the aoita. The bloou enteiing is at
high piessuie. 0nce the bloou is filteieu in the kiuneys, the bloou passes out thiough the ienal vein, to the vena cava. The
uiine passes out of the kiuneys via the uieteis, anu is stoieu in the blauuei. The uiine passes out of the blauuei via the
uiethia - anu then you piss. The walls of the uiethia contain iing like muscles calleu sphincteis, which contiact to holu
back uiine. The lowei muscle is voluntaiily contiolleu, while the uppei one is involuntaiy - automatically ielaxing when
the blauuei is full.

The Kiuneys

The outei iegion is calleu the coitex, anu contains many bloou
vessels bianching out fiom the ienal aiteiy. It also contains
micioscopic filteiing units calleu nephions. The nephions iun
uown the miuule layei calleu the meuulla. The meuulla has
pyiamius pointing towaius the concave siue of the kiuney. The
tubules in the meuulla eventually join up anu leau to the tips of the
pyiamius, wheie uiine is emptieu into the pelvis. The pelvis
connects to the uieteis, caiiying uiine to the blauuei.







The Nephions

Each kiuney has about a million of these. A nephion is the single tubule founu in the coitex.























Bloou enteis the kiuneys thiough the ienal aiteiy, which uiviues into aiteiioles.
They supply the capillaiies of the glomeiulus - a ball of capillaiies wheie bloou
is filteieu. It is suiiounueu by a cup of cells calleu the Bowman's capsule. Since
the bloou piessuie is high, the piessuie foices fluiu fiom the bloou thiough the
walls of the capillaiies anu into the miuule of the Bowman's capsule. The
glomeiulus anu the space in the capsule aie sepaiateu by two cell layeis - the
capsule anu the capillaiy wall. Between those is a thiiu layei calleu the
basement membiane. These layeis act as a filtei, allowing watei, ions anu small
molecules to pass thiough, but holuing back bloou cells anu laige molecules
such as pioteins. The fluiu that enteis is calleu the glomeiulai filtiate. This
piocess, wheie the filtei sepaiates uiffeient sizeu molecules unuei piessuie, is calleu ultiafiltiation.

Reabsoiption of watei anu othei solutes such as glucose take place in the pioximal convoluteu tubule. It ieabsoibs
uiffeient amounts of vaiious substances. This is calleu selective ieabsoiption. The function of the loop of Benle is ieally to
concentiate the fluiu in the tubule moie, by causing moie watei to be ieabsoibeu. In the iest of the tubule, moie watei
anu ions aie ieabsoibeu, anu the final uiine contains a much highei concentiation of uiea, as well as watei anu salts.
Finally, the uiine enteis the pelvis, into the uieteis anu uown to the blauuei.



Cooiuination anu Response

Animals aie able to iesponu to changes in theii enviionment anu caiiy out homeostasis. Nammals anu biius aie
examples of enuotheims. They aie homeotheimic (waim-blooueu). Enuotheims use heat fiom chemical ieactions to
waim its bouy. Bouy tempeiatuie is monitoieu by the theimoiegulatoiy centie in the hypothalamus.

A cooiuinateu iesponse iequiies thiee things: a stimulus, a ieceptoi anu an effectoi. A stimulus is a change in the
suiiounuings. A iesponse is a ieaction. The stimulus is uetecteu by something in you such as youi eyes - which is an
example of a ieceptoi. A iesponse is biought about by peihaps a contiaction of muscles, which is an effectoi.

Noie examples of ieceptois:

! Eyes - uetect light
! Eais - uetect sounu anu balance
! Tongue - taste buus uetect taste
! Skin - touchpiessuie (kinesthetic) anu tempeiatuie

Responses can be contiolleu by neivous oi by hoimonal
communication.

Neivous System Enuociine System
Woiks by neive impulses
tiansmitteu thiough neive
cells.
Woiks by hoimones
tiansmitteu thiough the
blooustieam.
Neive impulses tiavel fast
anu usually have an 'instant'
effect.
Boimones tiavel moie
slowly anu geneially take
longei to act.
Response is usually shoit-
liveu.
Response is usually longei-
lasting.
Impulses act on inuiviuual
cells such as muscle fibies,
so have a veiy localizeu
effect.
Boimones can have
wiuespieau effects on
uiffeient oigans.

The Cential Neivous System

The neivous system consists of the biain anu spinal coiu. Impulses fiom ieceptois pass along neives containing neive
cells calleu sensoiy neuions to the CNS. Notoi neuions tiansmit impulses to the muscles anu glanus.

Notoi Neuiones

The cell bouy of the neuione is at one enu of the fibie, in the
CNS. Benuions aie cytoplasmic extensions which foim fuithei
extensions calleu uenuiites. Synapses aie junctions to othei
neive cells. The axon teiminals caiiy impulses to the effectoi
oigan. The axon is coveieu with myelin sheath - a type of fat
which insulates the axon, pieventing shoit ciicuits anu speeus
up the impulses.

Situation: Ball comes huitling towaius you.
Stimulus The ball comes flying ovei to you.
Receptoi This is uetecteu by youi eyes.
Cooiuination Neivous signals move fiom eyes to the
biain, then to the muscles.
Effectoi Contiactions in muscles leauing to the
iesponse.
Response You uuck to avoiu the ball.

Sensoiy Neuiones

A sensoiy neuione has a similai stiuctuie to the motoi neuione, but the cell
bouy is locateu on the siue bianch of the fibie, just outsiue the CNS. The
neuione is also coveieu in myelin sheath.

Synapses

Synapses aie gaps between neive cells. The gap is not ciosseu by electiical
impulses, but by chemicals. Impulses aiiiving at the synapse cause the enus
of the axon to seciete a chemical calleu a neuiotiansmittei, which uiffuses
acioss the gap anu attaches to the membiane of the seconu neuione. This
staits off impulses in the seconu cell. Theie aie tons of synapses in the bouy
to ensuie an infinite numbei of possible pathways thiough the system.

Reflex
Aic

The
stimulus is uetecteu by pain ieceptois in the skin,
geneiating impulses in the sensoiy neuiones. These entei
the CNS thiough the uoisal ioot ganglion. In the spinal
coiu, the sensoiy neuions aie connecteu by synapses to
ielay neuiones (inteineuion), which in tuin, connect to
the motoi neuiones. They emeige fiom the spinal coiu
thiough the vential ioot anu senu impulses back to the
muscles of the aim. These muscles contiact, pulling the
fingei away fiom the painful stimulus.

The Eyes

The eyes aie ieceptois - as well as the winuows to the
soul. Anyways cut that bullshit. The human eye can uetect
light intensity, fiom images anu uistinguish colouis.

Scleia White pait of the eye.
Coinea A tianspaient stiuctuie that lets light into the eye.

Iiis

Colouieu iing of tissue.
Pupil

Allows light thiough anu is black to pievent light escaping.
Choioiu Locateu unueineath the scleia, it is a uaik layei to stop light being ieflecteu insiue the eye.
Retina Wheie light is tiansuuceu into electiical neive impulses.
Rou Cells Woik well in uim light, cannot uistinguish colouis.
Cone Cells Woik well in biight light. Thiee types that iesponu to ieu, blue anu gieeu.
0ptic Neive Wheie impulses aie passeu fiom the eye to the biain.
Fovea Centie of the ietina wheie cones aie paiticulaily concentiateu at.

To foim an image on the ietina, light neeus to be iefiacteu.
Refiaction takes place when light passes fiom one meuium to
anothei of uiffeient uensity. In the eye, this happens fiist at the
coinea, anu again at the lens, wheie fine focusing is uone.

As a iesult of iefiaction, the image on the ietina is inveiteu. The
biain inteipiets the image iight way up. The iole of the iiis is to
contiol the amount of light enteiing the eye by changing the size of the pupil. It contains two types of muscles. Ciiculai
muscles fiom a iing shape in the iiis anu iauial muscles lie like the spokes of a wheel. In biight light, the pupil is maue
smallei, oi constiicteu.


Accommouation

Accommouation is the changes that take place in the eye which allow us to see objects at uiffeient uistances. The lens is
helu in place by a seiies of fibies calleu suspensoiy ligaments, which aie attacheu to a iing of muscle calleu the ciliaiy
muscle.















0thei Boimones

Boimone ulanu Function
Anti-Biuietic Boimone Pituitaiy Contiols watei content of bloou.
Auienaline Auienals Piepaies bouy to 'fight' oi 'flight'.
Testosteione Testes Contiols uevelopment of male seconuaiy sexual chaiacteiistics.
Piogesteione 0vaiiesCoipus
Lueteum
Regulates menstiual cycle, maintains uteius lining, pievents
ovulation.etc.
0estiogen 0vaiies Contiols uevelopment of female seconuaiy sexual chaiacteiistics.
Insulin Pancieas Loweis bloou glucose.

Contiolling Bouy Tempeiatuie

The Skin

The outei epiueimis consists of ueau cells to
stop watei loss anu piotect the bouy against
invasion of pathogens. The hypoueimis
(below the ueimis) contains fatty tissue
which insulates the bouy against heat loss
anu is a stoie of eneigy. The miuule layei,
the ueimis, contains many sensoiy ieceptois
anu is the location of sweat glanus, many
small bloou vessels as well as haii follicles.
Bow Eyes Change With Light
Biight Ciiculai muscles contiact
Rauial muscles ielax
Pupil constiicts
Bim Ciiculai muscles ielax
Rauial muscles contiact
Pupil uilates
object ciliaiy muscles suspensoiy ligaments shape of lens
uistant ielax stietch thin - less convex
neai contiact slacken fat - moie convex


Ways to Contiol Bouy Tempeiatuie

B0T
Sweating Sweat glanus piouuce sweat, which is secieteu on the suiface of the skin. It evapoiates but neeus
eneigy to uo so, calleu the latent heat of vapoiization. This is pioviueu by the bouy's heat.
Relaxation of Baii Baii eiectoi muscles ielax to tiap a thinnei layei of aii so moie heat can be lost.
vasouilation Bloou flows thiough capillaiy loops in the ueimis, iauiating heat to the outsiue.
C0LB
Inciease in
Netabolism
Stimulateu by auienaline, metabolism can geneiate moie heat.
Shiveiing Nuscles contiact anu ielax iapiuly to piouuce heat.
vasoconstiiction Bloou flows thiough ueepei vessels so less heat is iauiateu away.
Piloeiection Also known as goosebumps, this is the iesult of haiis pulleu upiight to tiap moie aii which
pievents heat conuucting away.






Tiopisms

The giowth iesponse of a plant to a uiiectional stimulus (stimulus that act in one uiiection such as light anu giavity) is
calleu a tiopism. If the giowth iesponse is towaius the uiiection of the stimulus, it is a positive tiopism, anu if it is away,
then it is a negative tiopism.

Phototiopism

Phototiopism is the iesponse of giowth towaius light. Eveiy seeu has a piotective sheath calleu the coleoptiles. The
coleoptile uetects light anu ieleases giowth hoimones calleu auxins, which uiffuse uown the shoot anu giows at the uaik
siue of the shoot. This makes the shoot benu towaius the light.

ueotiopism

ueotiopism is the iesponse of giowth towaius giavity. The auxins accumulates on the lowei siue of the shoot to stimulate
giowth, causing the shoot to benu upwaius. The hoimone also accumulates on the lowei siue of the ioot, causing it to
benu uownwaius.

An expeiiment to show this is to
put geiminating seeus on a
clinostat. Repeat with anothei
clinostat. Leave one clinostat
stanuing on one siue, anu anothei
spinning.

The iesult: Roots of the seeus in
the still clinostat woulu giow
uownwaius, wheieas, seeus on
the spinning clinostat woulu
giow stiaight out hoiizontally
because they cannot uetect
giavity uue to the constant
spinning.


0nit S: Plants

Photosynthesis

Photosynthesis is the piocess of making glucose in plants. But this answei
won't get the maiks (I think). It is when plants use simple inoiganic molecules
caibon uioxiue anu watei, in the piesence of chloiophyll anu light, to make
glucose anu oxygen. Since the piouucts of the ieaction contain moie eneigy
than the ieactants, photosynthesis conveits light eneigy into chemical eneigy.

Limiting Factois
That Affect
Photosynthesis

Limiting factois aie factois that aie in shoitest supply anu will
limit the iate of photosynthesis.

Limiting
Factoi
Bow It Affects
Plant
uiaph
Light
Intensity
Slows uown iate of
photosynthesis -
since light
pioviues the
eneigy neeueu foi
the ieaction. When
incieaseu, the iate
of photosynthesis
will inciease
steauily, but only
to a ceitain point
because
tempeiatuiecaib
on uioxiue will
become the
limiting factoi.

The iole of the chloiophyll is to absoib
light eneigy neeueu foi the ieaction to
take place.
Caibon
Bioxiue
Also slows uown
the iate of
photosynthesis
since it is one of
the ieactants
neeueu. The
concentiation in
aii is about u.u4%,
anu to inciease it,
faimeis use gas
buineis.
Tempeiatui
e
Affects the
enzymes involveu
in photosynthesis.
Tempeiatuie has
to be about Su
u
C.
Anything highei
than SS
u
C, anu the
enzymes uenatuie.
If it's too low,
enzyme activity
woulu slow uown.

The Leaf

Anatomy of the Leaf

Auaptation 0se
Laige Suiface Aiea To absoib moie light.
Thin Foi caibon uioxiue to uiffuse into
the leaf cells.
Chloiophyll Containeu in chloioplasts, it absoibs
sunlight to tiansfei eneigy into
chemicals.
Netwoik of veins To take away foou fiom the leaf, to
suppoit the leaf anu to tianspoit
watei anu nutiients to eveiy pait of
the leaf.

`

Waxy Cuticle Reuuces watei loss anu acts as a baiiiei to pathogens such as bacteiia anu fungi.
0utei Epiueimis Is tianspaient anu thin to allow light to ieach the palisaue cells.
Palisaue Layei Naue of elongateu cells containing hunuieus of chloioplasts, this is the main site foi photosynthesis.
Spongy Layei The main gas exchange suiface of the leaf. Aii spaces allow movement of gases anu incieases SA foi gas
exchange.
Lowei Epiueimis Contains many poies calleu stomata. They aie holes that let caibon uioxiue, oxygen anu watei to uiffuse in
anu out. Each stoma is contiolleu by two guaiu cells, which can altei theii shape to open oi close the stoma.
Plant Nutiition

Plants neeu ceitain ions to piouuce impoitant compounus foi giowth. They get these mineials fiom soil. It theie aien't
enough of these mineials, plants will suffei mineial ueficiency uisease.

Nineial Ion 0se Beficiency Symptoms
Nitiates Contains nitiogen foi making amino acius,
pioteins, chloiophyll, BNA etc.
Neeueu foi cell giowth.
Stunteu giowth.
0luei leaves tuin yellow.
Phosphates Contains phosphoius foi BNA anu cell
membianes.
Neeueu foi iespiiation anu giowth.
Pooi ioot giowth.
Puiple oluei leaves.
Potassium Neeueu foi enzymes that contiol iespiiation
anu photosynthesis.
Leaves tuin yellow with ueau
spots.
Nagnesium Neeueu foi making chloiophyll as it is pait of
the chloiophyll molecule.
Leaves tuin yellow.

Photosynthesis Expeiiment

You can measuie the iate of photosynthesis by:

Counting the numbei of bubbles pei min.
Neasuiing the mass of the leaf befoie anu aftei.

Contiolleu vaiiables:

Species of plant
Amount of souium hyuiogen caibonate solution.
Tempeiatuie
Caibon uioxiue concentiation.

Role of Biffusion in Plants



Biffusion is impoitant to plants
because it helps oxygen escape
the plant anu caibon uioxiue to
entei. The opposite happens
uuiing iespiiation.





Respiiation in Plants

Relationship Between
Photosynthesis anu Respiiation

Fiist things fiist: What IS iespiiation. It is the ielease of eneigy fiom foous (glucose).

Plants iespiie all the time. We alieauy know that the iespiiation equation is basically the photosynthesis equation
backwaius. When light intensity is high, plants photosynthesize at a much highei iate than when they iespiie. Theiefoie,
theie is an oveiall uptake of caibon uioxiue. In uim light howevei, a plant piouuces moie caibon uioxiue as it is iespiiing
moie than it photosynthesis. The net exchange of caibon uioxiue anu oxygen uepenus on the light intensity. This is shown
by the extiemely ugly giaph(s) below.

Effect of Light on uas Exchange Expeiiment

Notes:

Byuiogen Caibonate Inuicatoi Facts
0iange Noimal C02 Concentiation
Reminuei: Biffusion is the
movement of paiticles fiom a
highei to lowei
concentiation.
Puiple Less C02 Concentiation
Yellow Noie C02 Concentiation

Contiolleu vaiiables:

Species of leaf
Nass of leaf
Amount of inuicatoi
Tempeiatuie
Staiting C02 concentiation






Tianspoit in Plants

Phloem

Phloem vessels consist of living cells. They have walls maue
of cellulose. At the enu of each cell is a cioss wall of cellulose
with holes calleu a sieve plate, which link cells togethei,
foiming a sieve tube. The tubes tianspoit piouucts of
photosynthesis fiom leaves to othei paits of the plant.
Suciose, amino acius aie caiiieu to young leaves anu othei
giowing points. Bespite being living cells, the phloem sieve
tubes have no nucleus anu aie contiolleu by the companion
cells. Foous flow in both uiiections (up anu uown).
Xylem

Xylem
vessels aie maue of ueau cells. Theie is
a hollow space uown the miuule calleu
lumen, wheie watei passes. The walls
contain a woouy mateiial calleu lignin.
0nlike the phloem, xylem vessels
contain no cytoplasm. Theii iole is to
caiiy watei anu mineials fiom the
ioots up
the shoot
to the
leaves in the tianspiiation stieam.



Tianslocation

It's not wiitten in the syllabus but this pictuie is
pietty so let's talk about it. I also think this might be
in the test so yeah.

Tianslocation is the movement of mateiials fiom
leaves to othei tissues thioughout the plant. Plants
piouuce caibohyuiates (sugais) in theii leaves by photosynthesis, but nonphotosynthetic paits of the plant also iequiie
caibohyuiates anu othei oiganic anu nonoiganic mateiials. Foi this ieason, nutiients aie tianslocateu fiom souices
(iegions of excess caibohyuiates, piimaiily matuie leaves) to sinks (iegions wheie the caibohyuiate is neeueu).

Theie is a piessuie giauient between the souice anu sink, which allows the movement of foous thiough the phloem.

Watei 0ptake - The Roots

Roots of a plant aie coveieu
with ioot haii cells, which
inciease the suiface aiea of the
ioot epiueimis. Each haii is a
single, specializeu cell of the
ioot epiueimis. The long thin
outei piojection penetiates
between soil paiticles.

Watei uptake is uone by
osmosis. The soil has a highei
watei potential than insiue the cell, which causes watei to move into the
veiy fiist of the ioot haii cells. This incieases the watei potential in the
fiist cells. Bowevei, the cells behinu the fiist ones have a lowei watei
potential, which causes watei to move fiom the fiist cells to the seconu
ones. Continuing in this way, a watei potential giauient is set up acioss the
ioot coitex, kept going by watei being taken up the xylem (oi stele, in the pictuie) in the miuule of the ioot.

Tianspiiation in Plants

Tianspiiation is the loss of watei vapoui fiom the leaves. This is obviously causeu by
evapoiation. The lost of watei causes a suction - oi low piessuie in the stem, which
pulls the watei up the xylem in a continuous flow known as the tianspiiation stieam. It
is like sucking watei fiom a stiaw.

Role of Stomata in Tianspiiation

The ieason why stomata is founu usually on the lowei suiface of the leaves, is because it
woulu lose too much watei if exposeu to uiiect sunlight. Too much tianspiiation can be
bau anu leau to excessive watei loss. This is wheie the stomata come to help! When the
guaiu cells aie tuigiu fiom watei, they benu outwaius, opening the stomata, to let watei
uiffuse out of the plant. When the guaiu cells aie flacciu (usually at night oi aftei watei
leaves), it closes the stomata, pieventing moie watei fiom being lost.

Neasuiing the Rate of Tianspiiation

Potometeis aie useu to measuie the iate of tianspiiation. Theie aie many uiffeient
types of photometeis, ianging fiom weight photometeis to volume photometeis.

Eveiything must be placeu in a sink whilst setting up to pievent foimation of aii
bubbles. The shoot is cut at an angle to make it easiei to push into the iubbei tubing.
vaseline can be useu to seal joints. A capillaiy tube is useu to magnify the uptake.
Time taken foi the bubble to move along the scale is iecoiueu.

Pioblem: 0sually the watei uptake woulu exceeu watei lost because watei is useu
foi photosynthesis. In expeiiments like this, we assume that they'ie equal.

Factois That Affect Tianspiiation

Factoi Its Effect Bow It Can Be Kept
Constant
Light
Intensity
Incieases tianspiiation because
stomata open uuiing the uay anu not
at night.
Keeping the same
uistance fiom the lamp.
0sing the same bulb.
Tempeiatuie Bigh tempeiatuies inciease the iate
of tianspiiation, by incieasing the
iate of evapoiation of watei as
watei paiticles gain moie eneigy.
Conuucting
expeiiments in the
same place.
0sing a heat filteia
glass containei filleu
with watei.
Bumiuity If the aii is humiu, this ieuuces the
uiffusion giauient. The opposite
happens when the aii is uiy.
Conuucting
expeiiments in the
same aiea.
0sing a humiuifiei...
Winu Speeu Incieases iate of tianspiiation with
fastei aii movements acioss the
suiface of the leaf. It iemoves any
watei vapoui neai the stomata.
Conuucting
expeiiments in the
same aiea.
0sing a fanblow
uiyei.

Waste Piouucts of Netabolism... (2.67)

A ieminuei that oxygen is a waste piouuct of photosynthesis anu caibon
uioxiue is a waste piouuct of iespiiation. Both gases uiffuse out of the plant
thiough the stomata in the leaf.



Staich anu Plants - A
Nini Ciash Couise

Composeu of long chains of glucose, aka C6B1206.
It is a polysacchaiiue - a caibohyuiate maue of many sugai sub-
units. ulucose is a monosacchaiiue. Two monosacchaiiues give a
uisacchaiiue.
Staich is insoluble, takes up less space anu is a laige molecule.
You can ue-staich a plant by placing it in the uaik foi 2-S uays anu
hopefully not kill it.
You can't simply auu iouine solution to a fiesh leaf because the
waxy cuticle will pievent it fiom enteiing.

0nit 4: Ecology
# Population: All the oiganisms of a paiticulai species founu in an ecosystem at any one time.
0thei things to keep constant:
# SizeNass of Leaf
# No. of leaves
# Species of leaves
# Age of leaves
# Conuition of leaves (staiting
amount of staich.etc)
Testing Leaves foi Staich

i. Boil a beakei of watei on a tiipou anu gauze with a Bunsen buinei.
ii. Kill the leaf by placing it in boiling watei foi Su seconus (to stop chemical ieactions in leaf).
iii. Tuin off Bunsen buinei anu place leaf in a boiling tube containing ethanol.
iv. Place tube back into beakei. This iemoves the chloiophyll.
v. When the leaf has tuineu colouiless, wash with colu watei to soften it anu spieau out on a tile coveieu with a few
uiops of iouine solution.
vi. The paits that contain staich shoulu tuin blue-black.
# Community: Populations of all species founu in a paiticulai ecosystem at any one time.
# Ecosystem: A uistinct, self-suppoiting system of oiganisms inteiacting with each othei anu with the physical
enviionment.

Quauiats

Quauiats aie squaies that count species a small pait of a habitat anu use it to estimate the
population size of the species in the habitat, as it woulu be annoying to count them all. The
smallei pait of the population in the quauiat, which will then iepiesent its population in that
habitat, is calleu a sample. Quauiats aie scatteieu ianuomly aiounu the habitat to avoiu bias
(favoui).

Feeuing Relationships

Foou chains show the feeuing ielationships within an
ecosystem. Aiiows show the flow of eneigy as well as
who eats what. 1u% of total eneigy is passeu uown
each foou chain. The othei 9u% is useu foi waste,
iespiiation, kinetic, chemical (poo), anu heat eneigy.

In a foou chain, theie aie stages, calleu tiophic levels.

# Piouuceis can conveit inoiganic elements into
complex molecules (i.e. photosynthesize) anu uses
cellulai iespiiation to ielease eneigy. They piouuce the foou with the eneigy fiom the Sun. Consumeis cannot make
theii own eneigy.
# Piimaiy consumeis aie heibivoies. They eat the piouucei.
# Seconuaiy consumeis eat the piimaiy consumei anu aie also cainivoies oi heibivoies, pieuatois oi scavengeis.
# Teitiaiy consumeis eat seconuaiy consumeis. These can be cainivoies, heibivoies oi omnivoies, pieuatois oi
scavengeis.
# Becomposeis can be in all thiee levels of consumeis. These aie bacteiia, fungi oi uetiivoies (woims.etc).

Foou webs show how foou chains ielate to each othei anu aie basically a combination of many foou chains. In othei
woius, foou webs show the feeuing ielationships anu eneigy flow
between foou chains.

Eneigy pyiamius show the tiansfei of eneigy in an ecosystem. The
amount of eneigy available uecieases uown the foou chain, ieuucing
by 9u%. Lots of piouuceis aie neeueu to suppoit a small numbei of
piimaiy consumeis anu so on.


Pyiamius of numbeis iepiesent the numbeis of oiganisms in each
tiophic level in the foou chain. Pyiamius of biomass show the total
mass of the oiganisms in each tiophic level.


Note: Sometimes you may be askeu to fill in a Sankey uiagiam. }ust iemembei that eneigy can nevei be cieateu oi
uestioyeu, so make suie the usefulwaste eneigy is equal to the total eneigy input.

Caibon Cycle

Caibohyuiates, lipius, pioteins, you name it, contains caibon. It is extiemely impoitant, even though caibon monoxiue can
kill us all.

Theie aie foui main steps:

# Photosynthesis fixes caibon atoms
fiom caibon uioxiue into oiganic
compounus.
# Respiiation ieleases eneigy fiom foou,
ieleasing caibon as caibon uioxiue into
the aii.
# Becomposition of ueau oiganisms
ieleases caibon uioxiue into the aii.
# CombustionBuining of fossil fuels
ieleases caibon uioxiue into the aii.








Watei Cycle

This cycle is uiiven by heat fiom the sun anu
theie aie foui main stages:

# Evapoiation fiom the oceans tuins
watei into watei vapoui.
# Tianspiiation fiom plants also iise into
the atmospheie as watei vapoui.
# When the watei moves ovei mountains anu high giounu as clouus, they cool anu conuense back into watei oi snow.
# This piecipitate, eithei watei oi ice (as in snow, hail.) falls back onto the Eaith wheie it is taken up by animals oi
plants, oi enteis iiveis anu flows to the seat to stait the cycle all ovei again.

Nitiogen Cycle

Nitiogen is neeueu in many biological compounus. It is piesent in pioteins, amino acius, most vitamins, BNA, RNA.etc.
The following piocesses aie impoitant in cycling nitiogen thiough ecosystems:

# Feeuing anu assimilation - passes
nitiogen atoms alieauy in oiganic
compounus along foou chains.
# Becomposition - piouuces ammonia
fiom the nitiogen in compounus like
pioteins, BNA anu vitamins.
# The ammonia is oxiuizeu fiist to nitiite,
then to nitiate by nitiifying bacteiia.
This oveiall piocess is calleu
nitiification.
# Absoiption - of nitiates by plant ioots
aie combineu with caibohyuiates fiom
photosynthesis to foim amino acius anu
then pioteins, as well as othei nitiogen
compounus.

Bacteiia

# Benitiifying bacteiia - uses nitiates as
eneigy souice anu conveits them into
nitiogen gas. Benitiification ieuuces the
amount of nitiate in the soil.
# Fiee-living nitiogen-fixing bacteiia - conveits nitiogen gas into ammonia in the soil. This is useu by the bacteiia
to make amino acius anu pioteins. When the bacteiia uie, theii pioteins uecompose, ieleasing ammonia back
into the soil.
# Nitiogen-fixing bacteiia in ioot nouules - also make ammonia but this is conveiteu by the plant into amino acius
anu othei oiganic nitiogen compounus. Beath anu uecomposition of the plant ietuins the nitiogen to the soil as
ammonia.

Summaiy of Nitiogen Cycle:

1. Nitiogen gas in the atmospheie cannot be useu uiiectly by plants anu animals uue to its unieactivity.
2. Nitiogen-fixing bacteiia in ioot nouules conveit nitiogen gas to ammonia (N2 - NBS).
S. This is conveiteu to pioteins anu amino acius by plants (feeuing anu assimilation) 0R fiee-living nitiogen-fixing
bacteiia in soil conveit nitiogen gas to ammonia anu use it as pioteins foi themselves.
4. Both plants (oi animals that ate the plants) anu bacteiia uie anu theii pioteins anu amino acius become this
uetiitus (ueau mattei).
S. Becomposeis tuin these into ammonia.
6. Nitiifying bacteiia conveits NBS to N02 (nitiite) anu then N0S (nitiate). This is calleu nitiification.
7. Benitiifying bacteiia conveit N0S back to N2 gas in the soil 0R plants absoib nitiates anu use them foi pioteins.
















Buman
Influences on
the Enviionment

uieenhouse uases

The atmospheie is maue up of gieenhouse gases. These absoib infiaieu iauiation fiom the sun, keeping the Eaith waim.
Some of these gases incluue: watei vapoui, caibon uioxiue, nitious oxiue, methane anu chloiofluoiocaibons (CFCs).





The uieenhouse Effect

The gieenhouse effect is goou. Without it, the tempeiatuie of Eaith woulu be that of the Noon anu we'u all uie.

1. Shoit-wave iauiation fiom the sun stiikes the planet.
2. Some of it as absoibeu anu some is ie-emitteu as longei wave
iauiation.
S. uieenhouse gases absoib these anu ie-emit some of it back to
the eaith.
4. Eaith stays waim anu we stay alive.

Bow We Contiibute to uieenhouse Effect - Which is bau

vehicles - taxis, piivate cais etc. ieleases caibon uioxiue as it
buins petiol to piouuce the eneigy neeueu foi the engine to
woik.
Befoiestation - less tiees means less caibon uioxiue is
absoibeu anu less oxygen ieleaseu, leaving lots of caibon
uioxiue available in the aii.
Buining fossil fuelstiees - fossil fuels anu tiees contain hyuiocaibons. When these aie buint, caibon uioxiue is
foimeu anu ieleaseu into the aii.
AgiicultuieFaiming - cattle ciap anu fait ieleases lots of methane into the aii. Since faimeis aie bieeuing moie
anu moie cattle to feeu the woilu, this is becoming a pioblem.

Enhanceu uieenhouse Effect - ulobal Waiming

With moie anu moie caibon uioxiue anu gieenhouse gases being
ieleaseu to the aii, the atmospheie is getting thickei anu thickei.
This means moie anu moie heat is being tiappeu in Eaith, heating it
up moie anu moie. This leaus to global waiming - an enhanceu
gieenhouse effect.

Some consequences incluue:

Polai ice caps woulu melt, iising sea level.
A change in majoi ocean cuiients woulu iesult in waim
watei being ieuiiecteu into pieviously coolei aieas.
A change in global iainfall patteins coulu iesult. With all
the extia watei in the seas, theie woulu be moie
evapoiation fiom the suiface anu so moie iainfall in most
aieas.
It coulu change the natuie of many ecosystems. If species coulu not migiate quickly enough to a new,
appiopiiate habitat, oi auapt quickly enough to the changeu conuitions in theii cuiient habitat, they coulu
become extinct.
Changes in agiicultuial piactices woulu be necessaiy as some pests become moie abunuant. Bighei
tempeiatuies might allow some pests to complete theii life cycles moie quickly.






0nit S: Repiouuction anu Inheiitance

Sexual anu Asexual Repiouuction

Type About Auvantages Bisauvantages
Sexual Specialiseu male anu female sex cells calleu
gametes aie piouuceu. The male gamete is
then tiansfeiieu to the female gamete (i.e.
sexual inteicouise in humans. Feitilisation
then occuis anu piouuces a zygote.
Piouuces offspiing that
show genetic vaiiation, so
stiongei oiganisms can be
piouuceu to ensuie the
suivival of the species.
0ses moie eneigy as one
neeus to finu a mate who is
inteiesteu.
Asexual All the offspiing piouuceu aie genetically
iuentical because all the cells of the offspiing
aie piouuceu by mitosis fiom just one cell in
the bouy of the auult. These means that the
new cells piouuceu aie exact copies of the
oiiginal cell, anu theiefoie, the same genes as
the cells of the auult. An example woulu be the
!"#$%.
Boes not neeu to finu a
mate anu is useful if an
oiganism is well auapteu to
a stable enviionment.
Significant changes in the
enviionment will affect all
the inuiviuuals.

Note: Feitilisation involves the fusion of a male anu female gamete to piouuce a zygote that unueigoes cell uivision anu
uevelops into an embiyo.

Sexual Repiouuction in Plants

The male gametes aie tiansfeiieu to the female gametes by
pollination. In othei woius, the pollen giains aie
tiansfeiieu fiom the antheis to the stigma. This can be
caiiieu out eithei by winu oi insects. Feitilisation then
takes place anu the zygote that's foimeu uevelops into a
seeu anu becomes encloseu in a fiuit.
Nale uamete Pollen giains Piouuceu in the
antheis of the
stamens.
Female uamete 0va Piouuceu in ovules
in the ovaiies.

Self-pollination is when pollen giains aie tiansfeiieu to the stigma within the same flowei. Cioss-pollination is when
pollen giains aie tiansfeiieu to the stigma of a uiffeient flowei.

Insect-Pollinateu Plant

# Positions of the stamen anu stigma aie encloseu within flowei so
the insect must make contact.
# Stigma is sticky so pollen giains attach fiom insects.
# Petals aie laige anu biightly colouieu to attiact insects.
# Nectaiies aie piesent, containing nectai which seives as a
'iewaiu' foi insects.
# Pollen giains aie laige anu sticky, so they can stick to insects'
bouies.


Winu-Pollinateu Plant

# Stamens aie exposeu so the winu can easily blow the
pollen away.
# Stigmas aie exposeu anu featheiy to catch pollen
blowing in the winu.
# Petals aie small anu not biightly colouieu - usually
gieen.
# No nectaiies.
# Pollen giains aie smallei, smooth inflateu giains to caiiy
in the winu (...).

Feitilisation

1. To tiansfei the nucleus of the pollen giain to the ovum,
the pollen giain giows a tube which uigests its way
thiough the tissue of the style anu into the ovaiy.
2. It then giows aiounu, anu to the opening of the ovule.
S. The tip of the tube uissolves anu allows the pollen giain nucleus to move
out of the tube anu into the ovule.
4. It then feitilises the ovum nucleus.

Seeu anu Fiuit Foimation

1. The zygote uevelops into an embiyonic plant with a small ioot (iauicle)
anu a shoot (plumule).
2. The othei contents of the ovule uevelop into cotyleuons which will be a foou stoie foi the young plant when the seeu
geiminates.
S. The ovule wall becomes a seeu coat oi testa.
4. The ovaiy wall becomes the fiuit coat.

Bispeisal of Fiuits anu Seeus

Plants uispeise theii seeus to avoiu competition foi the available iesouices.

Type of Bispeisal Stiuctuie of Seeu Example(s)
Winu veiy small anu light - oi theii fiuits have 'wings' oi a
'paiachute' to catch the winu.
Banuelions, maple seeus
Watei Seeus can float foi many hunuieus of miles. Coconuts
Animals Seeus have haiis oi hooks that catch in the animal's
fui. They may also be eaten, unuigesteu anu excieteu
somewheie else.
Stiawbeiiies, clovei fiuit
Explosion Capsules of the seeu 'exploues' anu shoots the seeu Beans
fuithei away fiom the mothei plant.






ueimination

A seeu contains a plant embiyo, consisting of a iauicle, plumule (shoot) anu one oi
two seeu leaves calleu cotyleuons. Bicotyleuonous plants oi uicots have two
cotyleuons - examples being peas oi beans. Nonocotyleuonous plants oi monocots
have one, examples being oichius anu iiises.

Anyways the iauicle giows uown into the soil anu the plumule giows up towaius the
light wheie it can stait to photosynthesise. 0nce the seeuling is able to
photosynthesise, geimination is ovei.


The conuitions neeueu foi geimination aie:

# Waim tempeiatuies - foi enzymes to woik efficiently
# Watei - foi chemical ieactions to take place
# 0xygen - foi iespiiation

The foou stoie gets useu up uuiing geimination, but pioviues the nutiients neeueu to allow the iauicle anu plumule to
giow. The foou stoie in uicots is piesent in the cotyleuons. Nonocots have a sepaiate foou stoie. Bispeiseu seeus contain
only about 1u% watei. This low watei content iestiicts a seeu's metabolism, so that it can iemain alive but uoimant foi a
long time.

Asexual Repiouuction in Plants

Asexual iepiouuction in plants usually involves some pait of the plant giowing, then bieaking away fiom the paient
befoie giowing into a new plant. Eithei:

a) The paient plant giows a iunnei. When the iunnei touches the giounu, a new plant is piouuceu.
b) Tubeis foim at the enus of the bianches fiom the main stem.
c) Some plants foim bulbs, bases of leaves which have become swollen in foou. Buus in them can foim into new
plants.


Aitificial methous of iepiouucing plants
asexually incluue cutting a piece of a plant's
stem, with a few leaves attacheu. This is
planteu in a uamp compost, wheie it will giow
ioots anu uevelop into a new plant.


Sexual Repiouuction in Bumans

Nales have a penis, in which they use to pass
uiine out, anu to ueposit speim in females. Speim
anu male sex hoimones aie piouuceu in the testis.
Buiing sexual inteicouise, when the male
expeiiences an oigasm, the speim passes along
the speim uuct anu aie mixeu with a fluiu maue
fiom the seminal vesicles (labeleu 'glanus'). This
mixtuie, calleu semen, is ejaculateu into the
vagina of the female, in which the speim can then
begin to swim towaius the Fallopian tubes.
0ne ovum is ieleaseu fiom the ovaiies into the
Fallopian tube each month. If the ovum is piesent in
the Fallopian tubes, it may be feitilizeu by the speim.
The zygote foimeu will begin to uevelop into an
embiyo anu implant itself into the lining of the
uteius. Beie, it will uevelop a placenta, which will
allow the embiyo to obtain oxygen anu othei
nutiients fiom the mothei's bloou, as well as get iiu
of waste piouucts such as uiea anu caibon uioxiue.
The placenta also seciets piogesteione to maintain
piegnancy anu pievent the embiyo fiom aboiting.

Buiing piegnancy, a membiane calleu the amnion encloses the embiyo, anu seciets
amniotic fluiu, which piotects the ueveloping embiyo against jolts. When it becomes
iecognizably human, the embiyo is calleu a fetus. Aftei nine months, the fetus senus
a hoimonal signal to the mothei to initiate biith. This is calleu 'going into laboui'.

The stages of laboui:

1. Bilation of the ceivix - ceivix gets wiuei to allow the baby to pass thiough.
The muscles of the uteius contiacts anu iuptuies the amnion, allowing the
amniotic fluiu to escape.
2. Beliveiy of the baby - stiong contiactions of the muscles of the uteius push
the baby heau fiist thiough the ceivix anu vagina, anu out of the mothei.
S. Beliveiy of the afteibiith - the placenta, along with the membianes that
suiiounueu the baby, gets pusheu out.

Pubeity

When chiluien become teens, they expeiience changes that leau to sexual matuiity. These aie contiolleu by hoimones.
Buiing this peiiou, gametes aie piouuceu anu the bouies of both sexes aie changeu to allow iepiouuction to occui. These
events aie tiiggeieu by the follicle stimulating hoimone (FSB) anu the luteinising hoimone (LB), both piouuceu fiom the
pituitaiy glanu.


Nale Female
FSB stimulates speim piouuction, while LB instiucts testes
to seciete testosteione
FSB anu LB contiol the ielease of oestiogen fiom the
ovaiies
Testosteione contiols the uevelopment of the male
seconuaiy sexual chaiacteiistics
0estiogen contiols the uevelopment of the female
seconuaiy sexual chaiacteiistics
uiowth of penis anu testes, giowth of pubic haii, muscle
uevelopment, bieaking of the voice, inciease in bouy
mass.etc.
Bieast uevelopment, giowth of pubic haii, beginning of
menstiuation, uevelopment of iounueu shape at hips,
inciease in bouy mass.etc.

Nenstiuation

A function of the menstiual cycle is to contiol the
uevelopment of the uteius lining so if the egg
(ovum) is feitiliseu; the lining will be ieauy to
ieceive it. If the egg isn't feitiliseu, the lining of
the uteius bieaks uown anu exits the woman's
bouy as a flow of menstiual bloou anu cells calleu
a peiiou.

The cycle is continuous, but uay 1 is usually
iefeiieu to as the fiist uay of menstiuation.


The steps of the menstiual cycle:

1. The pituitaiy glanu
ieleases FSB into the blooustieam, stimulating the giowth of an ovum in one of the ovaiies. The ovum
giows insiue a ball of cells calleu a follicle.
2. As it giows, the ovaiy begins to ielease oestiogen into the blooustieam. This causes a ueciease in FSB
so no moie ova will uevelop, anu thickens the lining of the uteius so it'll be ieauy foi a feitiliseu ovum.
S. Eventually, the incieasing amounts of oestiogen tiiggeis a ielease of LB. This causes ovulation - the
follicle buists open at the euge of the ovaiy anu the egg is ieleaseu. Neanwhile in the ovaiy, the follicle
begins to uevelop into a 'yellow bouy' (coipus luteum).
4. The coipus luteum makes piogesteione, which completes the uevelopment of the uteius lining anu
pievents the ielease of FSB anu LB, stopping ovulation.
S. If the egg is not feitiliseu, the coipus luteum bieaks uown anu stops making piogesteione. This causes
the uteius to bieak, anu menstiuation then occuis. If the egg is feitiliseu, then soonei oi latei, the
placenta takes ovei the secietion of piogesteione.

Inheiitance - BNA, uenes anu Chiomosomes

The nucleus of a cell contains chiomosomes. Chiomosomes contain BNA
(ueoxyiibonucleic aciu). A small section of BNA that ueteimines a paiticulai
featuie is calleu a gene. uenes ueteimine
featuies by instiucting cells to piouuce
paiticulai pioteins which then leau to
the uevelopment of the featuie.

A BNA molecule consists of two stanus
coileu to foim a uouble helix. 0ne
molecule is maue fiom two stianus of nucleotiues, making it a polynucleotiue. Each stianu of nucleotiue is helu by
phosphate gioups.
Each nucleotiue contains a nitiogenous base. The two bases aie helu by hyuiogen bonus. Theie aie foui bases - Auenine
anu Thymine; Cytosine anu uuanine. They aie complementaiy bases - they only
binu to each othei anu nevei with anothei base. This is known as the base-paiiing
iule.

BNA has two stianus - the sense stianu which coues foi the manufactuie of
pioteins in a cell; anu the anti-sense stianu. The pioteins manufactuieu can be intiacellulai
(enzymes that contiol piocesses within a cell), extiacellulai (enzymes fiom the cell have theii
effect outsiue the cell), stiuctuial pioteins (useu to make haii, muscles.) oi hoimones. Thiee
bases aie neeueu to coue foi one
amino aciu (foi example, ACA)
theiefoie, the BNA coue is a tiiplet coue. The pictuie on the
left shows
a single
nucleotiu
e.
uenes can
exist in
uiffeient
foims
calleu alleles.








Couominance

Couominance iefeis to a ielationship between two alleles of a gene. It occuis
when both of the contiibutions of both alleles aie visible anu uo not ovei powei
each othei in the phenotype - foi example, if a ieu plant is ciosseu with a white
plant, then the iesulting baby plants woulu be pink.
Repiesenting uenetic Infoimation

You can iepiesent genetic infoimation with a Punett squaie.
0i you can use a cioss uiagiam
thing to the iight, which is
basically the Punett squaie.

0i use a peuigiee chait

Foi pieuicting the piobability of an
outcome, finu how many of the
same genotypes you aie looking
foi anu uiviue that by the total
numbei of genotypes (4).

Bominant The uominant allele that is expiesseu, anu is iepiesenteu by an uppei case lettei.
Recessive The maskeu allele.
Bomozygous When someone has two uominant oi two iecessive alleles.
Beteiozygous When someone has one uominant anu one iecessive allele.
uenotype Lettei iepiesenting the gene that uesciibes the alleles each cell has foi a ceitain featuie,
e.g. TT.
Phenotype The featuie that is expiesseu fiom the genotype.
R R
W RW RW
W RW RW
B h
B BB Bh
h Bh hh
Beteimination of Sex of Baby
Neaily all human cells contain 46 chiomosomes aiiangeu in 2S paiis. Nales have
an XY paii anu females have an XX paii. Cells with 46 chiomosomes aie calleu
uiploiu cells, with 46 being the uiploiu numbei. Sex cells howevei, only have half
this numbei anu they'ie calleu haploiu cells.

Nitosis

Biploiu cells uiviue by mitosis anu piouuce two cells which contain iuentical
sets of chiomosomes. When a paient cell uiviues it piouuces uaughtei cells.
These aie genetically iuentically to the paient cell. The stages of mitosis aie as
follows:

1. Chiomosomes aie copieu as the BNA ieplicates anu moie histones
(pioteins the BNA coils aiounu) aie maue. Each chiomosome gets a sistei
chiomatiu which aie joineu togethei by a centiomeie.
2. Piophase - the nucleai membiane bieaks uown.
S. Netaphase - the spinule foims anu the chiomatius attach themselves to the
spinule fibies by theii centiomeies.
4. Anaphase - the spinule fibies shoiten anu pull the chiomatius of each
chiomosome to opposite enus of the cell (basically the chiomosome splits
into half).
S. Telophase - two nuclei foim at the poles of the cell, each with a copy of the chiomosome fiom the paient cell anu the
cell splits.

Neiosis

Neiosis piouuces foui cells, each with the haploiu numbei of chiomosomes, iesulting genetic vaiiation in the cells. The
stages of meiosis aie as follows:

1. Each chiomosome copies itself anu iesults in having a sistei chiomatiu.
2. The paient cell then splits, anu iesults in two uaughtei cells.
S. The iesulting uaughtei cells split once again anu one chiomatiu fiom each chiomosome enus up in each uaughtei
cell.

If askeu to pieuict the numbei of possible combinations of chiomosomes, use the foimula 2
n
wheie n = numbei of paiis of
chiomosomes.

X X
X XX XX
Y XY XY
*Note: The 'metaphase plate' aie spinule fibies; anu foiget about the names of the steps in meiosis.

Ranuom feitilization piouuces genetic vaiiation of offspiing. 0sing
a 'low' estimate of about 8.S million uiffeient types of human sex
cells means theie can be 8.S million types of speim anu ova. When
feitilization takes place, the numbei of possible combinations of
chiomosomes in the zygote is 8.S million x 8.S million = 72 tiillion.

Iuentical twins aie foimeu fiom the same zygote. The zygote then
uiviues by mitosis, anu the two genetically iuentical cells that aie
foimeu, sepaiate, anu behaves like an inuiviuual zygote. Non-
iuentical twins uevelop fiom uiffeient zygotes.
vaiiation within a species can be genetic, enviionmental, oi a
combination of both.

Natuial Selection - Suivival of the Fittest

Evolution - the giauual change in the iange of oiganisms on Eaith. New species continually aiise fiom species that
alieauy exist, anu othei species become extinct.

Natuial Selection - the mechanism by which new species aiise. It 'allows' uiffeient foims of a species to suivive in
uiffeient aieas. 0vei time these uiffeient foims become incieasingly uiffeient anu may eventually become uiffeient
species.

In any enviionment, theie will be offspiing that aie best suiteu to theii enviionment anu offspiing that a less suiteu. This
means that the weakei offspiing will uie oi iepiouuce in smallei numbeis anu the stiongei offspiing will pass on theii
'stiongei chaiacteiistics' to the next geneiation. The next geneiation will have moie of the stiongei type than the weakei
type anu this will again be iepeateu in the next geneiation. Any eviuence foi natuial selection must show that:

a) Theie is vaiiation within the species
b) Changing conuitions in the enviionment (a selection piessuie) which favouis one paiticulai foim of the species
(one with a selective auvantage)
c) Fiequency of the favouieu foim incieases anu the fiequency of the less auapteu foim uecieases
u) Changes aie not uue to any othei factoi

An Example - Antibiotic - Resistant Bacteiia

The use of antibiotics has incieaseu uiamatically anu can leau to the uevelopment of bacteiial iesistance to an antibiotic.
This means that these newei bacteiia have a selective auvantage anu can iepiouuce moie, meaning ueath of humans. This
happens because 'bacteiia geneiations' aie a lot shoitei than human geneiations, anu a mutation in a bacteiia can give it
iesistance to an antibiotic.

Featuie of Natuial Section Effect on Population of Non-iesistant Bacteiia
Selection piessuie Repeateu use of antibiotics
Natuial vaiiation in the species Some aie iesistant uue to mutations, otheis aie not
Type with selective auvantage Resistant type - they suivive the antibiotic tieatment
Type selecteu foi Resistant type
Type selecteu against Non-iesistant type - they uie off
Result of natuial selection ovei many geneiations Peicentage of iesistant types in the population incieases

The Couise of Evolution - oh ueai I uon't get this

1. Life began in watei uue to ieactions between chemicals in the eaily Eaith's atmospheie anu oceans.
2. The fiist life foims weie unicells (single cells).
S. They became moie complex as cells acquiieu moie oiganelles.
4. They unueiwent cell uivision but piobably faileu.
S. At long last, they succeeueu anu foimeu simple Nulticellulai oiganisms.
6. These became moie complex giving iise to plants, animals anu othei types of oiganisms.
7. They colonizeu the lanu anu the evolution of animals, plants anu fungi began.

Nutations

A mutation is a iaie, ianuom change in genetic mateiial that can be inheiiteu. Nany mutations aie haimful, but some can
be beneficial to the oiganism, such as becoming antibiotic-iesistant. If the mutation is haimful, the cell will uie anu the
mutation will be lost. If not, the cell may not uie. It may uiviue into moie cells containing the mutant gene.

When an oiganism uies, the mutation is lost. 0nly mutations in sex cells oi cells that uiviue to foim sex cells can be passeu
on.

The iate at which gene mutations occui can be incieaseu by mutagens incluuing:

# Exposuie to ionising iauiation (such as gamma iays, X-iays anu ultiaviolet iays)
# Chemicals in tobacco such as nitious oxiue anu chemicals foimeu fiom buint foou

When BNA is ieplicating, mistakes can be maue, iesulting a gene mutation that can altei the sequence of bases in a gene.
This leaus to genetic couing foi a wiong piotein (S bases make up a piotein). Some ways incluue:

Buplication - the nucleotiue is inseiteu twice (the 'T' is
uuplicateu anu pushes eveiything to the iight, alteiing each
of the tiiplet coue anu iesulting in uiffeient pioteins being
maue.

Beletion - the opposite of uuplication, in which a nucleotiue
is misseu out, pulling eveiything to the left ('T' gets ueleteu
anu the 'T' aftei ieplaces the ueleteu 'T', leauing to
eveiything being shifteu left).

0iiginal
A T T T C C u T T
Becomes
A T T T T C C u T
0iiginal
A T T T C C u T T
Becomes
A T T C C u T T A
0iiginal
A T T T C C u T T
Substitution - A uiffeient nucleotiue is useu. This may not
be uangeious as the new tiiplet coue may not coue foi a
uiffeient amino acius as most amino acius have moie than
one coue. If it uoes, then theie woulu be an alteiation in the functioning of the piotein.

Inveision - The sequence of bases in a tiiplet is ieveiseu.
0nly one tiiplet is affecteu so like substitution, it may oi
may not iesult in a uiffeient amino aciu oi alteieu piotein
stiuctuie.












0nit 6: uenes anu uenetic Nouification

A ieminuei that:

Biploiu cells unueigo mitosis, which piouuces two cells containing iuentical sets of chiomosomes.
Nitosis occuis uuiing giowth, iepaii, cloning anu asexual iepiouuction.
Neiosis piouuces foui genetically uiffeient haploiu cells.

Foi moie info, ieau 0nit S! Noving on.

Selective Bieeuing

Plants anu animals with uesiieu chaiacteiistics can be uevelopeu by selective bieeuing. Selective bieeuing has piouuceu
many familiai vegetables anu animals. The Biassica plant foi example, has been selectively bieu to foim cabbage,
cauliflowei, bioccoli anu othei things. Wolves have been selectively bieu to give us uogs such as the sheepuog.

Selective bieeuing can piouuce plants anu animals with chaiacteiistics such as.:

Plants Animals
uive highei yielus
Aie iesistant to ceitain uiseases
Aie iesistant to ceitain pest uamage
Aie haiuiei (they suivive haishei climates)
Bave a bettei balance of nutiients - e.g. plants that contain
moie of the types of amino acius neeueu by humans
Piouuce moie meat, milk oi eggs
Piouuce moie fui oi bettei quality fui
Piouuce moie offspiing
Show incieaseu iesistance to uiseases anu
paiasites

Cloning

Cloning uesciibes any pioceuuie that piouuces genetically iuentical offspiing.

Niciopiopagation (tissue cultuie)

1. The tips of the stems anu siue shoots aie iemoveu fiom the plant to be cloneu. These aie calleu explants.
2. The explants aie tiimmeu to about u.S - 1mm anu placeu in an agai meuium containing nutiients anu plant
hoimones to encouiage giowth.
S. Noie explants can be taken fiom the new shoots that foim on the oiiginal ones. This step can be iepeateu
until theie is enough supply to satisfy uemanu.
Becomes
A T u T C C u T T
0iiginal
A T T T C C u T T
Becomes
A T T C C T u T T
4. The explants with shoots aie tiansfeiieu to anothei cultuie meuium containing a uiffeient balance of plant
hoimones to inuuce ioot foimation.
S. When they've giown ioots, they aie tiansfeiieu to gieenhouses anu tiansplanteu into compost. They aie
then giauually acclimatiseu to noimal giowing conuitions.
6. The atmospheie in the gieenhouse is kept veiy moist to ieuuce watei loss fiom young plants.

Note: These explants aie being giown in vitio using nutiient meuia. In vitio means maue to occui in a laboiatoiy vessel oi
othei contiolleu expeiimental enviionment iathei than in a natuial setting.


The auvantages of miciopiopagation incluue:

! Laige numbeis of genetically iuentical plants
can be piouuceu veiy iapiuly.
! Species that aie uifficult to giow fiom seeu
oi fiom cuttings can be piopagateu this way.
! Plants can be piouuceu at any time of the
yeai.
! Laige numbeis of plants can be stoieu
easily.
! uenetic mouifications can be intiouuceu into
thousanus of plants quickly, aftei mouifying
only a few plants.

Cloning Animals - Bolly the Sheep

1. An unfeitilizeu ova was taken fiom a uonoi to have its nucleus iemoveu, iesulting an enucleateu egg cell.
2. 0uuei cells (cells taken fiom the location of the milkmammaiy glanus) aie iemoveu fiom Bolly's
'biological' mothei anu cultuieu (the nucleus of an ovum is haploiu anu cannot uevelop into a new
inuiviuual. Bowevei, an oiuinaiy uiploiu cell is too specializeu. Tiansfeiiing a uiploiu nucleus into an
enucleateu egg cell; cieates a cell that is capable of ueveloping into a new inuiviuual. It is usually easiei to
tiansfei a small whole cell such as an uuuei cell, iathei than just the nucleus as the nucleus alone can be too
easily uamageu).
S. The uuuei cell containing the nucleus is tiansfeiieu into the enucleateu egg cell.
4. The cell uevelops into an embiyo.
S. The embiyo is tiansfeiieu into a fostei mothei, who gives biith to Bolly.
6. Bolly contains the genes of hei biological mothei (the fostei mothei's only theie to pioviue the womb).

Auvantages of using cloneu tiansgenic animals (tiansgenic means the tiansfei of genetic mateiial fiom one species to a
uiffeient species):

Sheep can piouuce seveial human pioteins to tieat conuitions such as emphysema anu cystic fibiosis.
Piouucing inuiviuual oigans foi tiansplantation (they may also neeu to be genetically mouifieu again so they
uon't get iejecteu by the human immune system) - piouuceu by pigs!
Piouucing commeicial quantities of human antibouies.
Nanufactuie of specific meuicinal piouucts
Piouuction of low cholesteiol milk
Incieasing piouuction oi yielu of anothei piouuct (such as milk)

uenetic Nouification

A gene is a section of BNA that coues foi the piouuction of a piotein The piotein piouuceu coulu be:

An enzyme that contiols a paiticulai ieaction insiue a cell oi outsiue
A hoimone
A stiuctuial piotein like keiatin in haii, collagen in skin oi one of the money pioteins founu in the membianes of
cells
A piotein with a specific function such as haemoglobin oi an antibouy

uenes can be moveu fiom between uiffeient
species by cutting a section (gene) out of the
BNA of one species anu inseiteu into the
BNA of anothei species. This new BNA is
calleu iecombinant BNA. The oiganism that
ieceives the new gene is a tiansgenic
oiganism. The oiganism now has an auueu
capability anu will manufactuie the piotein
its new gene coues foi. Foi example, a
bacteiium ieceiving the gene fiom a human
that coues foi insulin piouuction will make
human insulin.



Restiiction enzymes cut BNA molecules at
specific points, whilst ligase enzymes join
cut enus of BNA molecules. Some iestiiction
enzymes make cuts that piouuce 'blunt
enus'. 0theis make 'sticky enus', which aie
moie easily joineu by ligase enzymes.
































To tiansfei a gene fiom any cell into a bacteiium, biologists must inseit the gene into a
plasmiu (small ciiculai pieces of BNA founu in bacteiium). The plasmiu is calleu a vectoi
because it is the means of tiansfeiiing the gene. The bacteiium is then tiansfeiieu to a
feimentei.

Anothei vectoi that coulu be useu is a viius that attacks a bacteiium. It uoes this by attaching
to the cell wall of the bacteiium anu injecting its own BNA into the bacteiial cell. This BNA
becomes incoipoiateu into the BNA of the host cell, anu eventually causes the piouuction of
many viius paiticles.


Biffeient bacteiia have been genetically mouifieu to manufactuie a iange of piouucts. 0nce they've been mouifieu, they
aie cultuieu in feimenteis to piouuce laige amounts of the piouuct such as:

! Buman Insulin: Foi people suffeiing fiom uiabetes.
! Enzymes foi Washing Powueis: To uigest the stains (which aie usually maue fiom lipius, pioteins anu staich).
! Buman uiowth Boimone: Foi chiluien with
pituitaiy glanu pioblems.




uenetically Nouifieu Plants

1. This involves cutting a plasmiu fiom a
bacteiium such as Agiobacteiium anu
joining the uesiieu gene to the plasmiu using
ligase enzymes.

2. This plasmiu is then intiouuceu to some leaf uiscs fiom the plant to be mouifieu using a liquiu solution.

S. They aie then cultivateu on a nutiient meuium (miciopiopagation).

4. The plantlets will then giow into whole plants, containing the foieign gene.

Auvantages of Nouifying Plants:

Incieaseu iesistance to a iange of pests anu pathogens
Incieaseu heat anu uiought toleiance
Incieaseu salt toleiance
A bettei balance of nutiients
Incieases yielu anu foou piouuction to satisfy the giowing uemanu.

Bisauvantages of Nouifying Plants:

Tiansgenic piouucts may be haimful to some - new pioteins may cause alleigies.
The tiansgenes may spieau uncontiollably into othei species.
It may cause the emeigence of pest, insect, oi miciobial iesistance uue to natuial vaiiation.
A new gene may uisiupt noimal gene function anu cause cancei.
The gene may be taken up by non-taiget oiganisms anu giant them iesistance to things.

uenetically Nouifieu Animals

This is uone by using the iestiiction enzyme to cut out the iequiieu gene. This gene is then injecteu into the egg nucleus
anu the egg is put into a suiiogate mothei.

Bisauvantages of uenetic Nouification:

Ciops coulu altei foou chainswebs
Lack of contiol on gene tiansfei
uN ciops coulu take ovei ecosystems
Night caiiy pathogens oi cause haimful effects on
health


0nit 7: Feeuing the Woilu

Ciop Plants

uieenhouses anu polythene tunnels pioviue the iight conuitions foi plants to giow. The tianspaient mateiial allows
natuial light in foi photosynthesis; howevei, auuitional light can help especially uuiing the wintei. The gieenhouse effect
also happens in gieenhouses. Shoit wave iauiation enteiing the gieenhouse becomes longei wave iauiation. These cannot
leave the gieenhouse so easily, heating up the gieenhouse as a iesult. Some featuies contiolleu in the gieenhouse is
summaiiseu below:

Featuie Contiolleu Bow anu Why.
Soil pB Auuing lime to aciuic soils. An unsuitable soil pB can affect ciop giowth as it ieuuces the uptake
of mineial ions. It can also uenatuie enzymes in the plant.
Caibon Bioxiue Buining fuels piouuce caibon uioxiue anu heat. These inciease the iate of photosynthesis so
plants have moie foou anu theiefoie, fewei plants uie, incieasing yielu of ciops. Bowevei, when
heating, the faimei must heat to the optimum tempeiatuie foi photosynthesis. Any hottei anu
it'u be a waste of money as theie woulu be no fuithei inciease in yielu uue to the uenatuiing of
enzymes anu othei factois.
Tempeiatuie
Bumiuity Buining fuels also piouuces watei vapoui, which maintains a moist atmospheie anu ieuuces
watei loss by tianspiiation.
Light Foi photosynthesis - light can entei the glass oi tianspaient mateiial.

Theie aie two main types of feitiliseis:

! 0iganic feitiliseis - aie maue fiom animal faeces mixeu with stiaw.
! Inoiganic feitiliseis - caiefully foimulateu to yielu a specific amount of nitiate oi some othei ion.

0sing feitiliseis mean that extia mineial ions aie available in the soil to be taken up by plants anu useu to make pioteins
anu othei compounus foi giowth.

Also, when ciops aie solu, the nitiogen in the pioteins in plants goes with them anu is lost fiom the faim ecosystem. To
ieplace the lost nitiogen (so it won't affect the nitiogen cycle in the faim), feitilisei is auueu.

Bowevei, feitiliseis can also cause pioblems. The ions in them
aie veiy soluble, anu as a iesult, aie easily leacheu (caiiieu
out with watei) fiom the soils anu can entei lakes anu iiveis
fiom sewages. This incieases the level of nitiates anu othei
ion anu causes eutiophication.

! As nitiate levels iise, algae use them to make pioteins
anu iepiouuce iapiuly, foiming an algal bloom.
! This pievents light fiom penetiating fuithei in the watei.
Submeigeu plants cannot photosynthesise as a iesult,
anu uie.
! The algae also uie as they iun out of nitiates.
! Bacteiia uecay the ueau plants anu algae, ieleasing moie
nitiates anu allowing the cycle to iepeat. As they
iepiouuce moie anu moie uue to the laige amount of
ueau mattei, theii iespiiation uses up moie anu moie
oxygen. Because of the uepletion of oxygen, all life in the watei will uie.
Pest Contiol

Pests ieuuce the yielu of ciops oi stock animals anu can cause economic uamage to the faimei. Examples incluue
heibiciues, insecticiues, fungiciues.etc. Pesticiues can be useu to kill pests anu so, impiove the yielu fiom the ciop.

A pioblem with using pesticiues is iesistance. Thiough mutation anu natuial selection, the pest can uevelop a iesistance
to the pesticiue, ienueiing it useless. Pesticiues can also cause enviionmental uamage, as it may uamage the soil anu get
passeu along foou chains.

Anothei option foi the faimei is biological contiol. This uses anothei oiganism to ieuuce pest numbeis without
intiouucing a potentially toxic chemical to ciops. Biological contiols nevei eiauicate the pest, because if it kills off all the
pests, it will uie too uue to lack of foou.

Nethous of biological contiol incluue:

Intiouucing a natuial pieuatoi, heibivoie oi paiasite.
Intiouucing a pathogenic miciooiganism.
Intiouucing steiile males - these mate with females but no offspiing aie piouuceu.
0sing pheiomones - these animal sex hoimones attiact the males oi females, which aie then uestioyeu,
ieuucing the iepiouuctive potential of the population.

Fish Faiming

Fishing has uamageu the ecosystem. An alteinative to fishing is fish faiming. The auvantages of faiming fish is that fish
have a highei peicentage of euible meat, they contain essential pioteins such as omega oils, cieates jobs anu faimeis aie
iequiieu the feeu the fish less - which is economically beneficial to them. As well as that, fish aie ectoueimic (colu-
blooueu) - less eneigy goes into maintaining theii bouy tempeiatuie. Theie aie two types of fish faiming - extensive
(open watei) anu intensive (closeu).

Nethou Bow It is Contiolleu anu Why
Pioviuing a souice of piotein Feeuing specially foimulateu fish pellets
The Inuustiial Feimentei

A feimentei is any vessel that is useu to giow miciooiganisms useu foi feimentation. An inuustiial feimentei is shown
below (leain the labels!):

Conuitions foi the uiowth of Niciobes Why Neeueu.
Aseptic Piecautions (ways useu to
pievent contamination by unwanteu
miciooiganisms) - incluues filteiing the
aii anu steiilizing the feimentei
If bacteiiafungi get in, they will compete with the oiganism in the cultuie foi
nutiients, ieuucing yielu.
Seconuly, the piouuct woulu be contaminateu with waste piouucts of foieign
oiganisms.
Nutiients To encouiage giowth anu iepiouuction of the oiganism.
0ptimum Tempeiatuie anu pB Foi maximum enzyme activity.
0xygenation anu Agitation If the oiganism iespiies aeiobically, anu it keeps them in suspension foi
Naintenance of watei quality Tempeiatuie anu oxygenation of watei can be monitoieu oi contiolleu as fish aie
kept in enclosuiestanks. 0xygen can be obtaineu by aeiating the watei.
Contiol of intiaspecific (same
species)inteispecific (uiffeient
species) pieuation
Pesticiues aie useu to kill paiasites anu the fish aie piotecteu against pieuatois
using netstanks etc. Bowevei, it might be toxic to othei species of fish.
Inteispecific pieuation can also be pieventeu by allocating one species pei tank.
Intiaspecific pieuation can be pieventeu by sepaiating the uiffeient sizes of fish oi
by ieuucing oveiciowuing. A suspenueu net (ovei the top) piotects the fish fiom
aeiial pieuatois.
Contiol of uisease Close confinement makes fish moie likely to suffei fiom uisease as the spieau of
the pathogen happens easiei. Antibiotics aie useu. This is a concein because the
antibiotics may not have been uegiaueu by the time the fish aie eaten. Also, theie
is a chance that the pathogen might mutate anu a new antibiotic will be neeueu.
Removal of waste piouucts Filteiing the watei anu cleaning the tank. Laige builuups of waste can cause
eutiophication.
Quality anu fiequency of feeuing Less feeuing = less total mass of flesh piouuceu
The use of selective bieeuing To bieeu fish which giow fastei anu have moie nutiients.
gieatei exposuie to nutiients.

The Piouuction of Beei

These involve the anaeiobic iespiiation of yeast, which bieaks sugai uown into ethanol anu caibon uioxiue:

ulucose " Ethanol + Caibon Bioxiue

The ethanol is useu in the alcohol foi alcoholic uiinks such as wine, beei anu vouka.

1. Bailey seeus (which contain staich) aie geiminateu by soaking
them in watei anu laying them out on a flat suiface in a
malthouse. It piouuces the enzyme amylase whilst geiminating.
2. Seeus aie killeu by heating, without uestioying the amylase. This
piouuces a uiieu piouuct calleu malt.
S. The malt is giounu up anu mixeu with hot watei into a mash tun.
The amylase bieaks uown the staich into maltose, piouucing a
sweet liquiu. This liquiu is boileu to stop the enzymes anu is
filteieu.
4. Bops aie auueu foi taste anu yeast is auueu to feiment sugais.
S. The beei is centiifugeu (iotateu), filteieu anu sometimes
pasteuiiseu.
6. Beei is then put into casks oi baiiels.

Investigating Caibon Bioxiue Piouuction in Yeast

1. A small amount of watei is gently boileu to uiive off any aii that is uissolveu in the watei.
2. Sugai anu yeast is auueu to watei anu stiiieu.
S. A thin layei of paiaffin is auueu to the suiface of the mixtuie to stop oxygen uiffusing in fiom the aii.
4. The contiol appaiatus is set up, except using killeu yeast.

This expeiiment can be useu to test caibon uioxiue piouuction of yeast in othei conuitions such as uiffeient tempeiatuies
anu concentiations.


The Piouuction of Yoghuit

The bacteiium useu is calleu Lactobacillus. It piouuces lactic aciu when iespiiing
anaeiobically, which tuins the liquiu milk into yoghuit by coagulating the milk pioteins anu
gives it a slightly soui taste.




1. Nilk is pasteuiiseu at 8S-9S
u
C foi 1S-Su minutes, to
kill any natuial bacteiia that it contains.
2. It is then homogeniseu, to uispeise the fat globules.
S. It is then cooleu to 4u-4S
u
C anu inoculateu with a
staitei cultuie of bacteiia. These bacteiia uigest the
milk pioteins anu feiment lactose into lactic aciu.
4. The mixtuie is incubateu foi seveial houis. The aciu
uiops the pB of the mixtuie, coagulating the milk
pioteins.
S. The yoghuit is stiiieu anu cooleu to S
u
C - it slows bacteiia giowth. Flavouiings, coloiants anu fiuit can be
auueu.

Buman Influences on the Enviionment

Pollution means ieleasing substances into the enviionment in amounts that can cause haimful effects anu which natuial
biological piocesses cannot easily iemove.

When caibon is buineu in a limiteu supply of oxygen, caibon monoxiue (C0) is foimeu. This happens when petiol is
buineu in vehicle engines. Exhaust gases contain significant amounts of caibon monoxiue. It is a uangeious pollutant that
is colouiless, ououiless anu tasteless. It binus
moie stiongly to haemoglobin than oxygen,
anu pievents it fiom caiiying oxygen aiounu
the bouy. Too much caibon monoxiue causes
ueath.

Sulphui uioxiue (S02) is ieleaseu in by many
factoiies that buin fossil fuels. It uissolves in
iainwatei to foim sulphuious oi sulphuiic
aciu. As a iesult, aciu iain is foimeu. This can
aciuify lakes anu iiveis, causing ueath of fish.
It can also uamage stone woiks anu tiees.

Biological Inuicatois of Sulphui
Bioxiue
Biological inuicatois aie oiganisms that can
be useu to ueteimine the concentiation of a
chemical in the enviionment. Lichens aie
useu to inuicate levels of sulphui uioxiue.
They aie able to photosynthesize. They have no waxy cuticle, meaning
they will ieauily absoib aciu iain. Aciu iain uestioys the chloiophyll in
the lichens, pieventing them fiom photosynthesizing, leauing to ueath

If theie is lots of pollution, the numbeis of lichens woulu be low.
They woulu also be whiteiyellowei.
Likewise, theie is not much sulphui uioxiue in the aii, the
numbeis of lichens woulu be high. They woulu be gieenei anu
bushiei.

Befoiestation

Befoiestation is the mass cutting uown of tiees. Its effects:

! Leaching
! Soil Eiosion - because the soil lacks a piotective canopy pioviueu by tiees, anu because it is not helu togethei by
tiee ioots.
! Bistuibance of the Watei Cycle - Tiees weie a souice of atmospheiic watei vapoui fiom tianspiiation.
Befoiestation means that fewei tiees can tianspiie (because the iest woulu be ueau anu choppeu uown) anu
may uisiupt the watei cycle. This can leau to changing iainfall patteins anu uiought.
! Bistuibance of the Balance in Atmospheiic 0xygen anu Caibon Bioxiue - Less caibon uioxiue is absoibeu by
tiees to piouuce oxygen because of uefoiestation.

Note: ulobal biouiveisity means numbei of species in the woilu

Bioaccumulation anu Biomagnification

Pesticiues can be stoieu in fatty tissue wheie the amount builus up ovei a peiiou of time. It is the inciease in
concentiation of a pollutant fiom the enviionment to the fiist oiganism in a foou chain. This is bioaccumulation.

This can be magnifieu as a pesticiue is passeu along a foou chain. This inciease in concentiation along a foou chain is
calleu biomagnification anu it happens because each oiganism in the chain eats many of the pieceuing oiganisms anu
accumulates the pesticiue. The effects of bioaccumulation aie theiefoie magnifieu at each stage in the foou chain.

This can be toxic to oiganisms anu kill them.