Modue 1: Ce and Moecuar Boogy

Ce Structure
Ob|ectves:
Descrbe and nterpret drawngs and eectron mcrographs of the
structure of membrane systems and organees of typca pant and
anma ces
Make drawngs of typca pant and anma ces as seen under the ght
mcroscope (dfferences between eectron and ght mcroscopes as
we as dfferences between resouton and magnfcaton to be
ncuded.)
Outne the functons of membrane systems and organees
Compare the structures of typca pant and anma ces
Descrbe the structure of a prokaryotc ce
Compare the structure of prokaryotc ces wth that of eukaryotc ces
Expan the concepts of tssue and organs usng as an exampe the
dcotyedonous root.
Make pan drawngs to show the dstrbuton of tssues wthn an organ
such as the dcot root.
Eectron Mcroscopy
What are Electron Microscopes?
Eectron Mcroscopes are scentfc nstruments that use a beam of
hghy energetc eectrons to examne ob|ects on a very fne scae. Ths
examnaton can yed the foowng nformaton:
Topography: the surface features of an ob|ect or "how t ooks", ts
texture
Morphoogy: the shape and sze of the partces makng up the ob|ect
Composton: the eements and compounds that the ob|ect s
composed of and the reatve amounts of them
Crystaographc Informaton: how the atoms are arranged n the ob|ect
Where did Electron Microscopes come From?
Eectron Mcroscopes were deveoped due to the mtatons of Lght
Mcroscopes whch are mted by the physcs of ght to 500x or 1000x
magnfcaton and a resouton of 0.2 mcrometers. In the eary 1930's
there was a scentfc desre to see the fne detas of the nteror
structures of organc ces (nuceus, mtochondra...etc.) and ths
requred 10,000x pus magnfcaton whch was |ust not possbe usng
ght mcroscopes.
The Transmsson Eectron Mcroscope (TEM) was the frst type of
Eectron Mcroscope to be deveoped and s patterned exacty on the
Lght Transmsson Mcroscope except that a focused beam of
eectrons s used nstead of ght to "see through" the specmen.
How do Electron Microscopes Work?
Eectron Mcroscopes (EMs) functon exacty as ther optca counterparts
(ght mcroscopes) except that they use a focused beam of eectrons
nstead of ght to "mage" the specmen and gan nformaton as to ts
structure and composton.
Lght Mcroscopy
The ght mcroscope, so caed because t empoys vsbe ght to detect
sma ob|ects, s probaby the most we-known and we-used research too n
boogy.
Fg 1: Lght mcroscope.
Magnfcaton and Resouton
Magnfcaton s how much bgger a sampe appears to be under the
mcroscope than t s n rea fe.
Overa magnfcaton = Ob|ectve ens x
Eyepece ens
Resouton s the abty to dstngush between two ponts on an mage .e.
the amount of deta
Resouton conssts of the capacty to show mnute detas of an ob|ect
dstncty, and s determned by the aperture of the beam of ght that enters
the ob|ectve (the eyepece n genera has tte effect on the resouton of the
mcroscope).
Cell Structure
M- Mtochondron
V-vacuoe
ER-Endopasmc retcuum
C- Choropast
Go-Gog body
CW-Ce wa
N- Nuceus
Fg 2: eectron mcrograph of a pant ce
A B C

Fg 3: A- Mtochondron, note the hghy foded nner membrane nto crstae.
Externa to the mtochondron are the rough endopasmc retcuum studded
wth rbosomes, the stes of proten synthess; B-choropast, G ndcates the
presence of granues, whch are the stes of starch storage. Non-
membranous regons ndcate the stes of the dark reactons of
photosynthess. Stacks of photosynthetc membranes are the stes of the
ght reactons of photosynthess and aso where chorophy resdes; C- Gog
body, ste of packagng and modfcaton of syntheszed protens from the
rbosomes.
Fg 4: Eectron mcrograph of anma ce
Membrane Systems
The membrane system of a ce performs many mportant functons. Ths
system contros the entrance and ext of substances nto and out of the ce,
and aso provdes for the manufacture and packagng of substances wthn
the ce. The membrane system of the ce conssts of the pasma membrane,
whch encoses the ce contents; the endopasmc retcuum, whch
manufactures pds and protens; the Gog body, whch packages
substances manufactured wthn the ce; and varous vesces, whch
perform dfferent functons.
The Pasma Membrane
The pasma membrane of the ce s often descrbed as "seectvey
permeabe;" that s, the pasma membrane s desgned so that ony certan
substances are aowed to pass through. The pasma membrane s composed
of two ayers of moecues caed phosphopds. Each phosphopd moecue
conssts of a phosphate "head" and two fatty acd chans tas.
The orentaton of these two sectons of the phosphopd moecue s cruca
to the functonng of the pasma membrane. The phosphate regon s
hydrophc (teray, "water-ovng") and attracts water. The fatty acd regon
s hydrophobc (teray, "water-hatng") and repes water. In the
phosphopd bayer of the pasma membrane, the phosphopd ayers are
arranged so that the two phosphate hydrophc regons face outward,
towards the watery extraceuar envronment, and nward, towards the
ceuar cytopasm, whch aso contans water. The two hydrophobc fatty acd
portons of the chans face each other, formng a water-tght shed. The
pasma membrane, then, s both water-proof and water-attractng. It
functons both as a boundary between the ce's contents and the externa
ceuar envronment, yet aso aows the transport of water-contanng and
other substances across ts boundares.
Endopasmc Retcuum
The endopasmc retcuum (meanng "wthn the cytopasm" and "net")
conssts of fattened sheets, sacs, and tubes of membrane that cover the
entre expanse of a eukaryotc ce's cytopasm. Ths nterna system of
membrane s contnuous wth the doube membrane that surrounds the ce's
nuceus. Therefore, the encoded nstructons that the nuceus sends out for
the synthess of protens fow drecty nto the endopasmc retcuum. Wthn
the ce, the endopasmc retcuum syntheszes pds and protens. The
protens that the endopasmc retcuum syntheszes, such as enzymes, are
exported from the ce to perform varous functons n the body. Protens that
are made n the ce for use by the ce-for nstance, as channes n the
pasma membrane-are made by the free rbosomes that are stuated wthn
the cytopasm.
Two types of endopasmc retcuum are found n the eukaryotc ce. Rough
endopasmc retcuum s studded wth rbosomes on ts outer face. These
rbosomes are the stes of proten synthess. Once a proten s syntheszed on
a rbosome, t s encosed wthn a vesce, a sma, membrane-bound
"bubbe." The vesce traves to another organee, the Gog body. Wthn the
Gog body, the protens wthn the vesce are further modfed before they
are exported from the ce. Ces that specaze n proten secreton contan
arge amounts of rough endopasmc retcuum. For nstance, beta ces of
the pancreas that produce the proten nsun, have abundant rough
endopasmc retcuum.
The other type of endopasmc retcuum s smooth endopasmc retcuum.
Smooth endopasmc retcuum does not have rbosomes and s the ste of
pd metabosm. Here, macromoecues contanng pds are broken down
nto ther consttuent parts. In addton, smooth endopasmc retcuum
functons n the synthess of pd-contanng macromoecues. Smooth
endopasmc retcuum s not as common n ces as rough endopasmc
retcuum. Large amounts of smooth endopasmc retcuum are found n ces
that specaze n pd metabosm. For nstance, ver ces remove acoho
and drugs from the boodstream. Lver ces have an mpressve network of
smooth endopasmc retcuum. Smary, ces of the ovares and testes,
whch produce the pd-contanng hormones estrogen and testosterone,
contan arge amounts of smooth endopasmc retcuum.
The Gog Body
The Gog body s one of the most unusuay shaped organees. The Gog
body conssts of stacked, membrane-bounded, fattened sacs. Surroundng
the Gog body are numerous, sma, membrane-bounded vesces. The Gog
body and ts vesces functon n the sortng, modfyng, and packagng of
macro-moecues,such as pds or protens, that are secreted by the ce or
used wthn the ce for varous functons.
The Gog body can be compared to the shppng and recevng department
of a arge company. Each Gog body wthn a ce has a cis face, whch s
anaogous to the recevng dvson of the department. Here, the Gog body
receves macromoecues syntheszed n the endopasmc retcuum encased
wthn vesces. The trans face of the Gog body s anaogous to the shppng
dvson of the department, and s the ste from whch modfed and
packaged macromoecues are transported to ther destnatons.
Wthn the Gog body, varous chemca groups are added to the
macromoecues so ensure that they reach ther proper destnaton. In ths
way, the Gog body attaches an "address" to each macromoecue t
receves. For exampe, ces caed gobet ces n the nng of the ntestne
secrete mucous. The proten component of mucous, caed mucn, s modfed
n the Gog body by the addton of carbohydrate groups. From the Gog
body, the modfed mucn s packaged wthn a vesce. The vesce
contanng ts mucous cargo fuses wth the pasma membrane of the gobet
ce, and s reeased nto the extraceuar envronment.
Vesces
Vesces are sma, membrane-bounded spheres that contan varous
macromoecues. Some vesces are used to transport macromoecues from
the endopasmc retcuum to the Gog body and from the Gog body to
varous destnatons. Speca knds of vesces perform other functons as
we.
Lysosomes are vesces that contan enzymes nvoved n ceuar dgeston.
Some protsts, for nstance, enguf other ces for food. In a process caed
phagocytoss, the protst surrounds a food partce and engufs t wthn a
vesce. Ths food contanng vesce s transported wthn the protst's
cytopasm unt t comes nto contact wth a ysosome. The food vesce and
ysosome merge, and the enzymes wthn the ysosome are reeased nto the
food vesce. The enzymes break the food down nto smaer parts for use by
the protst.
Lysosomes, however, are found n a knds of ces. In a ces, ysosomes
dgest od, worn-out organees. They aso pay a roe n ce death, known as
apoptoss. Ce death s a component of norma deveopmenta processes.
For nstance, a human fetus has web-ke hands and feet. As the fetus
deveops, the ces that compose these webs sowy sef-destruct, freeng the
fngers.
Peroxsomes contan hydrogen peroxde. Peroxsomes functon n the
oxdaton of many materas, ncudng fats. In oxdaton, oxygen s added to
a moecue. When oxygen s added to fats, hydrogen peroxde s formed. The
oxdaton of fats takes pace wthn the membranes of peroxsomes so that
the harmfu chemca does not eak out nto the ce's cytopasm.
The Nuceus
The nuceus s the contro center of the ce. Under a mcroscope, the nuceus
ooks ke a dark bob, wth a darker regon, caed the nuceous, centered
wthn t. The nuceous s the ste where the subunts of rbosomes(70s and
80s subunts) are manufactured. Surroundng the nuceus s a doube
membrane caed the nucear enveope. The nucear enveope s studded a
over wth tny openngs caed nucear pores.
The nuceus drects a ceuar actvtes by controng the synthess of
protens. The nuceus contans encoded nstructons for the synthess of
protens n a heca moecue caed deoxyrbonucec acd (DNA). The ce's
DNA s packaged wthn the nuceus n a structura form caed chromatn.
Chromatn conssts of DNA wound tghty around spherca protens caed
hstones. When the ce prepares to dvde, the DNA unwnds from the
hstones and assumes the shape of chromosomes, the X-shaped structures
vsbe wthn the nuceus pror to ce dvson. Chromatn packagng of DNA
aows the ces entre compement of DNA to ft nto the combned space of
the nuceus. If DNA was not packaged nto chromatn, t woud sp out over
a space about 100 tmes as arge as the ce tsef.
Chloroplasts
Pant choropasts are arge organees (5 to 10 m ong) that, ke
mtochondra, are bounded by a doube membrane caed the choropast
enveope. In addton to the nner and outer membranes of the enveope,
choropasts have a thrd nterna membrane system, caed the thyakod
membrane. The thyakod membrane forms a network of fattened dscs
caed thyakods, whch are frequenty arranged n stacks caed grana.
Because of ths three-membrane structure, the nterna organzaton of
choropasts s more compex than that of mtochondra. In partcuar, ther
three membranes dvde choropasts nto three dstnct nterna
compartments:
(1) The ntermembrane space between the two membranes of the
choropast enveope;
(2) The stroma, whch es nsde the enveope but outsde the thyakod
membrane; and
(3) The thyakod umen.
The ma|or dfference between choropasts and mtochondra, n terms of
both structure and functon, s the thyakod membrane. Ths membrane s of
centra mportance n choropasts.
The nner membrane of the choropast enveope (whch s not foded nto
crstae) does not functon n photosynthess.
Comparing plant and animal cells
Similarities
Pant ces Anmas ces
1. Nuceus present Nuceus present
2. Ce membrane present Ce membrane present
3. Mtochondra present Mtochondra present
4. Cytopasm Cytopasm
5.
6.
Differences
Pant ces Anma ces
1. Choropasts present No choropasts present
2. Ce wa present No ce wa present
3. Large ce vacuoes Smaer vacuoes
4.
5.
6.
Prokaryotes
The Basc Structure of a Prokaryote
Prokaryotes are the snge-ceed organsms, such as bactera, and are
roughy one mcrometer n dameter. Unke Eukaryotes, prokaryotes do not
have a nuceus that houses ts genetc matera. Rather, the genetc matera
of a prokaryote ce conssts of a arge DNA moecue compacted n an area
of cytopasm caed the nuceod regon. The nuceod regon s protected
and encased by the ce wa, or ce membrane, the outer ayerng of the ce
(smar to human's skn). Fnay, a fageum (fagetta - pura), a rudder-ke
devce, affords the prokaryote the uxury of mobty.
Fig 5: Prokaryotic Structure
P: are hoow, harke structures made of proten aow bactera to attach to
other ces. A specazed pus, the sex pus, aows the transfer from one
bactera ce to another. P (sng., pus) are aso caed fmbrae (sng.,
fmbra.
Fagea: The purpose of fagea (sng., fageum) s motty. Fagea are
ong appendages whch rotate by means of a "motor" ocated |ust under the
cytopasmc membrane. Bactera may have one, a few, or many fagea n
dfferent postons on the ce.
Ce Wa: Composed of peptdogycan (poysacchardes + proten), the ce
wa mantans the overa shape of a bactera ce. The three prmary shapes
n bactera are coccus (spherca), bacus (rod-shaped) and sprum (spra).
Mycopasma are bactera that have no ce wa and therefore have no
defnte shape.
Capsue: Ths ayer of poysaccharde (sometmes protens) protects the
bactera ce and s often assocated wth pathogenc bactera because t
serves as a barrer aganst phagocytoss by whte bood ces.
Incusons: Nutrent reserves for the bactera ce, present to afford
addtona, specased functons. These may take many dverse forms such
as carbohydrates, protens as we as other forms.
The ma|or smartes between the two types of ces (prokaryote and
eukaryote) are:
1. They both have DNA as ther genetc matera.
2. They are both membrane bound.
3. They both have rbosomes .
4. They have smar basc metabosm .
5. They both exst n dverse forms.
The ma|or and extremey sgnfcant dfference between prokaryotes and
eukaryotes s that eukaryotes have a nuceus and membrane-bound
organees , whe prokaryotes do not. The DNA of prokaryotes foats freey
around the ce; the DNA of eukaryotes s hed wthn ts nuceus. The
organees of eukaryotes aow them to exhbt much hgher eves of
ntraceuar dvson of abour than s possbe n prokaryotc ces.
Addtona obvous dfferences between prokaryotes and eukaryotes ncude:
Sze
Eukaryotc ces are, on average, ten tmes the sze of prokaryotc ces.
Genomc composton and ength
The DNA of eukaryotes s much more compex and therefore much
more extnsve than the DNA of prokaryotes.
Ce Wa
Prokaryotes have a ce wa composed of peptdogycan, a snge arge
poymer of amno acds and sugar. Many types of eukaryotc ces, such
as pant ces, aso have ce was, made of ceuose nstead of
peptdogycan.
The Endosymbiotic Development of Eukaryotic cells the
Endosymbiotic theory
The Endosymbotc Theory concerns the orgns of mtochondra and
choropasts, whch are organees of eukaryotc ces. Accordng to ths
theory, these organees orgnated as prokaryotc endosymbonts, whch
came to ve nsde eukaryotc ces. The theory postuates that the
mtochondra evoved from aerobc bactera, that s, prokaryotes whch use
oxygen, and that the choropast evoved from endosymbotc cyanobactera
(autotrophc prokaryotes). The evdence for ths theory s compeng as a
whoe, and t s now generay accepted. Evdence of ths s provded through
observatons that:
Both mtochondra and choropasts can arse ony from pre-exstng
mtochondra and choropasts. They cannot be formed n a ce that
acks them because nucear genes encode ony some of the protens of
whch they are made.
Both mtochondra and choropasts have ther own genome and t
resembes that of bactera not that of the nucear genome.
o Both genomes consst of a snge crcuar moecue of DNA.
o There are no hstones assocated wth the DNA.
Both mtochondra and choropasts have ther own proten-
syntheszng machnery, and t more cosey resembes that of bactera
than that found n the cytopasm of eukaryotes.
Tissues and !rgan Systems
Ces group together to form tssues. Tssues are essentay coectons of
ces havng specased functons.
Organs are the next eve of organsaton. An organ s a structure consstng
of at east two types of tssues functonng together for a common purpose.
Pants are made up of two organ systems: the shoot system and the root
system. For terrestra pants the shoot system s above ground and conssts
of a number of organs. These ncude stems, eaves, and fowers. On the
other hand, the root system s most often underground and conssts of
organs such as roots, underground stems (tubers), and rhzomes.
Each of these organs performs a dfferent functon. Stems are support
structures and medate the growth of the pant. Shoot tps contan actvey
dvdng regons caed merstems, whch produce auxn, a hormone that
reguates the growth and shape of the pant. Leaves are the prmary stes of
photosynthess, so they are the food producton centers of the pant. Fowers
are reproductve structures, where eggs and sperm (poen) are produced
and where ponaton and fertzaton occur. Roots, tubers, and rhzomes are
the man system for nutrent and water acquston and storage. A of these
organs are made up of ces that can be categorzed nto three ma|or tssue
types: derma, ground, and vascuar tssue.
Dermal Tissue
Derma tssue makes up the outer ayers of the pant and contans epderma
ces that secrete and are coated wth a waxy ayer. Ths waxy coatng, the
cutce, prevents excessve water oss from the pant. Whe the derma tssue
prmary serves a protectve roe, t aso has a varety of other specazed
functons dependng on the partcuar organ where t s ocated.
In eaves, derma tssue contans specazed ces caed guard ces that
make up structures caed stomata . Stomata factate the exchange of
gases n the eaf. Carbon doxde (CO
2
) dffuses nto the eaf through the
stomata for use n photosynthess, and oxygen (O
2
), the waste product of
photosynthess, dffuses out of the eaf through stomata. Stomata are aso
cruca for water transport through the xyem . Stomata openng resuts n
the evaporaton of water from the ar spaces of the eaf. Ths creates
negatve water pressure that pus on the coumn of water n the xyem. The
evaporaton of water from the stomata s the man drvng force for water
transport through the water. In roots, epderma ces have a specazed
structure that factates water and nutrent absorpton, the man functon of
the root. Some of the root epderma ces have ong membranous extensons
caed root hars that ncrease the absorptve surface area of the root. Root
epderms aso nteracts wth symbotc fung that form mycorrhzae , whch
ncrease nutrent absorpton.
"round Tissue
Many dfferent functons are performed by ground tssue ncudng
photosynthess, storage, and support. Ground tssue makes up the ma|orty
of the pant structure and s composed of three ce types: parenchyma,
coenchyma, and scerenchyma ces.
Parenchyma ces are the east specazed ces n a pant. These ces are
responsbe for the producton and storage of nutrents. Photosynthess
occurs n the choropasts of parenchyma ces n eaves. Parenchyma ces n
stems, roots, and fruts have structures that store starch. Most deveopng
pant ces are structuray smar to parenchyma ces. Durng ther
dfferentaton, they become specazed n form and functon and ose the
potenta to dvde. Mature parenchyma ces do not usuay dvde, but they
retan the abty to dvde and dfferentate nto dfferent ce and tssue
types n the event of an n|ury to the pant.
Coenchyma and scerenchyma ces provde structura support for the pant.
Coenchyma ces have thck, yet pabe, ce was. These ces gve
structura support to newy formed portons of a pant wthout restrctng
growth. Coenchyma ces are stacked end on end and are orented n
strands |ust beneath the epderms of the young structure. The reatvey soft
ce wa aows the coenchyma ces to eongate as the structure grows.
Scerenchyma ces provde support to mature pant structures. Lke
coenchyma ces, they have very thck ce was. However, the ce was of
scerenchyma ces contan gnn , a moecue that makes the ce wa hard.
Ths provdes strength to the ce wa, but restrcts the abty of the ces to
eongate and grow. Snce a scerenchyma ce functons soey to provde
structura support, many scerenchyma ces are actuay dead at functona
maturty. The ce membrane, protopasm (cytopasm) and organees are
gone, eavng ony the rgd ce wa that serves as a scaffodng system for
that structure.
#ascular Tissue
Vascuar tssues make up the organs that transport water, mneras , and
food throughout the pant. Vascuar tssue can be dvded nto two functona
unts. Xyem transports water and mneras from root to shoot. phoem
transports nutrents (such as sugar and amno acds ) from eaves and other
producton stes to roots, fowers, stems, and other tssues that need them.
The ces that make up vascuar tssue are unque n ther structure. Ther
specazed characterstcs aow them to transport matera through the pant
effcenty whe provdng structura support to the pant.
Xyem tssue contans two types of ces: tracheds and vesse eements. Lke
scerenchyma, both of these ce types are dead at functona maturty and
therefore ack protopasm. Tracheds are ong, thn ces that have tapered
ends. They overap on another, and water passes from trached to trached
va sma pores. Vesse eements are shorter and are stacked end to end,
formng more of a tube structure. Water fows n the tube by passng through
perforated end was between ces.
Phoem tssue s made up of two dfferent types of ces: seve tube members
and companon ces. Seve tube members are the man conductng ces,
and are named for the seveke areas aong ther ce was through whch
the phoem sap moves from ce to ce. Unke ces of the xyem, seve tube
members are ave at functona maturty, but do not have nuce. For ths
reason, companon ces are cosey assocated wth seve tube members.
These ces do have nuce and serve to support the seve tube members.
The cytopasm of seve tube members and companon ces s connected
through numerous pores caed pasmodesmata. These pores aow the
companon ces to reguate the content and actvty of the seve tube
member's cytopasm. Moreover, the companon ces hep to oad the seve
tube members wth sugar and the other metaboc products that they
transport throughout the pant.
Fg 6:Cross Secton through dcotyedonous root
Fg 7: TS through dcot root.