CHEMISTRY

ASSIGNMENT






MADE BY: ARPIT AGGARWAL
ROLL NO.: DTU/2K13/B02/1205

ELECTROPLATING


Electroplating is a process that uses electrical current to reduce dissolved metal cations so that
they form a coherent metal coating on anelectrode. The term is also used for
electrical oxidation of anions onto a solid substrate, as in the formation silver chloride on silver
wire to make silver/silver-chloride electrodes. Electroplating is primarily used to change the
surface properties of an object (e.g. abrasion and wear resistance, corrosion protection, lubricity,
aesthetic qualities, etc.), but may also be used to build up thickness on undersized parts or to
form objects by electroforming.
The process used in electroplating is called electrodeposition. It is analogous to a galvanic
cell acting in reverse. The part to be plated is the cathode of the circuit. In one technique,
the anode is made of the metal to be plated on the part. Both components are immersed in
asolution called an electrolyte containing one or more dissolved metal salts as well as
other ions that permit the flow of electricity. A power supply supplies a direct current to
the anode, oxidizing the metal atoms that comprise it and allowing them to dissolve in the
solution. At the cathode, the dissolved metal ions in the electrolyte solution are reduced at the
interface between the solution and the cathode, such that they "plate out" onto the cathode. The
rate at which the anode is dissolved is equal to the rate at which the cathode is plated, vis-a-vis
the current flowing through the circuit. In this manner, the ions in the electrolyte bath are
continuously replenished by the anode .
Other electroplating processes may use a non-consumable anode such as lead or carbon. In
these techniques, ions of the metal to be plated must be periodically replenished in the bath as
they are drawn out of the solution. The most common form of electroplating is used for creating
coins such as pennies, which are small zinc plates covered in a layer of copper.



Process


Electroplating of a metal (Me) with copper in a copper sulfate bath
The cations associate with the anions in the solution. These cations are reduced at the cathode
to deposit in the metallic, zero valence state. For example, in an acid solution, copper is oxidized
at the anode to Cu
2+
by losing two electrons. The Cu
2+
associates with the anion SO
4
2-
in the
solution to form copper sulfate. At the cathode, the Cu
2+
is reduced to metallic copper by gaining
two electrons. The result is the effective transfer of copper from the anode source to a plate
covering the cathode.
The plating is most commonly a single metallic element, not an alloy. However, some alloys can
be electrodeposited, notably brass andsolder.
Many plating baths include cyanides of other metals (e.g., potassium cyanide) in addition to
cyanides of the metal to be deposited. These free cyanides facilitate anode corrosion, help to
maintain a constant metal ion level and contribute to conductivity. Additionally, non-metal
chemicals such as carbonates and phosphates may be added to increase conductivity.
When plating is not desired on certain areas of the substrate, stop-offs are applied to prevent the
bath from coming in contact with the substrate. Typical stop-offs include tape, foil, lacquers,
and waxes.
Effects
Electroplating changes the chemical, physical, and mechanical properties of the workpiece. An
example of a chemical change is when nickel plating improves corrosion resistance. An example
of a physical change is a change in the outward appearance. An example of a mechanical
change is a change in tensile strength or surface hardness which is a required attribute in tooling
industry.

Uses
Electroplating is a useful process. It is widely used in various industries for coating metal objects
with a thin layer of a different metal. The layer of metal deposited has some desired property,
which the metal of the object lacks. For example chromium plating is done on many objects such
as car parts, bath taps, kitchen gas burners, wheel rims and many others for the fact that
chromium is very corrosion resistant, and thus prolongs the life of the parts. Electroplating has
wide usage in industries. It is also used in making unexpensive jewelry. Electroplating increases
life of metal and prevents corrosion.
















LI ION BATTERIES
A lithium-ion battery (sometimes Li-ion battery or LIB) is a member of a family of rechargeable
battery types in which lithium ions move from the negative electrode to the positive electrode
during discharge and back when charging. Li-ion batteries use
anintercalated lithium compound as the electrode material, compared to the metallic lithium used
in non-rechargeable lithium battery.
Lithium-ion batteries are common in consumer electronics. They are one of the most popular
types of rechargeable battery forportable electronics, with one of the best energy densities,
no memory effect (note, however, that a new study have shown signs of memory effect in the
lithium-ion batteries which use LiFePO4 as the positive electrode), and only a slow loss of
charge when not in use. Beyond consumer electronics, LIBs are also growing in popularity for
military, electric vehicle and aerospace applications. For example, Lithium-ion batteries are
becoming a common replacement for the lead acid batteries that have been used historically for
golf carts and utility vehicles. Instead of heavy lead plates and acid electrolyte, the trend is to use
a lightweight lithium/carbon negative electrodes and lithium iron phosphate positive electrodes.
Lithium-ion batteries can provide the same voltage as lead-acid batteries, so no modification to
the vehicle's drive system is required.
Chemistry, performance, cost and safety characteristics vary across LIB types. Handheld
electronics mostly use LIBs based on lithium cobalt oxide (LiCoO
2), which offers high energy density, but presents safety risks, especially when damaged. Lithium
iron phosphate(LFP), lithium manganese oxide (LMO) and lithium nickel manganese cobalt oxide
(NMC) offer lower energy density, but longer lives and inherent safety. Such batteries are widely
used for electric tools, medical equipment and other roles. NMC in particular is a leading
contender for automotive applications. Lithium nickel cobalt aluminum oxide (NCA) and lithium
titanate (LTO) are specialty designs aimed at particular niche roles.
Lithium-ion batteries can be dangerous under some conditions and can pose a safety hazard
since they contain, unlike other rechargeable batteries, a flammable electrolyte and are also kept
pressurized. Because of this the testing standards for these batteries are more stringent than
those for acid-electrolyte batteries, requiring both a broader range of test conditions and
additional battery-specific tests. This is in response to reported accidents and failures, and there
have been battery-related recalls by some companies.

Lithium-ion battery

Nokia Li-ion battery for powering a mobile phone
Specific energy 100265 Wh/kg
(0.360.95 MJ/kg)
Energy density
250730 Wh/L
(0.902.23 MJ/L)
Specific power ~250-~340 W/kg
Charge/discharge
efficiency
8090%
Energy/consumer-price 2.5 Wh/US$
Self-discharge rate 8% at 21 C
15% at 40 C
31% at 60 C
(per month)
Cycle durability
4001200 cycles

Nominal cell voltage NMC 3.6 / 3.7 V,LiFePO4
3.2 V



Electrochemistry
The participants in the electrochemical reactions in a lithium-ion battery are the negative and
positive electrodes with the electrolyte providing a conductive medium for Lithium-ions to move
between the electrodes.
Both electrodes allow lithium ions to move in and out of their interiors.
During insertion (or intercalation) ions move into the electrode. During the reverse
process, extraction (ordeintercalation), ions move back out. When a lithium-ion based cell
is discharging, the positive Lithium ion moves from the negative electrode (usually graphite) and
enters the positive electrode (lithium containing compound). When the cell is charging, the
reverse occurs.
Useful work is performed when electrons flow through a closed external circuit. The following
equations show one example of the chemistry, in units of moles, making it possible to use
coefficient .
The positive electrode half-reaction is:


The negative electrode half reaction is:


The overall reaction has its limits. Overdischarge supersaturates lithium cobalt oxide, leading to
the production of lithium oxide, possibly by the following irreversible reaction:

Overcharge up to 5.2 volts leads to the synthesis of cobalt(IV) oxide, as evidenced by x-ray
diffraction:

In a lithium-ion battery the lithium ions are transported to and from the positive or negative
electrodes by oxidizing the transition metal, cobalt (Co), in Li
1-xCoO
2 from Co3+
to Co4+
during charge, and reduced from Co4+
to Co3+
during discharge. The cobalt electrode reaction is only reversible for x < 0.5, limiting the depth of
discharge allowable. This chemistry was used in the Li-ion cells developed by Sony in 1990.
The cell's energy is equal to the voltage times the charge. Each gram of lithium
represents Faraday's constant/6.941 or 13,901 coulombs. At 3 V, this gives 41.7 kJ per gram of
lithium, or 11.6 kWh per kg. This is a bit more than the heat of combustion of gasoline, but does
not consider the other materials that go into a lithium battery and that make lithium batteries
many times heavier per unit of energy.
Electrolytes[edit]
The cell voltages given in the Electrochemistry section are larger than the potential at
which aqueous solutions will electrolyze. Given lithium metal's high reactivity to water,
nonaqueous or aprotic solutions are used.
Liquid electrolytes in lithium-ion batteries consist of lithium salts, such as LiPF
6, LiBF
4 or LiClO
4 in an organic solvent, such as ethylene carbonate, dimethyl carbonate, and diethyl carbonate. A
liquid electrolyte acts as a carrier between the positive and negative electrodes when current
flows through an external circuit. Typical conductivities of liquid electrolyte at room temperature
(20 C (68 F)) are in the range of 10 mS/cm (1 S/m), increasing by approximately 3040% at
40 C (104 F) and decreasing slightly at 0 C (32 F).
Organic solvents easily decompose on the negative electrodes during charge. When
appropriate organic solvents are used as the electrolyte, the solvent decomposes on initial
charging and forms a solid layer called the solid electrolyte interphase (SEI), which is electrically
insulating yet provides significant ionic conductivity. The interphase prevents further
decomposition of the electrolyte after the second charge. For example, ethylene carbonate is
decomposed at a relatively high voltage, 0.7 V vs. lithium, and forms a dense and stable
interface.
Composite electrolytes based on POE (poly(oxyethylene)) developed by Syzdek et al., provide a
relatively stable interface. It can be either solid (high molecular weight) and be applied in dry Li-
polymer cells, or liquid (low molecular weight) and be applied in regular Li-ion cells.
Room temperature ionic liquids (RTILs) are another approach to limiting the flammability and
volatility of organic electrolytes.
Charge and discharge
During discharge, lithium ions Li+
carry the current from the negative to the positive electrode, through the non-
aqueous electrolyte and separator diaphragm.
During charging, an external electrical power source (the charging circuit) applies an over-
voltage (a higher voltage but of the same polarity) than that produced by the battery, forcing the
current to pass in the reverse direction. The lithium ions then migrate from the positive to the
negative electrode, where they become embedded in the porous electrode material in a process
known as intercalation.
Uses
Li-ion batteries provide lightweight, high energy density power sources for a variety of devices.
To power larger devices, such as electric cars, connecting many small batteries in a parallel
circuit is more effective

and more efficient than connecting a single large battery. Such devices
include:
Portable devices: these include mobile phones and smartphones, laptops and tablets, digital
cameras and camcorders, electronic cigarettes, handheld game consoles andtorches
(flashlights).
Power tools: Li-ion batteries are used in tools such as cordless drills, sanders, saws and a
variety of garden equipment including whipper-snippers and hedge trimmers.
Electric vehicles: Because of their light weight Li-ion batteries are used for energy storage for
many electric vehicles for everything from electric cars to Pedelecs, from hybrid vehicles to
advanced electric wheelchairs, from radio-controlled models and model aircraft to
the Mars Curiosity rover.
Li-ion batteries are used in telecommunications applications. Secondary non-aqueous lithium
batteries provide reliable backup power to load equipment located in a network environment of a
typical telecommunications service provider. Li-ion batteries compliant with specific technical
criteria are recommended for deployment in the Outside Plant (OSP) at locations such as
Controlled Environmental Vaults (CEVs), Electronic Equipment Enclosures (EEEs), and huts,
and in uncontrolled structures such as cabinets. In such applications, li-ion battery users require
detailed, battery-specific hazardous material information, plus appropriate fire-fighting
procedures, to meet regulatory requirements and to protect employees and surrounding
equipment.





PRIMARY CELL

A primary cell is a battery that is designed to be used once and discarded, and not recharged
with electricity and reused like a secondary cell (rechargeable battery). In general,
the electrochemical reaction occurring in the cell is not reversible, rendering the cell
unrechargeable. As a primary cell is used, chemical reactions in the battery use up the chemicals
that generate the power; when they are gone, the battery stops producing electricity and is
useless. In contrast, in a secondary cell, the reaction can be reversed by running a current into
the cell with a battery charger to recharge it, regenerating the chemical reactants. Primary cells
are made in a range of standard sizes to power small household appliances.


Terminology
Anode and cathode
The plate that carries the positive terminal (usually carbon) is termed the anode and the plate
that carries the negative terminal (usually zinc) is termed the cathode. This is the reverse of the
terminology used in an electrolytic cell. The reason is that the terms are related to the passage of
electric current through the electrolyte, not the external circuit
Inside the cell the anode is the electrode where chemical oxidation occurs, as it donates
electrons to the circuit. The cathode is defined as the electrode where chemical reduction occurs,
as it accepts electrons from the circuit.
Outside the cell, different terminology is used. Since the anode accepts electrons from the
electrolyte, it becomes negatively charged and is therefore connected to the terminal marked ""
on the outside of the cell. The cathode, meanwhile, donates electrons to the electrolyte, so it
becomes positively charged and is therefore connected to the terminal marked "+" on the outside
of the cell.
Old textbooks sometimes contain different terminology that can cause confusion to modern
readers. For example, a 1911 textbook by Ayrton and Mather

describes the electrodes as the
"positive plate" and "negative plate" .

SECONDARY BATTERIES
A rechargeable battery, storage battery, or accumulator is a type of electrical battery. It
comprises one or more electrochemical cells, and is a type of energy accumulator used for
electrochemical energy storage. It is technically known as a secondary cell because
itselectrochemical reactions are electrically reversible. Rechargeable batteries come in many
different shapes and sizes, ranging from button cells to megawatt systems connected
to stabilize an electrical distribution network. Several different combinations of chemicals are
commonly used, including: leadacid, nickel cadmium (NiCd), nickel metal
hydride (NiMH), lithium ion (Li-ion), and lithium ion polymer (Li-ion polymer).
Rechargeable batteries have a lower total cost of use and environmental impact than disposable
batteries. Some rechargeable battery types are available in the same sizes as common
consumer disposable types. Rechargeable batteries have a higher initial cost but can be
recharged inexpensively and reused many times.







Charging and discharging


A solar-powered charger for rechargeable AA batteries
During charging, the positive active material is oxidized, producing electrons, and the negative
material is reduced, consuming electrons. These electrons constitute the current flow in the
external circuit. The electrolyte may serve as a simple buffer for internal ion flow between
the electrodes, as in lithium-ion and nickel-cadmium cells, or it may be an active participant in
the electrochemical reaction, as in leadacidcells.
The energy used to charge rechargeable batteries usually comes from a battery charger using
AC mains electricity, although some are equipped to use a vehicle's 12-volt DC power outlet.
Regardless, to store energy in a secondary cell, it has to be connected to a DC voltage source.
The negative terminal of the cell has to be connected to the negative terminal of the voltage
source and the positive terminal of the voltage source with the positive terminal of the battery.
Further, the voltage output of the source must be higher than that of the battery, but
not much higher: the greater the difference between the power source and the battery's voltage
capacity, the faster the charging process, but also the greater the risk of overcharging and
damaging the battery.
Chargers take from a few minutes to several hours to charge a battery. Slow "dumb" chargers
without voltage or temperature-sensing capabilities will charge at a low rate, typically taking 14
hours or more to reach a full charge. Rapid chargers can typically charge cells in two to five
hours, depending on the model, with the fastest taking as little as fifteen minutes. Fast chargers
must have multiple ways of detecting when a cell reaches full charge (change in terminal voltage,
temperature, etc.) to stop charging before harmful overcharging or overheating occurs. The
fastest chargers often incorporate cooling fans to keep the cells from overheating.

Diagram of the charging of a secondary cell battery.
Battery charging and discharging rates are often discussed by referencing a "C" rate of current.
The C rate is that which would theoretically fully charge or discharge the battery in one hour. For
example, trickle charging might be performed at C/20 (or a "20 hour" rate), while typical charging
and discharging may occur at C/2 (two hours for full capacity). The available capacity of
electrochemical cells varies depending on the discharge rate. Some energy is lost in the internal
resistance of cell components (plates, electrolyte, interconnections), and the rate of discharge is
limited by the speed at which chemicals in the cell can move about. For lead-acid cells, the
relationship between time and discharge rate is described by Peukert's law; a lead-acid cell that
can no longer sustain a usable terminal voltage at a high current may still have usable capacity, if
discharged at a much lower rate. Data sheets for rechargeable cells often list the discharge
capacity on 8-hour or 20-hour or other stated time; cells for uninterruptible power supply systems
may be rated at 15 minute discharge.
Battery manufacturers' technical notes often refer to VPC; this is volts per cell, and refers to the
individual secondary cells that make up the battery. (This is typically in reference to 12-volt lead-
acid batteries.) For example, to charge a 12 V battery (containing 6 cells of 2 V each) at 2.3 VPC
requires a voltage of 13.8 V across the battery's terminals.
Non-rechargeable alkaline and zinccarbon cells output 1.5V when new, but this voltage drops
with use. Most NiMH AA and AAA cells are rated at 1.2 V, but have a flatter discharge curve than
alkalines and can usually be used in equipment designed to use alkaline batteries.







FUEL CELL

A fuel cell is a device that converts the chemical energy from a fuel into electricity through a
chemical reaction with oxygen or another oxidizing agent. Hydrogen is the most common fuel,
but hydrocarbons such as natural gas and alcohols like methanol are sometimes used. Fuel cells
are different from batteries in that they require a continuous source of fuel and oxygen/air to
sustain the chemical reaction whereas in a battery the chemicals present in the battery react with
each other to generate an emf. Fuel cells can produce electricity continuously for as long as
these inputs are supplied.
The first fuel cells were invented in 1838. The first commercial use of fuel cells came more than a
century later in NASA space programs to generate power for probes, satellites and space
capsules. Since then, fuel cells have been used in many other applications. Fuel cells are used
for primary and backup power for commercial, industrial and residential buildings and in remote
or inaccessible areas. They are also used to power fuel-cell vehicles, including forklifts,
automobiles, buses, airplanes, boats, motorcycles and submarines.
There are many types of fuel cells, but they all consist of an anode, a cathode and
an electrolyte that allows charges to move between the two sides of the fuel cell. Electrons are
drawn from the anode to the cathode through an external circuit, producing direct
currentelectricity. As the main difference among fuel cell types is the electrolyte, fuel cells are
classified by the type of electrolyte they use followed by the difference in startup time ranging
from 1 sec for PEMFC to 10 min for SOFC. Fuel cells come in a variety of sizes. Individual fuel
cells produce relatively small electrical potentials, about 0.7 volts, so cells are "stacked", or
placed in series, to increase the voltage and meet an application's requirements. In addition to
electricity, fuel cells produce water, heat and, depending on the fuel source, very small amounts
of nitrogen dioxide and other emissions. The energy efficiency of a fuel cell is generally between
4060%, or up to 85% efficient in cogeneration if waste heat is captured for use.
The fuel cell market is growing, and Pike Research has estimated that the stationary fuel cell
market will reach 50 GW by 2020.

Types of fuel cells; design
Fuel cells come in many varieties; however, they all work in the same general manner. They are
made up of three adjacent segments: the anode, the electrolyte, and the cathode. Two chemical
reactions occur at the interfaces of the three different segments. The net result of the two
reactions is that fuel is consumed, water or carbon dioxide is created, and an electric current is
created, which can be used to power electrical devices, normally referred to as the load.
At the anode a catalyst oxidizes the fuel, usually hydrogen, turning the fuel into a positively
charged ion and a negatively charged electron. The electrolyte is a substance specifically
designed so ions can pass through it, but the electrons cannot. The freed electrons travel
through a wire creating the electric current. The ions travel through the electrolyte to the cathode.
Once reaching the cathode, the ions are reunited with the electrons and the two react with a third
chemical, usually oxygen, to create water or carbon dioxide.

The most important design features in a fuel cell are
The electrolyte substance. The electrolyte substance usually defines the type of fuel cell.
The fuel that is used. The most common fuel is hydrogen.
The anode catalyst breaks down the fuel into electrons and ions. The anode catalyst is
usually made up of very fine platinum powder.
The cathode catalyst turns the ions into the waste chemicals like water or carbon dioxide.
The cathode catalyst is often made up of nickel but it can also be a nanomaterial-based
catalyst.
A typical fuel cell produces a voltage from 0.6 V to 0.7 V at full rated load. Voltage decreases as
current increases, due to several factors:
Activation loss
Ohmic loss (voltage drop due to resistance of the cell components and interconnections)
Mass transport loss (depletion of reactants at catalyst sites under high loads, causing rapid
loss of voltage).
To deliver the desired amount of energy, the fuel cells can be combined in series and parallel
circuits to yield higher voltage, and parallel-channel of configurations allow a higher current to be
supplied. Such a design is called a fuel cell stack. The cell surface area can be increased, to
allow stronger current from each cell. In the stack, reactant gases must be distributed uniformly
over all of the cells to maximize the power output.













CELLULOSE AND ITS DERIVATIVES
Cellulose is an organic compound with the formula (C6H10O5)n, a polysaccharide consisting of a
linear chain of several hundred to over ten thousand (14) linked D-glucose units. Cellulose is
an important structural component of the primary cell wall of green plants, many forms
of algae and the oomycetes. Some species of bacteria secrete it to form biofilms. Cellulose is the
most abundant organic polymer on Earth. The cellulose content of cotton fiber is 90%, that
of wood is 4050% and that of dried hemp is approximately 45%.
Cellulose is mainly used to produce paperboard and paper. Smaller quantities are converted into
a wide variety of derivative products such as cellophane and rayon. Conversion of cellulose
from energy crops into biofuels such as cellulosic ethanol is under investigation as an alternative
fuel source. Cellulose for industrial use is mainly obtained from wood pulp and cotton.
Some animals, particularly ruminants and termites, can digest cellulose with the help
of symbiotic micro-organisms that live in their guts, such as Trichonympha. Humans can digest
cellulose to some extent, but it mainly acts as a hydrophilic bulking agent forfeces and is often
referred to as a "dietary fiber".














Cellulose


Identifiers
CAS number 9004-34-6


UNII SMD1X3XO9M


EC-number 232-674-9
ChEMBL CHEMBL1201676


Properties
Molecular formula (C6H10O5)n
Appearance white powder
Density 1.5 g/cm
3

Melting point decomposes
Solubility in water none




Structure and properties
Cellulose has no taste, is odorless, is hydrophilic with the contact angle of 2030, is insoluble
in water and most organic solvents, ischiral and is biodegradable. It can be broken down
chemically into its glucose units by treating it with concentrated acids at high temperature.
Cellulose is derived from D-glucose units, which condense through (14)-glycosidic bonds.
This linkage motif contrasts with that for (14)-glycosidic bonds present in starch, glycogen,
and other carbohydrates. Cellulose is a straight chain polymer: unlike starch, no coiling or
branching occurs, and the molecule adopts an extended and rather stiff rod-like conformation,
aided by the equatorial conformation of the glucose residues. The multiple hydroxyl groups on
the glucose from one chain form hydrogen bonds with oxygen atoms on the same or on a
neighbor chain, holding the chains firmly together side-by-side and forming microfibrils with
high tensile strength. This confers tensile strength in cell walls, where cellulose microfibrils are
meshed into a polysaccharide matrix.


A triple strand of cellulose showing the hydrogen bonds (cyan lines) between glucose strands
Compared to starch, cellulose is also much more crystalline. Whereas starch undergoes a
crystalline to amorphous transition when heated beyond 6070 C in water (as in cooking),
cellulose requires a temperature of 320 C and pressure of 25 MPa to become amorphous in
water.
Several different crystalline structures of cellulose are known, corresponding to the location of
hydrogen bonds between and within strands. Natural cellulose is cellulose I, with structures
I

and I

. Cellulose produced by bacteria and algae is enriched in I

while cellulose of higher

plants consists mainly of I

. Cellulose in regenerated cellulose fibers is cellulose II. The

conversion of cellulose I to cellulose II is irreversible, suggesting that cellulose I
is metastable and cellulose II is stable. With various chemical treatments it is possible to produce
the structures cellulose III and cellulose IV.
Many properties of cellulose depend on its chain length or degree of polymerization, the number
of glucose units that make up one polymer molecule. Cellulose from wood pulp has typical chain
lengths between 300 and 1700 units; cotton and other plant fibers as well as bacterial cellulose
have chain lengths ranging from 800 to 10,000 units. Molecules with very small chain length
resulting from the breakdown of cellulose are known as cellodextrins; in contrast to long-chain
cellulose, cellodextrins are typically soluble in water and organic solvents.
Plant-derived cellulose is usually found in a mixture with hemicellulose, lignin, pectin and other
substances, while bacterial cellulose is quite pure, has a much higher water content and higher
tensile strength due to higher chain lengths.
Cellulose is soluble in Schweizer's
reagent, cupriethylenediamine (CED), cadmiumethylenediamine (Cadoxen), N-
methylmorpholine N-oxide, and lithium chloride /dimethylformamide. This is used in the
production of regenerated celluloses (such as viscose and cellophane) from dissolving pulp.
Cellulose is also soluble in many kinds ofionic liquids.
Cellulose consists of crystalline and amorphous regions. By treating it with strong acid, the
amorphous regions can be broken up, thereby producing nanocrystalline cellulose, a novel
material with many desirable properties. Recently, nanocrystalline cellulose was used as the filler
phase in bio-based polymer matrices to produce nanocomposites with superior thermal and
mechanical properties.

Derivatives
The hydroxyl groups (-OH) of cellulose can be partially or fully reacted with various reagents to
afford derivatives with useful properties like mainly cellulose esters and celluloseethers (-OR). In
principle, though not always in current industrial practice, cellulosic polymers are renewable
resources.
Ester derivatives include:
Cellulose
ester
Reagent Example Reagent Group R
Organic
esters
Organic
acids
Cellulose acetate
Acetic acid and acetic
anhydride
H or -(C=O)CH
3


Cellulose triacetate
Acetic acid and acetic
anhydride
-(C=O)CH
3


Cellulose propionate Propanoic acid H or -(C=O)CH
2
CH
3


Cellulose acetate
propionate (CAP)
Acetic acid and
propanoic acid
H or -(C=O)CH
3
or -
(C=O)CH
2
CH
3


Cellulose acetate butyrate
(CAB)
Acetic acid
and butyric acid
H or -(C=O)CH
3
or -
(C=O)CH
2
CH
2
CH
3

Inorganic
esters
Inorganic
acids
Nitrocellulose (cellulose
nitrate)
Nitric acid or another
powerful nitrating
agent
H or -NO
2


Cellulose sulfate
Sulfuric acid or
another powerful
sulfuring agent
H or -SO
3
H
The cellulose acetate and cellulose triacetate are film- and fiber-forming materials that find a
variety of uses. The nitrocellulose was initially used as an explosive and was an early film
forming material. With camphor, nitrocellulose gives celluloid.
Ether derivatives include:
Cellulose
ethers
Reagent Example Reagent
Group R = H
or
Water
solubili
ty
Application
E
numb
er
Alkyl
Halogenoalka
nes
Methylcellulos
e
Chlorometh
ane
-CH
3

Cold
water
soluble

E461

Ethylcellulose
Chloroethan
e
-CH
2
CH
3

Water
insolub
le
A
commercial
thermoplast
ic used in
coatings,
inks,
binders,
and
controlled-
release
drug tablets
E462

Ethyl methyl
cellulose
Chlorometh
ane and
chloroethan
-CH
3
or -
CH
2
CH
3


E465
e
Hydroxyal
kyl
Epoxides
Hydroxyethyl
cellulose
Ethylene
oxide
-CH
2
CH
2
OH
Cold/h
ot
water
soluble
Gelling and
thickening
agent


Hydroxypropy
l
cellulose(HP
C)
Propylene
oxide
-
CH
2
CH(OH)
CH
3

Cold
water
soluble

E463

Hydroxyethyl
methyl
cellulose
Chlorometh
ane and
ethylene
oxide
-CH
3
or -
CH
2
CH
2
OH
Cold
water
soluble
Production
of cellulose
films


Hydroxypropy
l methyl
cellulose (HP
MC)
Chlorometh
ane and
propylene
oxide
-CH
3
or -
CH
2
CH(OH)
CH
3

Cold
water
soluble
Viscosity
modifier,
gelling,
foaming
and binding
agent
E464

Ethyl
hydroxyethyl
cellulose
Chloroethan
e and
ethylene
oxide
-
CH
2
CH
3
or
CH
2
CH
2
OH

E467
Carboxyal
kyl
Halogenated
carboxylic
acids
Carboxymeth
yl
cellulose (CM
C)
Chloroaceti
c acid
-CH
2
COOH
Cold/H
ot
water
soluble
Often used
as
its sodium s
alt, sodium
carboxymet
hyl
cellulose
E466
(NaCMC)
The sodium carboxymethyl cellulose can be cross-linked to give the croscarmellose
sodium (E468) for use as a disintegrant in pharmaceutical formulations.
























GREEN SOLVENTS
Solvents define a major part of the environmental performance of processes in
chemical industry and also impact on cost, safety and health issues. The idea of green
solvents expresses the goal to minimize the environmental impact resulting from the use of
solvents in chemical production. Here the question is raised of how to measure how green
a solvent is. We propose a comprehensive framework for the environmental assessment of
solvents that covers major aspects of the environmental performance of solvents in chemical
production, as well as important health and safety issues. The framework combines the
assessment of substance-specific hazards with the quantification of emissions and resource
use over the full life-cycle of a solvent. The proposed framework is demonstrated on 26
organic solvents. Results show that simple alcohols (methanol, ethanol) or alkanes
(heptane, hexane) are environmentally preferable solvents, whereas the use
of dioxane, acetonitrile, acids,formaldehyde, and tetrahydrofuran is not recommendable from
an environmental perspective. Additionally, a case study is presented in which the
framework is applied for the assessment of various alcoholwater or pure alcohol mixtures
used for solvolysis of p-methoxybenzoyl chloride. The results of this case study indicate
that methanolwater or ethanolwater mixtures are environmentally favourable compared to
pure alcohol or propanolwater mixtures. The two applications demonstrate that the
presented framework is a useful instrument to select green solvents or environmentally
sound solvent mixtures for processes in chemical industry. The same framework can also be
used for a comprehensive assessment of new solvent technologies as soon as the present
lack of data can be overcome.







PTC
In chemistry, a phase-transfer catalyst or PTC is a catalyst that facilitates the migration of a
reactant from one phase into another phase where reaction occurs. Phase-transfer catalysis is a
special form of heterogeneous catalysis. Ionic reactants are often soluble in an aqueous phase
but insoluble in an organic phase in the absence of the phase-transfer catalyst. The catalyst
functions like a detergent for solubilizing the salts into the organic phase. Phase-transfer
catalysis refers to the acceleration of the reaction upon the addition of the phase-transfer
catalyst.
By using a PTC process, one can achieve faster reactions, obtain higher conversions or yields,
make fewer byproducts, eliminate the need for expensive or dangerous solvents that will dissolve
all the reactants in one phase, eliminate the need for expensive raw materials and/or minimize
waste problems. Phase-transfer catalysts are especially useful ingreen chemistry by allowing
the use of water, the need for organic solvents is reduced.
Contrary to common perception, PTC is not limited to systems with hydrophilic and hydrophobic
reactants. PTC is sometimes employed in liquid/solid and liquid/gas reactions. As the name
implies, one or more of the reactants are transported into a second phase which contains both
reactants.
Types of phase-transfer catalysts
Phase-transfer catalysts for anionic reactants are often quaternary ammonium and phosphonium
salts. Typical catalysts include benzyltrimethylammonium chloride and
hexadecyltributylphosphonium bromide.
For example, the nucleophilic aliphatic substitution reaction of an aqueous sodium
cyanide solution with an ethereal solution of 1-bromooctane does not readily occur. The 1-
bromooctane is poorly soluble in the aqueous cyanide solution, and the sodium cyanide does not
dissolve well in the ether. Upon the addition of small amounts of hexadecyltributylphosphonium
bromide, a rapid reaction ensues to give nonyl nitrile:
C
8
H
17
Br(org) + NaCN(aq) C
8
H
17
CN(org) + NaBr(aq) (catalyzed by a R
4
P
+
Cl

PTC)
Via the quaternary phosphonium cation, cyanide ions are "ferried" from the aqueous phase
into the organic phase.
Subsequent work demonstrated that many such reactions can be performed rapidly at
around room temperature using catalysts such as tetra-n-butylammonium
bromide ormethyltrioctylammonium chloride in benzene/water systems.
An alternative to the use of "quat salts" is to convert alkali metal cations into hydrophobic
cations. In the research lab, crown ethers are used for this purpose. Polyethylene glycolsare
more commonly used in practical applications. These ligands encapsulate alkali metal
cations (typically Na
+
and K
+
), affording large lipophilic cations. These polyethers have
ahydrophilic "interiors" containing the ion and a hydrophobic exterior.
Applications
PTC is widely exploited industrially. Polyester polymers for example are prepared from acid
chlorides and bisphenol-A. Phosphothioate-based pesticides are generated by PTC-
catalyzed alkylation of phosphothioates. One of the more complex applications of PTC
involves asymmetric alkylations, which are catalyzed by chiral quaternary ammonium salts
derived from cinchona alkaloids.





















DNA

Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) is a molecule that encodes the genetic instructions used in the
development and functioning of all known living organisms and many viruses. DNA is a nucleic
acid; alongside proteins andcarbohydrates, nucleic acids compose the three
major macromolecules essential for all known forms of life. Most DNA molecules consist of
two biopolymer strands coiled around each other to form a double helix. The two DNA strands
are known as polynucleotides since they are composed of simpler units called nucleotides. Each
nucleotide is composed of a nitrogen-containing nucleobase
either guanine (G), adenine (A), thymine (T), or cytosine (C)as well as amonosaccharide sugar
called deoxyribose and a phosphate group. The nucleotides are joined to one another in a chain
by covalent bonds between the sugar of one nucleotide and the phosphate of the next, resulting
in an alternatingsugar-phosphate backbone. According to base pairing rules (A with T and C with
G), hydrogen bonds bind the nitrogenous bases of the two separate polynucleotide strands to
make double-stranded DNA.
DNA is well-suited for biological information storage. The DNA backbone is resistant to cleavage,
and both strands of the double-stranded structure store the same biological information.
Biological information is replicated as the two strands are separated. A significant portion of DNA
(more than 98% for humans) is non-coding, meaning that these sections do not serve a function
of encoding proteins.
The two strands of DNA run in opposite directions to each other and are therefore anti-parallel,
one backbone being 3 (three prime) and the other 5 (five prime). This refers to the direction the
3rd and 5th carbon on the sugar molecule is facing. Attached to each sugar is one of four types
of nucleobases (informally, bases). It is the sequence of these four nucleobases along the
backbone that encodes biological information. Under the genetic code, RNA strands are
translated to specify the sequence of amino acids within proteins. These RNA strands are initially
created using DNA strands as a template in a process called transcription.
Within cells, DNA is organized into long structures called chromosomes. During cell
division these chromosomes are duplicated in the process ofDNA replication, providing each cell
its own complete set of chromosomes. Eukaryotic organisms (animals, plants, fungi, and protists)
store most of their DNA inside the cell nucleus and some of their DNA in organelles, such
as mitochondria or chloroplasts. In contrast, prokaryotes(bacteria and archaea) store their DNA
only in the cytoplasm. Within the chromosomes, chromatin proteins such as histones compact
and organize DNA. These compact structures guide the interactions between DNA and other
proteins, helping control which parts of the DNA are transcribed.
Scientists use DNA as a molecular tool to explore physical laws and theories, such as
the ergodic theorem and the theory of elasticity. The unique material properties of DNA have
made it an attractive molecule for material scientists and engineers interested in micro- and
nano-fabrication. Among notable advances in this field are DNA origami and DNA-based hybrid
materials.
The obsolete synonym "desoxyribonucleic acid" may occasionally be encountered, for example,
in pre-1953 genetics.










Properties


Chemical structure of DNA. Hydrogen bondsshown as dotted lines.
DNA is a long polymer made from repeating units called nucleotides. DNA was first identified and
isolated by Friedrich Miescher and the double helix structure of DNA was first discovered
by James Watson and Francis Crick. The structure of DNA of all species comprises two helical
chains each coiled round the same axis, and each with a pitch of 34 ngstrms(3.4 nanometres)
and a radius of 10 ngstrms (1.0 nanometres). According to another study, when measured in a
particular solution, the DNA chain measured 22 to 26 ngstrms wide (2.2 to 2.6 nanometres),
and one nucleotide unit measured 3.3 (0.33 nm) long. Although each individual repeating unit
is very small, DNA polymers can be very large molecules containing millions of nucleotides. For
instance, the largest human chromosome, chromosome number 1, consists of approximately 220
million base pairs and is 85 nm long.
In living organisms DNA does not usually exist as a single molecule, but instead as a pair of
molecules that are held tightly together. These two long strands entwine like vines, in the shape
of a double helix. The nucleotide repeats contain both the segment of the backbone of the
molecule, which holds the chain together, and a nucleobase, which interacts with the other DNA
strand in the helix. A nucleobase linked to a sugar is called a nucleoside and a base linked to a
sugar and one or more phosphate groups is called a nucleotide. A polymer comprising multiple
linked nucleotides (as in DNA) is called apolynucleotide.
The backbone of the DNA strand is made from alternating phosphate and sugar residues. The
sugar in DNA is 2-deoxyribose, which is a pentose (five-carbon) sugar. The sugars are joined
together by phosphate groups that formphosphodiester bonds between the third and fifth
carbon atoms of adjacent sugar rings. These asymmetric bonds mean a strand of DNA has a
direction. In a double helix the direction of the nucleotides in one strand is opposite to their
direction in the other strand: the strands are antiparallel. The asymmetric ends of DNA strands
are called the 5 (five prime) and 3 (three prime) ends, with the 5 end having a terminal
phosphate group and the 3 end a terminal hydroxyl group. One major difference between DNA
and RNA is the sugar, with the 2-deoxyribose in DNA being replaced by the alternative pentose
sugar ribose in RNA.


A section of DNA. The bases lie horizontally between the two spiraling strands.
[13]
(animated version).
The DNA double helix is stabilized primarily by two forces: hydrogen bonds between nucleotides
and base-stacking interactions among aromaticnucleobases. In the aqueous environment of the
cell, the conjugated bonds of nucleotide bases align perpendicular to the axis of the DNA
molecule, minimizing their interaction with the solvation shell and therefore, the Gibbs free
energy. The four bases found in DNA are adenine(abbreviated A), cytosine (C), guanine (G)
and thymine (T). These four bases are attached to the sugar/phosphate to form the complete
nucleotide, as shown for adenosine monophosphate.








RNA
Ribonucleic acid (RNA) is a ubiquitous family of large biological molecules that perform multiple
vital roles in the coding, decoding,regulation, and expression of genes. Together with DNA, RNA
comprises the nucleic acids, which, along with proteins, constitute the three
major macromolecules essential for all known forms of life. Like DNA, RNA is assembled as a
chain of nucleotides, but is usually single-stranded. Cellular organisms use messenger
RNA (mRNA) to convey genetic information (often notated using the letters G, A, U, and C for the
nucleotides guanine, adenine, uracil and cytosine) that directs synthesis of specific proteins,
while many viruses encode their genetic information using an RNA genome.
Some RNA molecules play an active role within cells by catalyzing biological reactions,
controlling gene expression, or sensing and communicating responses to cellular signals. One of
these active processes is protein synthesis, a universal function whereby mRNA molecules direct
the assembly of proteins on ribosomes. This process uses transfer RNA (tRNA) molecules to
deliver amino acids to the ribosome, where ribosomal RNA (rRNA) links amino acids together to
form proteins.


Comparison with DNA


Three-dimensional representation of the 50S ribosomal subunit. RNA is in ochre, protein in blue. The active site
is in the middle (red).
The chemical structure of RNA is very similar to that of DNA, but differs in three main ways:
Unlike double-stranded DNA, RNA is a single-stranded molecule in many of its biological
roles and has a much shorter chain of nucleotides. However, RNA can, by complementary
base pairing, form intrastrand double helixes, as in tRNA.
While DNA contains deoxyribose, RNA contains ribose (in deoxyribose there is no hydroxyl
group attached to the pentose ring in the 2'position). These hydroxyl groups make RNA less
stable than DNA because it is more prone to hydrolysis.
The complementary base to adenine is not thymine, as it is in DNA, but rather uracil, which is
an unmethylated form of thymine.
Like DNA, most biologically active RNAs, including mRNA, tRNA, rRNA, snRNAs, and other non-
coding RNAs, contain self-complementary sequences that allow parts of the RNA to fold and pair
with itself to form double helices. Analysis of these RNAs has revealed that they are highly
structured. Unlike DNA, their structures do not consist of long double helices but rather
collections of short helices packed together into structures akin to proteins. In this fashion, RNAs
can achieve chemical catalysis, like enzymes. For instance, determination of the structure of the
ribosomean enzyme that catalyzes peptide bond formationrevealed that its active site is
composed entirely of RNA.
Structure


Watson-Crick base pairs in a siRNA(hydrogen atoms are not shown)
Each nucleotide in RNA contains a ribose sugar, with carbons numbered 1' through 5'. A base is
attached to the 1' position, in general,adenine (A), cytosine (C), guanine (G), or uracil (U).
Adenine and guanine are purines, cytosine and uracil are pyrimidines. A phosphategroup is
attached to the 3' position of one ribose and the 5' position of the next. The phosphate groups
have a negative charge each at physiological pH, making RNA a charged molecule (polyanion).
The bases form hydrogen bonds between cytosine and guanine, between adenine and uracil and
between guanine and uracil. However, other interactions are possible, such as a group of
adenine bases binding to each other in a bulge, or the GNRA tetraloop that has a guanine
adenine base-pair.


Chemical structure of RNA
An important structural feature of RNA that distinguishes it from DNA is the presence of
a hydroxylgroup at the 2' position of the ribose sugar. The presence of this functional group
causes the helix to adopt the A-form geometry rather than the B-form most commonly observed
in DNA. This results in a very deep and narrow major groove and a shallow and wide minor
groove. A second consequence of the presence of the 2'-hydroxyl group is that in
conformationally flexible regions of an RNA molecule (that is, not involved in formation of a
double helix), it can chemically attack the adjacent phosphodiester bond to cleave the backbone.


Secondary structure of a telomerase RNA.
RNA is transcribed with only four bases (adenine, cytosine, guanine and uracil), but these bases
and attached sugars can be modified in numerous ways as the RNAs mature. Pseudouridine(),
in which the linkage between uracil and ribose is changed from a CN bond to a CC bond, and
ribothymidine (T) are found in various places (the most notable ones being in the TC loop
oftRNA). Another notable modified base is hypoxanthine, a deaminated adenine base
whosenucleoside is called inosine (I). Inosine plays a key role in the wobble hypothesis of
the genetic code.
There are more than 100 other naturally occurring modified nucleosides, The greatest structural
diversity of modifications can be found in tRNA, while pseudouridine and nucleosides with 2'-O-
methylribose often present in rRNA are the most common. The specific roles of many of these
modifications in RNA are not fully understood. However, it is notable that, in ribosomal RNA,
many of the post-transcriptional modifications occur in highly functional regions, such as the
peptidyl transferase center and the subunit interface, implying that they are important for normal
function.
The functional form of single-stranded RNA molecules, just like proteins, frequently requires a
specific tertiary structure. The scaffold for this structure is provided by secondary
structural elements that are hydrogen bonds within the molecule. This leads to several
recognizable "domains" of secondary structure like hairpin loops, bulges, and internal
loops. Since RNA is charged, metal ions such as Mg
2+
are needed to stabilise many secondary
and tertiary structures.