Cargo Work

Draft, Trim and Stability

The Load Line Marks


LR the symbols of the classification society (Lloyds Register) by the side of the Plimsoll
mark
TF Tropical Fresh (water) F Fresh Water T Tropical (Sea Water)
S Summer (Sea Water) W Winter (Sea Water)
WNA Winter North Atlantic (Sea Water)
Criteria of Stability:
Extract from the Load Line Rule (1968)
The area under the curve of Righting Levers shall not be less than:
0.055 metre-radians up to an angle of heel of 30
0.09 metre-radians up to an angle of heel of 40
0.03 metre-radians between the angles of heel of 30 and 40
The Righting Lever shall be at least 0.20 metre at an angle of heel equal to or greater than 30
The maximum Righting Lever shall occur at an angle of heel not less than 30
The Initial Transverse Metacentric Height (GM) shall not be less than 0.15 metre





Ship Stability working with kg, TM, Draft, Displacement and Trim including LCB
and LCF
Method of working:
The following example shows how a ships stability booklet has pre-determined conditions of
loading and the consequent stability criteria.
The said condition is 12; each Departure condition has an Arrival condition.
In the Departure condition the vessel is assumed to be sailing out with a load of cargo and
with full bunkers and stores. The ballast is negligible.
In the Arrival condition the vessel is assumed to have arrived her disport/ way port (may be
bunkering for long voyage), here the cargo remains the same only change is in the bunkers
and FW.
The Arrival condition is to be worked out prior departure since the arrival condition
determines the loading of the cargo. Since no vessel would like to arrive a port in a critical
condition not satisfying the stability criteria.
The weight is multiplied with the kg of each compartment to obtain the vertical moments.
These are added up (all cargo, ballast, Bunkers and light ship) and the total of the V-M is
divided by the displacement to get the final KG
In the same way the weight is multiplied with the lcg of each compartment to obtain the
longitudinal moments. These are added up (all cargo, ballast, Bunkers and light ship) and
the total of the L-M is divided by the displacement to get the final LCG.
Noting the Displacement the tables are referred to obtain the LCB, Mean Draft and the
Trimming Moment. With these inputs the final drafts and the GM is calculated.
For obtaining the Fluid GM, the FSM of the compartments are read off from the tank data
sheets.
The total of the FSM when divided by the displacement gives the FSC that is to be subtracted
from the GM to obtain the GM (F).
The following shows the departure condition of a ship, the general particulars are given.








And the following gives the arrival condition for the same ship the cargo is the same, only
change being the fuel and the ballast.





The following are extract from the hydrostatic table of ship A.

Given that the morning draft in sea water of ship A is Forward: 8.92m and Aft: 9.12m
Ship A loads cargo throughout the morning shift and her sailing drafts are:
Fwd: 8.99m, Aft: 9.19m
To find the amount of cargo loaded. Note, during the morning the ship received H.O. bunkers
100MT and consumed 10MT of FW.
Morning Mean Draft: (8.92 + 9.12)/ 2 = 9.02m
Sailing Mean Draft: (8.99 + 9.19)/ 2 = 9.09m
Displacement at 9.02m: 20419
Displacement at 9.09m: 20604
Thus the difference in displacement would be: (20604 20419) = 185 MT
Bunkers received: 100MT
FW consumed: 10MT
Thus the cargo loaded would be: 185 100 = 85 MT (correcting for the bunker) and
85 + 10 = 95MT (correcting for the FW consumed)
For change of trim the earlier example is to be referred.

C
C
C
a
a
a
r
r
r
g
g
g
o
o
o


W
W
W
o
o
o
r
r
r
k
k
k



Securing Cargo


Need for solid stow and securing of all cargoes
Cargo onboard a ship will tend to shift with the motion of the ship. This necessitates the cargo
to be lashed (secured) to the ship structure. However the lashing with ropes/ wire ropes/ iron
restraining bars is not very effective because of the fact that the tightened lashings have a
tendency to work loose with the motion of the ship.

On shore any nut which is fitted tightly on a bolt works loose with vibrations as such - spring
washers are used together with check nuts and split pins to prevent the working loose of
such nuts. This is not practical on shipboard lashings - except for turnbuckles and bottle
screws with restraint bars. Below deck lashings further are not attended to during sailing and
if they work loose it is practically impossible to do a very effective job to re-secure them.
Temporary measures are often adopted and these may not be very effective as stated
earlier.
Thus the only way to prevent the lashings from working loose is to stow the cargo very close
to each other and then to shore the cargo with timber. This would prevent the cargo from
acquiring momentum while swaying with the ship and thus prevent to a large extent the
working loose of the lashings.


For bagged cargo if the same is not stowed solidly and thus allowing too much of broken
stowage, would tend to shift with the motion of the ship, thus shifting the centre of gravity
laterally and inducing a list to the ship. This coupled with the heeling of the ship would make
the weather deck of a ship too close to the water line and thus endanger the safety of the
ship.
Bulk cargo on general cargo carriers are therefore saucered with the same cargo, in order to
prevent the cargo from shifting to one side.
Deck cargo due to the high KG is especially vulnerable lateral shifting and the lashings work
loose and also to part lashing. Especially since the transverse momentum gained by such
cargo during the rolling of a ship is liable to part lashings. Thus all deck cargo has to be
definitely shored and then also lashed to deny the cargo from gaining any momentum.

Deck cargo - Lashed

Deck Cargo - Shored and Lashed
Cargo liable to slide during rolling, such as steel rails, should be Stowed fore and aft
All long cargoes such as steel rails, pipes, long steel plates as well as steel coils are stowed
with their ends in the fore and aft direction. This again is necessary due to the fact that most
of theses cargo cannot be individually lashed they rather grouped into bundles and the
bundles are lashed to make many small bundles of pipes or rails as the case may be. This
prevents the individual pipes from sliding and since as mentioned the transverse momentum
is quite large when the ship is rolling, and the pipes are thus prevented from damaging the
sidewalls of the hold. This is severe since repeated banging has resulted in tearing holes in
the shipside plates below the waterline and the ship capsizing due the inflow of water.
If the pipes / rails are stowed in the fore and aft direction this is prevented.


Bundling of long cargo (pipes/ rails):

This is the first tier. It is important to place the dunnage to spread the load as well as to
facilitate the passing of slings at the disport. The lashing wires are also placed prior to loading
the cargo. The size of the bundles should be to the capacity of the derrick/ crane that would be
used to discharge the cargo. The number of lashing wires is dependent on the weight of the
bundles as well as the length of the cargo.

As each bundle is completed the lashings are closed and tightened. And subsequently
dunnage is again placed and the lashing wires again spread on top of the earlier cargo.
Stowage and securing for vehicles and trailers
Vehicle lashing on deck
Force parallel to and across the deck = 1.0 W
Force normal to the deck = 1.4 W
Force in the longitudinal direction = 0.3 W
The above forces are intended to represent the total force to be applied in each direction
i.e., the aggregate of the static and the dynamic forces.
Case 1 Vehicle stowed in Fore and Aft direction:
The forces preventing tipping of the vehicle are the vertical downward force and the lashings
holding the vehicle (FLT)
Taking moments about A (the outer edge of wheel i.e., fulcrum position)
FLT x L = (1.0 W x 2/3 H) (1.4 W X)
FLT x (X + Y) sin = W (0.67 H 1.4 X)
FLT = (W (0.67 H 1.4 X) / ((X + Y) sin)
Note the importance of the fulcrum position (A),
The height of the centre of gravity, normally taken as 2/3 H
is the angle of inclination of the lashings
To examine the force causing the vehicle to slide sideways:
For this example a trailer is supported by wheels on the one end and with a trestle at the
other end.






In both cases sliding is resisted by the frictional resistance between the tyre/ deck and
the trestle/ trailer frame and also lashings (FLS).
Case 1 Effect at the trestle end of trailer.
Note: Assuming total forces act at each end of trailer then effective sliding force = 0.5 W
0.7 W x Ls (assume 0.2)
= 0.5 W 0.14 W
= 0.36 W then the force in the lashing resisting sliding = FLS = 0.36 W / cos

Case 2 Effect at wheel end of trailer.
Effective sliding force = 0.5 W 0.7 W x (assume 0.4)
= 0.5 W 0.28 W
= 0.22 W
then the force in the lashing resisting sliding = FLS = 0.22 W / cos
Note the importance of the coefficient of friction and the angle of inclination of the
lashings. In the above it can be seen near vertical lashing is great to prevent tipping but is
useless for sliding whereas a near horizontal is great for sliding but is useless for tipping. So a
correct angle of inclination should be fixed appropriate for the cargo.
In general the safe working load (S.W.L.) of lashing wires is taken as 1/3 the Breaking load.
If chain is used for lashing then:
If made of H.T. steel then the SWL would be 40% of the Breaking load.
And if made of ordinary steel then the SWL would be 33% of the Breaking load.
Efficient securing of cargoes is essential for the safety of the ship as well as the cargo
Securing of cargo is of prime importance not only for the cargoes themselves but also for the
ship as a whole including the crew that sail on her.
Improperly secured cargo will shift in a seaway and can endanger the cargo as well as the
ship.
In the worst cases the cargo may fall overboard and may endanger other ships such cargoes
like logs and containers have been noted to have floated and come within the sea-lanes.
When a container falls overboard it must be remembered that it does so in spite of it being
secured on the ship as well as the opposition to this being offered by the ship structure. Thus
when it does go overboard it does after causing a great amount of structural damage.
There are many instances of cargo improperly secured breaking the lashings and punching a
hole at or below the waterline and the ship having been lost with casualties.
Deck cargos if they part their lashings are liable to cause extensive damage, which can
endanger the watertight integrity. Even minor movement of heavy cargoes has been known
to shear off air pipes and sounding pipes resulting in water entering the tanks or other
spaces below deck. Fire lines have also been damaged due to inadvertent movement of
cargo.
Accommodation ladders as well as companionway can be damaged due to the cargo
movement on deck in a seaway.
Even if the ship is not lost the damage such heavy cargoes can bring upon the structure of
the ship is very heavy. Crew has often been sent to re-secure such cargo in rough weather
with the crew suffering loss of limbs and other injuries.
Stowage and securing of deck cargo should be adequate for the worst conditions which
could be experienced
Good stowage and good securing arrangement should be foreseen prior loading the cargo. If
it is required extra lugs and eyes on deck have to be welded to provide lashing points for the
cargo- this is generally done for heavy lifts or cargoes of odd sizes.

Securing should be always for the worst weather that would be encountered. Many a ship
have suffered damage to cargoes and to their own structure by neglecting good and
adequate lashing while on a short voyage, failing to take into account diversions and
anchorage at open roadstead and cyclonic weather.
Hatches should be securely closed and cleated before loading over them
Once the cargo below deck has been loaded and all securing has been completed (securing
can continue after the hatches are secured provided there is adequate space for the crew to
enter and to lash), the hatches are closed and battened down and all cleats and centre
wedges should be in place.
Only after the above have been completed should any cargo be loaded on to the hatch tops.
If this is not done, and the hatch is battened down after the cargo has been loaded on to the
hatch tops the battening down and the fitting of the cleats as well as the centre wedges
would be ineffective since the weight of the cargo would not permit the hatch covers to be
correctly in place and the hatch would leak in a seaway or even in rain.
Deck Cargo


Cargo which are normally carried on deck include the following but are not limited to these
and many exceptional cargoes may be carried and also have been carried in the past.
Dangerous cargo IMDG cargo not permitted on deck
Large packages which due to any size restriction may have to be loaded on to the deck
The above includes engineering or construction equipment
Odd size package
Where the bulk volume far exceeds the weight of the cargo knocked down bridges, port
equipment not easily liable to weather damage.
Occasionally livestock in limited numbers
Onions or other perishables short voyages with the weather holding
Yachts luxury boats.
Cast iron goods man hole covers pipes.
The list is endless and it all depends on the routes, the trading pattern and the weather.
The cargo whether on deck or under deck stow has to be stowed well and the cargo should
be prevented from moving and gaining enough momentum to part lashings and damage the
ship structure.
Deck cargo is liable to damage itself fall overboard and thus be lost. However the misery
does not stop here in the act of parting lashing and going overboard the deck cargo
unleashes considerable damage to the ship structure as well as the crewmembers.
Small apparently insignificant items such as sounding pipes and air pipes are often torn out
and this may endanger the ship from the resulting chances of flooding lower down
compartments.
Crewmembers ordered to lash cargo where the lashings have parted have been seriously
injured and some have lost lives combating the shifting cargo.
The point is to have a good solid stow prevent the cargo from shifting and gaining
momentum with the shift. Since this would part any strong lashing. The lashing undertaken
should be for the worst sea condition that may be experienced.
Deck cargo loading on top of hatch covers should be carefully planned. All loading of under
deck spaces should have been completed lashing may continue with portable lights.
The hatch covers should be closed and battened down all side wedges as well as cross
wedges (centre wedges) should have been fitted. With the hatch cover sealed for sea, the
space should then be given out for loading of deck cargo.
The permissible load density of the hatch covers should be checked and timbers laid to
spread the weight of the cargo. The load density of the hatch covers are given for a new
vessel and as the ship ages the load density would reduce due to fatigue of the metal as well
as wear and tear. Thus the utmost need to spread the weight using timber.
Shoring and toming of the hatch cover from below deck is practically useless since the hatch
cover moves/ slides somewhat with the motion of the ship.
The height of the cargo on the hatch covers as well as that on deck should not be so high
that the view is obstructed from the Navigating Bridge.


Ice accumulation on hatch cover and on deck




The above photographs show the extent of the weight that Ice accumulation can pose for a
ship. The weight on deck may eventually lead a ship to progress to a condition of angle of
loll.
The weight of the ice may be in excess of a hundred tonnes, and thus the danger of a ship
regarding stability.
As with the above any deck cargo for that matter would have a very high KG as such the GM
(F) would be quite small. Especially in the case of GC vessels, which do not have a very large
GM (F) the loading of deck cargo, is bound to lead to further loss of GM (F). If the ship loads
the deck cargo with her own gear then the ship would during the loading operation have still
further low GM (F) due to the KG of the load being at the top of the derrick/ crane for part of
the loading sequence.
Containers on deck
Containers when they are loaded on deck are subject to the following consideration
barring stability, which would have been planned for.
The load density of the deck
Spreading the load of the container evenly
Chocking the container base to prevent shifting due to rolling or pitching
Lashing the container for the above as well to prevent the container from being bodily lifted.
Placing the containers in as close a group as possible
Safeguarding the sounding pipes and the air pipes within the periphery of the container
space.
Keeping the fire hose boxes clear as well as the passage leading to them, the fire hydrants
should similarly be kept clear.
No lashing should be taken which would damage or cause to be damaged the fire lines.
Checking that the leads for the lashing wires are adequate as well as that the chocking points
are well supported
Keeping a passage for crew members to check the lashings during g voyage.
In general the close stow is difficult on GC vessels where the container is usually loaded
between the hatch coaming and the bulwark. So the container should be loaded as close as
possible to the hatch coaming, as well as close to the Mast House structure. If few
containers are being loaded then the shelter offered by the Mast House structure should be
kept in mind.
The load is spread by having the container loaded onto timbers at least 4 x 4. The timbers
should be extended to well beyond the shoe of the container in all directions to spread the
load. Once this is done the chocking of the container is started. Again heavy timbers are used
and the container is first secured to prevent any lateral and transverse shifting. While
selecting chocking points all heavy framework should be selected. Bulwark stays are not
strengthened enough to be used as chocking points. Hatch coamings may be used and as a
last resort bulwark stays. After the chocking is completed the container is lashed. The lashing
is further to prevent the longitudinal as well as the transverse shifting. For this the base
shoes offer the best lashing points. To prevent the container being bodily shifted out the
lashings are continued to the top shoes.
All lashing should be separate in the sense that a single lashing wire should not be passed
over a few shoes and then lashed at the final point. Each lashing should have a turnbuckle or
bottle screw incorporated and there should be at least 60% free thread in them after
completion of lashing.
The bottom lashing and the top lashing should not be counted together fore the purpose of
assessing the total number of lashings taken for the container.
The top lashings are for bodily rise and as such should be counted separately.
As a thumb rule, if the SWL of the lashing wire is 2T then to lash the top of a 20T container
the number of lashings should be a minimum of 10 (all well positioned), similarly the bottom
should have 10. The bottom lashings may be reduced depending upon the chocking of the
container and the availability of the lashing point.
Note that a single strong point for lashing should not have more than 2 lashing wires the
preferred would be 1, however it is often impossible to find so many lashing points.

This shows a container ship lashing; note that the container is loaded onto the ship shoe
slots which are strengthened, the rod lashings are only for the top of the containers.
Here the bottom shoes are not lashed since the ships sunken shoes and twist locks
effectively chock and lash the bottom of the container.
Stowage and Lashing of Timber deck cargoes as laid down by IMO code of Safe Practice for
Ships Carrying Timber Deck Cargoes
Purpose
The purpose of the Code is to make recommendations on stowage, securing and other
operational safety measures designed to ensure the safe transport of mainly timber deck
cargoes.
Application
This Code applies to all ships of 24 m or more in length engaged in the carriage of timber
deck cargoes. Ships that are provided with and making use of their timber load line should
also comply with the requirements of the applicable regulations of the Load Line
Convention.
Timber means sawn wood or lumber, cants, logs, poles, pulpwood and all other type of
timber in loose or packaged forms. The term does not include wood pulp or similar cargo.
Timber deck cargo means a cargo of timber carried on an uncovered part of a freeboard or
superstructure deck. The term does not include wood pulp or similar cargo.
Timber load line means a special load line assigned to ships complying with certain
conditions related to their construction set out in the International Convention on Load Lines
and used when the cargo complies with the stowage and securing conditions of this Code.
Weather deck means the uppermost complete deck exposed to weather and sea.
The stability of the ship at all times, including during the process of loading and unloading
timber deck cargo, should be positive and to a standard acceptable to the Administration. It
should be calculated having regard to:
The increased weight of the timber deck cargo due to:
Absorption of water in dried or seasoned timber, and
Ice accretion, if applicable;
Variations in consumables;
The free surface effect of liquid in tanks; and
Weight of water trapped in broken spaces within the timber deck cargo and especially logs.
Safety precautions to be taken as far as stability of the ship is concerned
The master should:
Cease all loading operations if a list develops for which there is no satisfactory explanation
and it would be imprudent to continue loading;
Before proceeding to sea, ensure that:
The ship is upright;
The ship has an adequate metacentric height; and
The ship meets the required stability criteria.
Ships carrying timber deck cargoes should operate, as far as possible, with a safe margin of
stability and with a metacentric height which is consistent with safety requirements but such
metacentric height should not be allowed to fall below the recommended minimum.
However, excessive initial stability should be avoided as it will result in rapid and violent
motion in heavy seas which will impose large sliding and racking forces on the cargo causing
high stresses on the lashings. Operational experience indicates that metacentric height
should preferably not exceed 3% of the breadth in order to prevent excessive accelerations
in rolling provided that the relevant stability criteria are satisfied.
This recommendation may not apply to all ships and the master should take into
consideration the stability information obtained from the ships stability manual.
STOWAGE
General
Before timber deck cargo is loaded on any area of the weather deck:
Hatch covers and other openings to spaces below that area should be securely closed and
battened down;
Air pipes and ventilators should be efficiently protected and check valves or similar devices
should be examined to ascertain their effectiveness against the entry of water;
Accumulations of ice and snow on such area should be removed; and
It is normally preferable to have all deck lashings, uprights, etc., in position before loading on
that specific area. This will be necessary should a preloading examination of securing
equipment be required in the loading port.
The timber deck cargo should be so stowed that:
Safe and satisfactory access to the crews quarters, pilot boarding access, machinery spaces
and all other areas regularly used in the necessary working of the ship is provided at all
times;
Where relevant, openings that give access to the areas can be properly closed and secured
against the entry of water;
Safety equipment, devices for remote operation of valves and sounding pipes are left
accessible; and
It is compact and will not interfere in any way with the navigation and necessary working of
the ship.
During loading, the timber deck cargo should be kept free of any accumulations of ice and
snow.
Upon completion of loading, and before sailing, a thorough inspection of the ship should be
carried out. Soundings should also be taken to verify that no structural damage has occurred
causing an ingress of water.
On ships provided with, and making use of, their timber load line, the timber deck cargo
should be stowed so as to extend:
.1 over the entire available length of the well or wells between superstructures and as close
as practicable to end bulkheads;
.2 at least to the after end of the aftermost hatchway in the case where there is no limiting
superstructure at the aft end;
.3 athwartships as close as possible to the ship sides, after making due allowance for
obstructions such as guard rails, bulwark stays, uprights, pilot boarding access, etc., provided
any area of broken stowage thus created at the side of the ship does not exceed a mean of
4% of the breadth; and
.4 to at least the standard height of a superstructure other than a raised quarterdeck.
The basic principle for the safe carriage of any timber deck cargo is a solid stowage during all
stages of the deck loading. This can only be achieved by constant supervision by shipboard
personnel during the loading process.
SECURING
General
Every lashing should pass over the timber deck cargo and be shackled to eye plates and
adequate for the intended purpose and efficiently attached to the deck stringer plate or
other strengthened points. They should be installed in such a manner as to be, as far as
practicable, in contact with the timber deck cargo throughout its full height.
All lashings and components used for securing should:
.1 possess a breaking strength of not less than 133 kN;
.2 after initial stressing, show an elongation of not more than 5% at 80% of their breaking
strength; and
.3 show no permanent deformation after having been subjected to a proof load of not less
than 40% of their original breaking strength.
Every lashing should be provided with a tightening device or system so placed that it can
safely and efficiently operate when required. The load to be produced by the tightening
device or system should not be less than:
.1 27 kN in the horizontal part; and
.2 16 kN in the vertical part.
NOTE: 1 Newton equals 0.225 lbs. force or 0.1 kgf.
Upon completion and after the initial securing, the tightening device or system should be left
with not less than half the threaded length of screw or of tightening capacity available for
future use.
Every lashing should be provided with a device or an installation to permit the length of the
lashing to be adjusted.
The spacing of the lashings should be such that the two lashings at each end of each length
of continuous deck stow are positioned as close as practicable to the extreme end of the
timber deck cargo.
If wire rope clips are used to make a joint in a wire lashing, the following conditions should
be observed to avoid a significant reduction in strength:
.1 the number and size of rope clips utilized should be in proportion to the diameter of the
wire rope and should not be less than four, each spaced at intervals of not less than 15 cm;
.2 the saddle portion of the clip should be applied to the live load segment and the U-bolt to
the dead or shortened end segment;
.3 rope clips should be initially tightened so that they visibly penetrate into the wire rope
and subsequently be retightened after the lashing has been stressed.
Greasing the threads of grips, clips, shackles and turnbuckles increases their holding capacity
and prevents corrosion.
Uprights
Uprights should be fitted when required by the nature, height or character of the timber
deck cargo.
When uprights are fitted, they should:
.1 be made of steel or other suitable material of adequate strength, taking into account the
breadth of the deck cargo;
.2 be spaced at intervals not exceeding 3 m;
.3 be fixed to the deck by angles, metal sockets or equally sufficient means; and
.4 if deemed necessary, be further secured by a metal bracket to a strengthened point, i.e.,
bulwark, hatch coaming.
Loose or packaged sawn timber
The timber deck cargo should be secured throughout its length by independent lashings.
The maximum spacing of the lashings should be determined by the maximum height of the
timber deck cargo in the vicinity of the lashings:
.1 for a height of 4 m and below, the spacing should be 3 m;
.2 for heights of above 4 m, the spacing should be 1.5 m.
The packages stowed at the upper outboard edge of the stow should be secured by at least
two lashings each.
When the outboard stow of the timber deck cargo is in lengths of less than 3.6 m, the
spacing of the lashings should be reduced as necessary or other suitable provisions made to
suit the length of timber.
Rounded angle pieces of suitable material and design should be used along the upper
outboard edge of the stow to bear the stress and permit free reeving of the lashings.
Logs, poles, cants or similar cargo
The timber deck cargo should be secured throughout its length by independent lashings
spaced not more than 3 m apart.
If the timber deck cargo is stowed over the hatches and higher, it should, in addition be
further secured by:
.1 a system of athwarthship lashings (hog lashings) joining each port and starboard pair of
uprights near the top of the stow and at other appropriate levels as appropriate for the
height of the stow; and
.2 a lashing system to tighten the stow whereby a dual continuous wire rope (wiggle wire) is
passed from side to side over the cargo and held continuously through a series of snatch
blocks or other suitable device, held in place by foot wires.
The dual continuous wire rope should be led to a winch or other tensioning device to
facilitate further tightening.
Testing, examination and certification
All lashings and components used for the securing of the timber deck cargo should be
tested, marked and certified according to national regulations or an appropriate standard of
an internationally recognized standards institute. Copies of the appropriate certificate
should be kept on board.
No treatments, which could hide defects or reduce mechanical properties or strength,
should be applied after testing.
A visual examination of lashings and components should be made at intervals not exceeding
12 months.
A visual examination of all securing points on the ship, including those on the uprights, if
fitted, should be performed before loading the timber deck cargo. Any damage should be
satisfactorily repaired.
Lashing plans
One or more lashing plans complying with the recommendations of this Code should be
provided and maintained on board a ship carrying timber deck cargo.
Personnel Protection And Safety Devices
During the course of the voyage, if there is no convenient passage for the crew on or below
the deck of the ship giving safe means of access from the accommodation to all parts used in
the necessary working of the ship, guard lines or rails, not more than 330 mm apart
vertically, should be provided on each side of the deck cargo to a height of at least 1 m
above the cargo. In addition, a lifeline, preferably wire rope, set up taut with a tightening
device should be provided as near as practicable to the centreline of the ship. The stanchion
supports to all guard rails or lifelines should be spaced so as to prevent undue sagging.
Where the cargo is uneven, a safe walking surface of not less than 600 mm in width should
be fitted over the cargo and effectively secured beneath, or adjacent to, the lifeline.
Where uprights are not fitted, a walkway of substantial construction should be provided
having an even walking surface and consisting of two fore and aft sets of guard lines or rails
about 1 m apart, each having a minimum of three courses of guard lines or rails to a height
of not less than 1 m above the walking surface. Such guard lines or rails should be supported
by rigid stanchions spaced not more than 3 m apart and lines should be set up taut by
tightening device.
As an alternative a lifeline, preferably wire rope may be erected above the timber deck cargo
such that a crewmember equipped with a fall protection system can hook onto and work
about the timber deck cargo. The lifeline should be:
.1 erected about 2 m above the timber deck cargo as near as practicable to the centreline of
the ship;
.2 stretched sufficiently taut with a tightening device to support a fallen crewmember
without collapse or failure.
Properly constructed ladders, steps or ramps fitted with guard lines or handrails should be
provided from the top of the cargo to the deck, and in other cases where the cargo is
stepped, in order to provide reasonable access.
Action To Be Taken During The Voyage
Tightening of lashings
It is of paramount importance that all lashings be carefully examined and tightened at the
beginning of the voyage as the vibration and working of the ship will cause the cargo to
settle and compact. They should be further examined at regular intervals during the voyage
and tightened as necessary.
Entries of all examinations and adjustments to lashings should be made in the ships
logbook.
Container Cargo


Sea Containers were invented in the mid 1950s by Malcolm McLean, a North Carolina
trucking owner who grew tired of wasting his trucking companys time with trucks standing
idle in line as ships were unloaded bit by bit by dockworkers.
McLean developed sealed truck trailers and the concept of loading and unloading the trailer
interiors only at the points of origin and destination.
The first ship modified to accept these containers on deck, sailed with 58 of them from New
York to Houston in April 1956. This was the start of McLeans company, the Sea-Land
Corporation.
The Matson Line (Hawaii) put the first fully containerized ship into service in 1960.
The International Standards Organization (ISO) first established container standards in 1961.
The ISO standard is not prescriptive and instead simply stipulates tests that the containers
must pass.
Modern container ships have only one problem when the ship arrives in port, the object is to
unload the containers quickly to get them on to their final destination and to get the container
ships back out to sea fully loaded heading for the next port.
To accomplish this, container ships are equipped with steel skeletons called cell guides.
A special lifting fixture is used with remote actuators, which engage the corner blocks on the
top of the container.
A recent survey indicates that port crane operators can execute full crane cycles to remove
and position containers at rates of between 30 and 60 boxes per hour.
Containers come in two basic sizes 20 Footer and 40 Footer and are commonly known as
TEU (Twenty Equivalent Units) and FEU (Forty Equivalent Units).
The external body of the container is made of corrugated sheet metal and is not capable of
taking any load. The four corners have shoes and are strengthened to take in load.

The inside bottom has a wooden ceiling. There are weather-insulted vents provided to
facilitate venting.
The weights marked on the containers are TARE weight and LADEN weight. TARE weight
is the weight of the empty container and is usually 2200KGS for a TEU, while the LADEN
weight may be anything from 20000KGS to 32000KGS (strengthened steel construction).
The container shoes fitted at the corners are hollow with 5 oval slots to facilitate the fitting of
container fittings as well as for lifting the container either by using conventional wire slings
or by spreaders.

Since the containers are concentrated weights the loading of the same require special heavy
dunnaging to spread the load evenly over the deck if carried as deck cargo on conventional
general cargo ships.
However the carriage of containers are primarily on container ships or on ships, which have
been built to take in general cargo as well as containers to a limited extent.
Lashing of containers on purpose ships are supplied from reputed lashing makers and have
been tested for the loads they are to lash. Various fittings are used and all of these are
generally carried on board.

Base stacker Twist Lock Double Stacker


Corner Eye Pad Side Stack Thrust Bridge
Fitting

Twist Lock Rod Lashing Bar Spacer Stacker
A spacer stacker is used where there is a difference between adjacent containers as loaded in
their heights, one being the 8ft and the other 8.5FT.
On normal ships where these fittings may not be available wire ropes are used however the
number of ropes to be used would be decided by the weight of the container.
On GC ships with no provision for built in shoes only single height loads are carried.
However on container ships the hold stacks may extend to 7 high and on hatch top/ deck to 5
high.
The hold and the deck/ hatch top being strengthened.
The lashings to be done are specified in the container-lashing manual supplied to the ship
from the building yard. This is not to be reduced since the stresses have been calculated and
the number of lashings incorporated.
The containers are loaded onto a container ship in a specified manner. The ship is divided into
BAYS or ROWS. Looking from the side the bays are marked from forward to aft.
The containers are stacked in tiers and are in general called the stacks.
This way ensures that any container can be located very easily knowing the bay number and
the row number isolates the location and the stack height give the exact position of the
container.
On container ships the containers are lowered onto slots inside the holds, the holds bottom is
provided with sunken shoes, twist locks/ stackers are fitted onto these and the container is
lowered onto them.


Cell Guides on Deck Open hatch concept:


Some containers are designed to carry refrigerated cargo, these special containers have their
own cooling plant in built on one end of the container, and all that is required for the ship to
provide is a power point for the electricity. The containers come with their own recording
device and card, the ships officers has to renew the card on the expiry of the same, and is to
see that the cooling plant does not stop functioning, manuals are provided whereby ships staff
can do some minor repairs to the plant.

Today a variety of cargo which previously was thought could only be loaded onto a general
cargo ship, is transported on container ships. An example is a tank, thus small parcels of
liquid is carried on container ships.

Lashing of containers is very important since a typical container ship has a low GM(F),
consequently the ship rolls quite a bit and the stresses developed by the cargo swaying is
liable to break the lashings and put the containers into the sea.

All lashings are to be done following the ships lashing manual. In general the following is a
typical lashing system, others may also be accepted if permitted by the manual.

The planning of loading of a container ship is normally undertaken ashore, but the officer in
charge of the watch should keep an eye on the loading to detect errors in stowage which may
occur. A particular watch should be kept for containers with dangerous goods placards to see
that their stowage satisfies segregation requirements as laid down in the IMDG code.
Other things to watch for are that container marked for underdeck stowage do not end up on
deck this is serious since the container may be for second port by rotation, also the heavier
containers are generally loaded underdeck to increase the GM. Thus in addition to a loss of
GM the ship would also have a mess up at the disport.
Refrigerated containers should be loaded where they can be connected to the ships power
supply and the duty officer is to ensure the same. While loading a slight slackening of watch
can become a liability since the gantries load very fast and to unload or to shift is expensive
and time consuming even if the fault actually is of the port.
Sometimes containers are loaded which due to the nature of the contents have to be
overstowed, in this case the container is loaded and the container is then blocked off so that
there would be no chance of any pilferage such containers may carry currency/ coins,
drugs, and mail or other high value cargo.
Bulk Cargo (Not Grain)


Bulk cargoes (other than grain)
The officer of the watch should know the pre-planned loading procedure regarding quantities
to be loaded in each space, the order of deballasting tanks and shifting the vessel under
loading chutes. The procedure will have been worked out to keep stresses within acceptable
limits and to finish with a satisfactory weight distribution and trim. The officer of the watch
should see that the plan is followed, particularly at berths with only one loading chute, to
avoid over-stressing the ship.
Code of Safe Practice for Solid Bulk Cargoes BC Code is intended to set a standard for the
safe stowage and carriage of solid bulk cargoes.
This Code is a recommended guide for ship owners, shippers and masters and shall apply to
all shipments of bulk cargoes.
The list of products appearing in the Appendices of the BC Code, however, is by no means
exhaustive. Consequently, before any bulk cargo is loaded, it is essential to ascertain
(normally from the shipper) the current physical and chemical properties of the cargo, as
required under SOLAS Chapter VI.
General requirements
Before and during loading, transport and unloading of bulk cargoes, all necessary safety
precautions including any regulations or requirements should be observed, including the
following:
1. Dangerous Bulk Material Regulations
2. Safe Working Practices Regulations
3. International Maritime Dangerous Goods Code (IMDG Code)
4. Emergency Procedures For Ships Carrying Dangerous Goods
5. Medical First Aid Guide for Use in Accidents Involving Goods (MFAG)
6. IMO BC Code - Code of Safe Practice for Solid Bulk Cargoes
Poisoning and asphyxiation hazards
Certain bulk cargoes are liable to oxidation, which in t urn may result in oxygen depletion,
emission of toxic fumes and self-heating. Other bulk cargoes may not oxidize but may emit
toxic fumes.
It is important therefore that the shipper inform the master before loading of the existence
of any chemical hazards. The master should refer to Appendix B of the BC Code and take the
necessary precautions, especially those pertaining to ventilation.
Certain cargoes may emit toxic gases when wetted. In these cases the ship should be
provided with the appropriate gas detection equipment.
A flammable gas detector is only suitable for testing the explosive nature of gas mixtures.
Emergency entry into a cargo space should be undertaken only by trained personnel wearing
self-contained breathing apparatus, and protective clothing if considered necessary, always
under the supervision of a responsible officer.
In the event of emergency entry into a cargo space, in addition to the above requirement,
spare self-contained breathing apparatus, safety belts and safety lines should be readily
available.
Health hazard from dust
To minimize the chronic risks from exposure to the dust of certain materials carried in bulk, a
high standard of personal hygiene for those exposed to the dust cannot be too strongly
emphasized. The precautions should include not only the use of appropriate protective
clothing and barrier creams when needed but also adequate personal washing especially
before meals, and laundering of outer clothing.
Flammable atmosphere
Dust created by certain cargoes may constitute an explosion hazard, especially, during
loading, unloading and cleaning. This risk can be minimized at such times by ensuring that
ventilation is sufficient to prevent the formation of a dustladen atmosphere and by hosing
down rather than sweeping.
CARGOES THAT MAY LIQUEFY (section 7 of the BC Code)
Properties, characteristics and hazards
Cargoes that may liquefy include concentrates, certain coals and other materials having
similar physical properties. Appendix A of the BC Code contains a list of such cargoes, which
generally consist of a mixture of small particles in contrast with natural ores that include a
considerable percentage of large particles or lumps.
Section 5 of the BC Code - Trimming Procedures
At moisture content above that of the transportable moisture limit, shift of cargo may occur
as a result of liquefaction.
The major purpose of the sections of this Code dealing with these cargoes is to draw the
attention of masters and others to the latent risk of cargo shift, and to describe the
precautions deemed necessary to minimize this risk.
Such cargoes may appear to be relatively dry and granular when loaded, but may contain
sufficient moisture as to become fluid under the stimulus of compaction and the vibration
that occurs during a voyage.
In the resulting viscous fluid state, cargo may flow to one side of the ship when it rolls one
way, but not completely return when it rolls the other. Thus, the ship sways progressively
until it reaches a dangerous heel and capsizes.
To prevent subsequent shifting, and also to decrease the effects of oxidation of material
with a predisposition to oxidize, these cargoes should be trimmed reasonably level on
completion of loading, irrespective of the angle of repose.
Amended Extract from SOLAS Chapter VI
Part B
Special provisions for bulk cargoes other than grain
Regulation 6
Acceptability for shipment
Concentrates or other cargoes which may liquefy shall only be accepted for loading when
the actual moisture content of the cargo is less than its transportable moisture limit.
However, such concentrates and other cargoes may be accepted for loading even when their
moisture content exceeds the above limit, provided that safety arrangements to the
satisfaction of the Administration are made to ensure adequate stability in the case of cargo
shifting and further provided that the ship has adequate structural integrity.
Prior to loading a bulk cargo which is not a cargo classified but which has chemical properties
that may create a potential hazard, special precautions for its safe carriage shall be taken.
Regulation 7
Loading, unloading and stowage of bulk cargoes
To enable the master to prevent excessive stresses in the ships structure, the ship shall be
provided with a booklet, which shall be written in a language with which the ships officers
responsible for cargo operations are familiar. The booklet shall, as a minimum, include:
.1 stability data,
.2 ballasting and de-ballasting rates and capacities;
.3 maximum allowable load per unit surface area of the tank top plating;
.4 maximum allowable load per hold;
.5 general loading and unloading instructions with regard to the strength of the ships
structure including any limitations on the most adverse operating conditions during loading,
unloading, ballasting operations and the voyage;
.6 any special restrictions such as limitations on the most adverse operating conditions
imposed by the Administration or organization recognized by it, if applicable; and
.7 where strength calculations are required, maximum permissible forces and moments on
the ships hull during loading, unloading and the voyage.
Before a solid bulk cargo is loaded or unloaded, the master and the terminal representative
shall agree on a plan* which shall ensure that the permissible forces and moments on the
ship are not exceeded during loading or unloading, and shall include the sequence, quantity
and rate of loading or unloading, taking into consideration the speed of loading or unloading,
the number of pours and the de-ballasting or ballasting capability of the ship. The plan and
any subsequent amendments thereto shall be lodged with the appropriate authority of the
port State.
Bulk cargoes shall be loaded and trimmed reasonably level, as necessary, to the boundaries
of the cargo space so as to minimize the risk of shifting and to ensure that adequate stability
will be maintained throughout the voyage.
When bulk cargoes are carried in tween-decks, the hatchways of such tween-decks shall be
closed in those cases where the loading information indicates an unacceptable level of stress
of the bottom structure if the hatchways are left open. The cargo shall be trimmed
reasonably level and shall either extend from side to side or be secured by additional
longitudinal divisions of sufficient strength. The safe load-carrying capacity of the tween-
decks shall be observed to ensure that the deck-structure is not overloaded.
The master and terminal representative shall ensure that loading and unloading operations
are conducted in accordance with the agreed plan.
If during loading or unloading any of the limits of the ship are exceeded or are likely to
become so if the loading or unloading continues, the master has the right to suspend
operation and the obligation to notify accordingly the appropriate authority of the port State
with which the plan has been lodged. The master and the terminal representative shall
ensure that corrective action is taken. When unloading cargo, the master and terminal
representative shall ensure that the unloading method does not damage the ships
structure.
The master shall ensure that ships personnel continuously monitor cargo operations. Where
possible, the ships draught shall be checked regularly during loading or unloading to confirm
the tonnage figures supplied. Each draught and tonnage observation shall be recorded in a
cargo logbook. If significant deviations from the agreed plan are detected, cargo or ballast
operations or both shall be adjusted to ensure that the deviations are corrected.
At a moisture content above that of the transportable moisture limit, shift of cargo may
occur as a result of liquefaction.
Many cargoes may appear to be relatively dry and granular when loaded, but may contain
sufficient moisture as to become fluid under the stimulus of compaction and the vibration
that occurs during a voyage.
In the resulting viscous fluid state, cargo may flow to one side of the ship when it rolls one
way, but not completely return when it rolls the other. Thus, the ship way progressively
reaches a dangerous heel and capsize.
Ships other than specialist suited ones shall carry only those cargoes having a moisture
content that is not in excess of the transportable moisture limit as defined in this Code.
Specially suited ships
Specially suited ships may carry concentrates having a moisture content in excess of the
transportable moisture limit if the ship possesses a valid document of approval from her
administration, accompanied by such stability information as her administration may
require. The document of approval must clearly state For carriage of concentrates having a
moisture content in excess of the transportable moisture limit.
When concentrates are loaded that have a moisture content in excess of the transportable
moisture limit, the whole surface area of each cargo space shall be trimmed level.
Cargoes having a moisture content in excess of the flow moisture point shall not be carried
in bulk.
Before loading, the shipper or his appointed agents shall provide to the master and the port
warden, if requested, details, as appropriate, of the characteristics and properties of any
material constituting bulk cargo, such as flow moisture point, stowage factor, moisture
content, angle of repose, chemical hazards, etc. so that any necessary safety precautions can
be put into effect.
To do this the shipper shall arrange, possibly in consultation with the producers, for the
cargo to be properly sampled and tested. Furthermore, the shipper should provide the ships
master and the port warden, if requested, with the appropriate certificates of test, as
applicable for a given cargo.
Before and during loading, auxiliary check tests of the moisture content may be carried out
using instruments designed specifically for that purpose, such as the SPEEDY MOISTURE
TESTER. Tests conducted with this instrument indicate a precision of 1% compared with
the laboratory method, i.e., with a laboratory reading of 10%, the SPEEDY reading could
range from, 9% to 11%. If the readings obtained by this method are consistently higher than
those shown on the certificate, loading of the cargo should cease and a further laboratory
test be conducted.
If the master has doubts as regards the appearance of condition of the cargo for safe
shipment, the following auxiliary method may be used on board ship or at the dockside to
perform a check test for approximately determining the possibility of flow:
Half fill a cylindrical can or similar container (0.5-1 litre capacity) with a sample of cargo.
Take the can in one hand and bring it down sharply from a height of about 0.2m to strike a
hard surface such as a solid table. Repeat the procedure twenty-five times at one or two
second intervals. Examine the surface for free moisture or fluid conditions. If free moisture
or a fluid condition appears, make arrangements to have additional laboratory tests on the
cargo conducted before it is accepted for loading.
COAL is very liable to spontaneous heating. If there is sufficient oxygen available,
combustion is liable to take place. The amount of heating that takes place depends on the
type of type coal and how much heat can be dispersed by ventilating the coal. Ventilation
can be a double-edged weapon as although it takes heat from the coal it also allows
unwanted oxygen into the coal. To keep the coal as cool as possible it should be stowed
away from hot bulkheads. To keep oxygen away from the coal only surface ventilation
should be allowed.
All spar ceiling or cargo battening should be removed as besides the liability of it to damage,
it can give unwanted air pockets in the coal. Unwanted air may also get into a cargo through
a temporary wooden bulkhead. If such a bulkhead has been constructed all cracks should be
sealed, preferably by pasting paper over both sides of the bulkhead.
Freshly mined coal absorbs oxygen, which, with extrinsic moisture, forms peroxides. These in
turn breakdown to form carbon monoxide and carbon dioxide.
Heat is produced by this exothermic reaction causing further oxidation and further heat. If
this heat is not dissipated ignition will occur. This is called Spontaneous combustion.
As this is essentially a surface reaction the smaller the surface available for the absorption of
oxygen the better. Every attempt should be made to prevent undue breakage of the coal
whilst it is being loaded. It may be noted that 1 MT of coal in an unbroken cube has a surface
area of about 3.72m2, whereas if it is broken up to pass through a 1.5mm mesh screen its
surface area is nearly 4000m2. If a large amount of breakage occurs the small coal with the
large surface area is found in the centre of the hold, whilst the large coal will roll down the
sides. This aggravates the situation, as the large coal gives a good path for air to flow to the
smaller coal where the spontaneous heating is most liable to occur.
Most coal fires in cargo occur at about tween deck level and this is the area where the
greatest attention should be paid to temperature and the restriction of through ventilation.

The following are recommendations for the carriage of coal.
The ventilators to the lower holds should be so arranged that they might be opened or
closed at will during the voyage.
As the critical temperature at which the process of spontaneous heating in coal becomes
greatly accelerated is in some varieties of coal as low as 36C, and generally is not much
higher, the need of keeping the exteriors surface of the hull, and thereby the interior of the
tween decks and holds, as cool as possible is manifest.
The iron decks of ships carrying coal in the tropics can be covered with dunnage to lessen
heating.
Suitable means should be provided for ascertaining from time to time the temperature of
the lower mass of coal, particularly below the hatchways, and this might be done by means
of two pipes leading down to the bottom of the coal at each hatchway.
The temperature tubes should have closed ends to prevent admission of air into the cargo.
The temperature of the coal at three heights should be taken daily.
Gas from the holds or tween decks space may find its way into shaft, peaks, chain lockers or
similar space unless the bulkheads and casings are maintained in gas tight conditions.
Naked lights should not be used in holds or other spaces in which gas may accumulate until
the spaces have been well ventilated.
Full use should, when necessary, be made of the breathing apparatus or smoke helmet and
the safety lamp, which form part of the ships statutory fire appliances.
The employment of the crew in chipping and painting below decks during the voyage should
be avoided. The danger from smoking should be realized and no oily waste, wood, old rope,
sacking etc. should be left below where it can become ignited by spontaneous heating
On arrival at the port of discharge the hold ventilators should be unplugged and the lower
hold well ventilated before commencing to work cargo.
Coal is frequently loaded from a single tip and earlier it was necessary to drift the vessel fore
and aft so that all holds may be filled. To keep these shifts to a minimum No.2 was first put
under the tip.
After about one third the capacity of the hold was loaded the vessel was shifted so that No.
3 was loaded to about one third of its capacity. Likewise the remaining after holds were
loaded and then the tip was shifted astern to reach No. 1, half the capacity was put in,
before shifting to No. 2, which was then filled.
The other after holds were now filled in order excepting the aftermost. The aftermost hold
and the No.1 were now worked so that the vessel would complete loading in a good trim.
Coal is sometimes graded, when this in so, care should be taken to prevent undue breakage.
Lowering the first few truckloads into the hold helps as do control of the rate of tipping
down and chute.
Some ports have conveyor belts and an endless bucket system for loading; this is excellent
for graded coal and also keeps the dust down with the ordinary coal.
Fortunately it is mainly the better coals, which are graded, and in generally these are not so
friable.
Coal will need to be trimmed and its angle of repose is quite high, especially if large coal is
loaded.
There is no danger for coal shifting unless it is the very small stuff known as mud coal, slurry
or duff.
This is very fine coal, almost dust, and if the moisture content is high it behaves almost like a
liquid.
Bulk Cargo (Grain)


Loading and Stowage of Bulk Grain
Before loading bulk the following preparations should be done:
Holds and tween deck thoroughly swept down.
All dunnage removed from cargo spaces or stowed at one and covered.
Bilges should be cleaned and sweetened
Bilges suctions should be tested
Tween deck scuppers should be covered with double weave separation cloth, edges to be
fixed with cement.
Any cracks between limber boards to be covered with separation cloth nailed down to
prevent the cargo from going into the bilges.
All pipelines passing through the bilges should be tested and any leaks discovered should be
fixed esp. fire mains, water ballast lines and bilge pumping out lines.
After the holds are swept and if required hosed down, the holds/ compartments are to be
inspected for any infestation.
The inspection should include all easily accessible areas together with inaccessible areas
including under the beams and hatch pontoon frames. In case fumigation is carried out prior
loading then the compartment has to be swept and again inspected for any dead insects and
rodents. The fumigant used should be compatible with the cargo to be carried.
For loading of Rice the fumigation may be carried out twice prior loading and on
completion of discharging.
The inspection for infestation should be very thorough since apart from later claims, some
ports especially in the US, the USDA inspectors would have to clear the ship for loading and
these inspectors are known to be very thorough.
Shifting of cargo
Certain bulk cargos have a tendency to shift and precautions must be taken to counteract
this tendency. These precautions are dealt with below:
Recommendation are made about the stowage of the cargo:
Weight = db (3L+B) tonnes
4.6
where d is the summer load draft
b is average breadth of lower hold
L is length of lower hold
B is the maximum moulded breadth
The height of the cargo pile peak should not exceed:
1.89 x d x S. F. (m
3
/tonne) metres
Angle of repose
This is the greatest angle from the horizontal to which a substance can be raised without it
shifting. Cargoes most liable to shift are those having a small angler of repose.
Angle of repose of 35 is taken as being the dividing line for bulk cargoes of lesser or greater
shifting hazard and cargoes having angles of repose of more or less than this figure are
considered separately.
Trimming
In compartments entirely filled with bulk grain the grain shall be trimmed so as to fill all the
spaces between the beams and in the wings and ends. In compartments partly filled with
bulk grain the grain shall be levelled whenever practicable.
The provision of a shifting boards or longitude bulkheads within 5% of the vessels moulded
breadth from the centre line or two or more longitudinal bulkheads or shifting boards with a
distance between of not more than 60% of the vessels moulded breadth. In the latter case
suitable sized trimming hatches are to be provided in the wings at intervals of not more than
7.62m., the end hatches being not more than 3.66m from transverse bulkheads.
In holds the shifting boards must extend downwards from the deck at least 2. 44m or
depth of hold whichever is the greater. In tween decks and in feeders, unless there is some
exemption they must extend from deck to deck. If the compartment is only partly filled with
grain, the shifting boards must extend from the bottom of the compartment to at 0.6m
above the surface of the bulk grain, however no shifting boards are necessary if the bulk
grain does not occupy more than of the hold or of the hold where there is a shaft
tunnel.
The Shifting boards must not be less than 50mm in thickness and are to have a 80mm
housing at the bulkhead. They must be adequately supported by wood minimum size
250mm x 50mm or metal uprights with a maximum spacing of 3.96mm and set in 80mm
housings top and bottom. The jointing of 50mm shifting boards must overlap by at least
230mm in way of the uprights.
If the uprights are made sufficiently strong and the length is not too great, shoring or staying
may be unnecessary. If wood shores are used they must be in a single piece securely fixed at
each end and heeled against the permanent structure of the ship, but not directly against
the side plating. The angle between the shore and the horizontal should be kept as small as
possible and must never exceed 45.
The size of the shore is dependent upon its length; a shore over 6.1m in length would be at
least 200m x 150mm. If stays are used they will be fitted horizontally and will consist of
75mm 6 x 12 galvanised flexible steel wire rope, secured with 25mm shackles to uprights
and frames and fitted with 32mm rigging screws in accessible positions.
If the uprights are not secured at the top, the uppermost shore or stay is to be not less than
0.46m from the top.
The vertical spacing of the shores or stays is obtained from tables in the rules.
GM
If a GM after correction for FSC of not less than 0.31m is maintained throughout the voyage
in one or two deck ships or 0.36m in other ships longitudinal bulkheads or shifting boards
are not required in the following positions, (except when linseed in bulk is being carried
therein)
Below and within 2.13m of a feeder which contains not less than 5% of the quantity of grain
in the space it feeds, but only in way a hatchway,
In feeders as above provided that the free grain surface will remain within the feeders
throughout the voyage allowing for a sinkage of 2% of the volume of the compartment fed
and a shift of the free grain surface to 12,
In way of the hatchway where the bulk grain has been saucered, provided that the hatchway
is filled with bagged grain or other suitable bagged cargo. The minimum depth of the bagged
cargo in the centre of the saucer to be 1.83m below the deck level. The grains to be stored
tightly up to the deck head in the other parts of the compartment,
In way of a hatchway in a compartment partly filled with bulk grain.

The surface of grain in a partly filled compartment is to be saucered with a minimum height
of 1.52m of bagged grain or other suitable cargo over the portion where there are no
shifting boards and 1.22m where there are shifting boards. This latter height is also required
when the bulk grain does not occupy more than 1/3 of the hold or of the hold where there
is a shaft tunnel.



The bagged grain shall be carried in sound bags, which shall be securely closed and well
filled. The bags or other suitable cargo shall be supported on suitable platforms which
consist of strong separation cloths with adequate overlapping or 25mm boards spaced not
more that 100mm apart laid on bearers not more than 1.22m apart.
Feeders are to be fitted to feed compartments entirely filled with bulk grain, except in deep
tanks not over moulded breadth of vessel in case GM c above.
They are to contain not less than 2% of the quantity of grain carried in the compartment,
which they feed. The boarding may be horizontal or vertical but must be sufficiently
supported by binders, shores or stays as laid down in the rules. Feeding holes are to be
provided about 0.61m apart in coamings, which extend more that 0.39m below the deck.
The diameter of the hole is 50mm or 88mm depending on coaming depth. Feeders are
assumed to be capable of feeding a distance of 7.62m.

If any part of the compartment is more that 7.62m (measured in a fore and aft line) from the
nearest feeder, the grain in the space beyond 7.62m is to be levelled off at a depth of at
least 1.83m below the deck and the space above is to be filled with bagged grain or suitable
cargo.
Loading two different cargoes in the same hold
Very occasionally, different types of grain are loaded into the same hold. The heavier grain is
loaded first and trimmed level over the entire area of the hold. The surface is covered with
separation cloths/ canvas, allowing for ample overlaps, at least 1m. The cloths are carried
well up the sides and ends of the compartment so that the next grain loaded will force them
against the plating between the frames and stiffeners, it has to be ensured that adequate
leeway is allowed for the separation cloth being taken up the sides and ends of the
compartment, since the lower cargo would settle down during the voyage and if this leeway
is not allowed for the cloth would exert a pull and tear off from the side moorings. This
would result in the cargo being mixed.
The lighter grain should be loaded carefully at first to avoid displacing the separation cloths.
Once the lighter cargo has been leveled off to a height of 0.5m all over the loading may
begin at the usual rate, care being taken to see that it is constantly leveled by adjusting the
loading chute inflow direction.
When bulk grain is carried in the tween deck of a two deck ship or in the upper tween deck
of a ship having more than two decks or above deck the following are to be complied with:
Either the GM shall not be less than that specified in paragraph GM or the total quantity of
bulk grain or other cargo carried in the specified space shall not exceed 28% by weight of the
total cargo below the tween deck.
Partly filled deck area in the above space is not to exceed 93m2,
The spaces which contain bulk grain are to be divided into lengths of not more than 30.5m
by transverse bulkheads, or if not so divided the excess space beyond 30.5m is to be
entirely filled with bagged grain or other suitable cargo.
Vessels having a GM less than that specified in paragraph GM are not permitted to have
more than two holds or compartments partly filled with bulk grain wherein the overstowing
cargo does not fill the space to the deck head. Feeders are not compartments and so they
are exempted from this requirement.
Double bottom tanks used to meet a stability requirement are to be adequately subdivided
longitudinally unless the width of the tank at its length does not exceed 60% of the
vessels moulded breadth.
A grain-loading plan may be supplied to certain ships, which may then be exempted from
some of the provisions outlined above due to their special construction (such as tanker and
bulk carriers), which prevents shifting of the bulk cargo. However, the resulting list of the
vessel must not exceed 5 if the grain settles by 2% and shifts to an angle of 12 from its
original position.

Cargo Care


Inspection of Holds prior Loading:
All holds should be inspected prior commencing loading this may be done while the ship is
enroute or just after completion of discharging and prior loading at the same port.
A thorough cleaning of the hold is undertaken; the bilges are cleaned and tried out with an
amount of water. If required the hold is hosed down and the water pumped to holding
tanks.
This ensures that there is no refuse lying within the holds and that the bilges after loading
would if necessary be capable of being pumped out.
The bilges if with offensive smell have to be sweetened.
This is again a necessity to prevent any food cargo from being tainted.
All other lines in the hold are to be pressed up and checked for leaks. Air pipes and sounding
pipes passing through the hold spaces are to be checked up with a head of water.
The above ensures that ingress of water into the hold is minimized.
The hold bottom has to be inspected for any dents in the plating.
Some DBs may be dedicated for fuel oil/ ballast as such this would give a fair idea if the
plates have set in or if their appears to be a deep indentation/
All spar dunnage at the ship sides are to be fitted and the frames at the sides have to be
inspected.
This is done so that if bale cargo is loaded the shipside steel does not come in contact with
the cargo.
The used lashing material has to be removed including all temporary eyes, which had been
made.
And if this is not done then the same eyes may be inadvertently be used for new lashing
lashing wires are for one use only and the risk of parted lashing arises by using old lashings.
Use of Dunnage
There are basically a few reasons why dunnage is so necessary on general cargo ships while
loading general cargo.
Of prime importance is to keep the cargo away from the steel bottom of the hold. The steel
bottom condenses the moisture in the air and these droplets of moisture over a period of
time can damage cargo. This is known as ship sweat. And only by dunnage can the cargo be
safeguarded against this. Good ventilation certainly helps but some amount of sweat is ever
present.
The second reason why dunnage is spread about on the holds is to bring about some amount
of frictional resistance between the cargo and the steel bottom. Thus lashing becomes
easier. Another factor is the dunnage helps in spreading the cargo weight evenly.
In the event of small ingress of water the dunnage helps in channeling the water into the
bilge wells, if this were not prevented then any accidental ingress of water would be
absorbed or retained in pools by the cargo.
If the hold bottom is dirty due to stain and hard coating of earlier cargo and hosing down is
not possible then a double layer of dunnage would prevent the cargo in coming into contact
with the stain.
In general holds are laid with double dunnage while tween decks are layered with single
dunnage.
The size of the dunnage may vary but usually they are about 6 X 1 X 6 feet. These are laid
about 6 to 10 apart, though the gaps may again vary depending upon the nature of the
cargo. The bottom tier of the hold dunnaging may be laid in the fore and aft direction and
the top tier in the athwart ship direction. At the aft of the hold a clearing of two feet is laid
with the bottom tier in the athwart ship direction. This helps in the water/ condensation
from trickling to aft and then subsequently finding the bilge well.
Tween deck dunnaging is of one tier exceptionally may be two tiers and it really doesnt
make much difference if the dunnage is laid out in the fore and aft direction or in the
athwart ship direction.
For heavy cargo where spreading the weight takes precedence over other hazards, the
dunnage or timber used is generally 4 X 4 X 6 feet (they may be also of stouter variety).
These heavy timbers are laid out in the fore and aft direction in order that the load is spread
on as many frame spaces as possible.
Dunnaging also forms a very important factor when ventilation is of primary concern
especially when loading a consignment of Rice. Extra channels are created within the bagged
cargo to allow good ventilation. Together with double dunnaging being provided between
stacks of 4-6 bags. If this is not done then the cargo sweat that may be generated is not
removed and condenses on the cargo itself allowing the cargo to rot.
Dunnage is used primarily for the protection of the cargo from sweat related damage and
consequently it is used so that the cargo does not get too closely packed thereby obstructing
to the flow of air.
Special cargoes use more dunnage where air channels have to be kept so that the airflow is
not hampered. Rice is one such cargo.
Advantage of dunnaging is also from the fact that it spreads the weight of the cargo evenly
all across the tank top or tween deck top, but this advantage is a side benefit, the main
reason is protection from sweat. And to some extent from heat from the boiler spaces in the
engine room.
Dunnage is thus primarily for the prevention of sweat damage to cargo.
The structure of the ship is made of steel, this steel being a good conductor of heat cools
down faster than wood as such the temperature of the steel may fall below the dew point of
the air within the compartment leading to sweat. However if this steel can be prevented
from coming into contact with the cargo by a layer of wood, which being a poor conductor of
heat does not cool down so drastically, then the effect of the sweat coming into contact with
the cargo and thus damaging the same may be limited.

If despite precautions being taken, sweating does occur, the damage caused may be
minimized by adequate dunnaging of the boundaries of the compartment.
The permanent dunnage of the ships side is known as SPAR Ceiling or CARGO BATTENS. It
consists of timber about 150mm x 50mm fitted over the side frames. It is usually fitted
horizontally into cleats on the frames. There is a vertical distance of not more than 230mm
between the battens. On some ships the spars are fitted vertically and this gives better
protection to the cargo as well as it suffers less damage and is thus more long lasting. Spar
ceiling may also be fitted on the bulkheads at the ends of the compartment; this is especially
the case where the bulkhead is the engine room bulkhead.

The tank top should be covered with a double layer of dunnage. The bottom layer is usually
100mm x 50mm or 150mm x 50mm spaced about 300mm apart and laid athwart ships to
ensure free drainage to the bilges. If the ship has only bilge wells then it is preferable to lay
the dunnage in the fore and aft direction.
The upper layer consists of 25mm boards about 150mm in width laid at right angles to the
bottom layer, about 150mm - 300mm apart.
Occasionally burlap/Hessian is laid over the dunnage - this improves the appearance of the
hold but restricts air circulation through the cargo,
A permanent wooden ceiling more than 65mm thick is often laid on the tank top in the
square of the hatch; this is to protect the tank top and does not replace the dunnaging.
A similar arrangement of dunnage will be found in the tween decks, although double
dunnaging is not so commonly found here. Care should be taken to have a good layer of
dunnage at the ships side over the stringer plate, as water tends to accumulate there.
Secondhand timber is frequently used for dunnage. It should always be inspected to ensure
that it is free of stains, odour, nails and large splinters. New timber also has its drawbacks; it
should be free of resin and should not have a strong smell of new wood.
The top of the cargo is protected by a covering (especially under the stringer plate) by
matting, wood dunnage or some sort of waterproof paper, or plastic sheets.
Single Fore and Aft dunnaging the most common dunnaging:

The second Layer

Contamination of Cargo
Cargoes -which taint easily, e.g. tea, flour, sugar, should be kept well away from strong
smells. If a pungent (strong smelling) cargo e.g. cloves, cinnamon has been carried
previously, deodorizing of the compartment will be necessary.
Dirty Cargoes should never be carried in the same compartment as clean cargoes.
A very general classification for dirty cargoes could include paints and oils, steelwork,
animal products other than foodstuffs. Similarly a general classification of clean cargo could
include food products and manufactured vegetable products e.g. clothing. Naturally there
will be exceptions to both of the above groups.
Reasons for a general inspection of holds
All holds should be inspected prior commencing loading this may be done while the ship is
enroute or just after completion of discharging and prior loading at the same port.
A thorough cleaning of the hold is undertaken; the bilges are cleaned and tried out with an
amount of water. If required the hold is hosed down and the water pumped to holding
tanks.
This ensures that there is no refuse lying within the holds and that the bilges after loading
would if necessary be capable of being pumped out.
The bilges if with offensive smell have to be sweetened.
This is again a necessity to prevent any food cargo from being tainted.
All other lines in the hold are to be pressed up and checked for leaks. Air pipes and sounding
pipes passing through the hold spaces are to be checked up with a head of water.
The above ensures that ingress of water into the hold is minimized.
The hold bottom has to be inspected for any dents in the plating.
Some DBs may be dedicated for fuel oil/ ballast as such this inspection would give a fair idea
if the plates have set in or if their appears to be a deep indentation.
All spar dunnage at the ship sides are to be fitted and the frames at the sides have to be
inspected.
This is done so that if bale cargo is loaded the shipside steel does not come in contact with
the cargo.
The used lashing material has to be removed including all temporary eyes, which had been
made.
And if this is not done then the same eyes may be inadvertently be used for new lashing -
lashing wires are for one use only and the risk of parted lashing arises by using old lashings.
Bilge and Suction Wells
Bilges and bilge wells should be thoroughly cleaned prior loading any cargo and especially if
the previous cargo was oil cakes or such other cargo.
Bilges should be cleaned, the suctions tried out and then the bilges should be sweetened
with pine oil or such. The bilges should be finally dried.
Prior loading of cargo all bilge wells should be cleaned and then filled with water and the
water then pumped out.
Timings for pumping out the water should be noted and compared with the pump efficiency.
While filling the bilge well the sounding as measured by the sounding rod should be checked
against the actual as observed inside the bilge well.
The sounding pipe should be checked for any blockage.
The striker plate underneath the sounding pipe also should be checked for wear down.
Deep Tanks
Deep tanks are tanks on general cargo ships, which are accessible from the hold. The lines
leading to such tanks are to be blanked off since a slight leakage in such lines can damage
cargo in the holds. The man holes to these tanks also has to be ensured that they are water
tight. If any liquid is loaded then the thermometer conduits should be checked for any
leakage as well the heating coils have to be tested prior loading. The pumping out
arrangement has to be tried out before hand.
Covering of Bilge Wells
These suction filters are very easily taken care of. Hessian is used to form a pad comprising
of a double layer and this is wrapped around the loose filter covers of the drain wells. The
pad should not be so thick that it would absorb water and prevent the water from draining
into the wells.
For limber boards the same pads are nailed down between the adjacent boards. And they
then serve the same purpose, that is prevent any debris from clogging up the suctions.
Care of Ballast Lines
This is very important, since the inadvertent ballasting of the deep tanks would damage
cargo loaded in the deep tanks.
There are many instances of the above happening, bulk carriers of yesteryears often had a
hold dedicated as a water ballast tank, in 1978 a new ship off the building yard in
Gothenburg had not blanked off the ballast lines since the line had a double segregation. The
vessel proceeded to load grain in a US port and on arriving at a UK port for discharging her
cargo, it was found that a substantial amount of cargo in the mentioned hold had become
damaged due to leakage of water from the ballast lines.
Separation Of Cargo
Separation of cargo for the above cases is required to prevent claims arising due to short
landing and later complications with port authorities and customs for cargo left behind on a
ship for which duty is payable
There may be numerous ways of separating cargoes bound for different ports or for same
port and different consignees. In general though not all are any hard and fast rule the
principle is to ensure that cargoes destined for a particular port or consignee is delivered
accordingly.
Failure to do this at the time of loading would create chaos at the discharging port, with
short landings residual cargo, since the excess cargo that would remain would not be
permitted to be discharged in a subsequent port without creating more paperwork and
expenditure. In fact cases have arisen where ships have been arrested for landing cargo not
destined for that port customs take a very strict view of this in many parts of the world.
Thus it is of paramount importance to ensure that cargoes are efficiently separated and
marked so that to an un-initiated the cargo discharge may proceed smoothly.
Port markings may be made by different means for different cargoes, the following are some
of the few:
Hessian separation strips, in various colours used to encircle the parcel
Shoring, blocking and securing the later port cargo, since this would have to be done in any
case at the discharging port.
Paper sheets
Lashing ropes with coloured strips of cloth wrapped around the joints-turnbuckles/ shackles/
bulldog clips.
Different cargo used as a separation between two similar cargoes.
Water based colours used as port marking or consignee marking this method though is
used more often for consignee marking.
Where bare steel cargo is loaded oil based paint is also sometimes used, since the others
may not be suitable due to partial rusting of the plates as well that hessian strips are in-
efficient for these cargoes.
Valuable Cargo
Valuable cargo such as Banknotes or mail earlier used to be carried on general cargo ships in
special lockers. If such lockers were not available then some dedicated space, which could be
effectively secured, was made available. Newer ships do not have such allotted spaces and
today most cargoes of such nature is shipped in containers.
Personal effects are also shipped and unless stated as very valuable is loaded in ordinary
holds and are quickly over stowed with other cargo. As long as the over stowage is
incomplete the hold is strictly watched and the watchman is done away with once the cargo
is over stowed and the entrance to the hold is locked.
All mail and personal effects are tallied on board by shore staff as well by a ships staff, the
results are then verified. In case of any dispute the authorities are informed before a general
protest is made.
Ventilation
On general cargo ships one of the largest number of cargo claims is made for goods, which,
have been damaged in transit. Barring breakages and handling damage the most common
damage is caused by sweat.
SWEAT is formed when the water vapour in the air condenses out into water droplets when
the air is cooled below its dew point.
The water droplets may be deposited onto the ships structure known as ships sweat or
on to the cargo known as cargo sweat.
Ships sweat may run down, and may also drip onto the cargo.
Cargo sweat occurs when the cargo is cold and the incoming air is warm. Cargo sweat that is
formed may be absorbed by the cargo or if steel may run down after rusting the cargo.
To avoid sweat and its effects it is imperative that wet and dry bulb temperatures of the air
entering and the air contained in the cargo compartment are taken at frequent intervals
(once a watch).
If the temperature of the outside air is less than the dew point of the air already in the
compartment, sweating will occur.
This gives rise to ship sweat and is most usually found on voyages from warm places to
colder places. Especially in winter, on voyages from Singapore to Northern China.
Similarly if the temperature of the air in the compartment (or the cargo) is lower than the
dew point of the incoming air sweating will again occur.
This gives rise to cargo sweat and usually occurs on voyage from cold to warmer places.
Especially in winter, on voyages from Northern China to Singapore.
If the latter of the foregoing conditions is encountered ventilation from the outside air
should be stopped until more favourable conditions obtain.
It should be noted that indiscriminate ventilation often does more harm than no ventilation
whatsoever.
It should also be noted that variation in the angles of the ventilators from the wind cause
very different rates of airflow within the compartment.
The angle, which the ships course makes with the wind, also affects the flow of air.
In general the greatest airflow occurs when the lee ventilators are trimmed on the wind and
the weather ventilators are trimmed away from the wind.

Showing air circulation with lee vents on the wind and weather vents off.
This is THROUGH VENTILATION.
If the dew point temperature of the air in the hold can be kept below the temperature of the
ships structure (decks, sides and bulkheads) and the cargo, there will be no danger of sweat
forming.
This condition cannot always be achieved without some means of mechanically circulating
and drying the air in the hold.
With mechanical ventilation baffle plates are fitted in the hold and tween deck ventilators,
so that air can be prevented from the outside when conditions are unfavourable. At these
times the air in the hold is re-circulated and, if necessary, it can be dried by passing it
through a de- humidifying unit.
It must be emphasized that the best results can only be obtained from these systems when
air temperatures and dew points are carefully observed and the makers instructions
followed implicitly.
The adequate ventilation of container cargoes poses many problems and experiments have
been made with portable ventilation units fitted into the individual containers. However, it
would appear the most common practice is to give through ventilation for the container
compartments and hope that the ventilator grilles on the side of the containers give the
correct flow air over the contents. It may be pointed out that vastly different types of cargo
may be loaded in adjacent containers in the cell stowage and in most cases the ships
personnel are unaware of the contents of individual containers.
Refrigerated cargo
The cleanliness of cargo compartments for the transport of refrigerated foodstuffs is more
important than for any other cargoes. Failure to clean properly can result in mould growth
and rotting of fruit and vegetables. Spaces are swept down and all loose dirt removed. Any
remaining residues of previous cargoes will have to be scraped or washed off. After cleaning,
the spaces are sprayed with a mild disinfectant such as weak sodium hypochlorite solution,
which also helps to remove odours. Alternatively, an ozoniser may be used for the same
purpose, especially after the carriage of a strong-smelling cargo like oranges.
Holds and lockers are then cooled to carriage temperature. It is essential that any dunnage
to be used is placed in the space before pre-cooling, since the use of warm dunnage could
cause considerable damage. It is common practice to have holds and refrigerating machinery
inspected by an independent surveyor to certify that the ship is in a fit condition for the
carriage of the intended cargo.
The cargo should be inspected ashore by the ships officers before loading to see that it is in
good condition and has been properly pre-cooled where that is required. A sample of the
cargo should be thoroughly inspected for signs of mould or other damage and its
temperature checked by inserting a steel-tipped thermometer into the product. A record of
the inspection and temperatures recorded should be kept. Similar random inspections of the
cargo should be made during the loading. Any damaged products or carcasses which have
thawed should be rejected or loaded separately. They could cause spoiling of the remainder
of the cargo which was in good condition.
The carriage temperatures are stipulated by the shipper of the goods and should be adhered
to as closely as possible. Temperatures are taken and recorded at frequent regular intervals
and entered in a log-book. Many ships are also equipped with thermographs, which provide
a continuous record of compartment temperatures. In the event of claims for cargo damage,
the records and thermograph charts will be required as evidence that the correct
temperatures were maintained.
In general cargo ships with a limited amount of refrigerated space it is usual to arrange, as
far as possible, for the refrigerated cargo to be loaded last and at its destination to be
discharged first.
When refrigerated cargo is to be, carried, specially insulated compartments must be
provided. The insulation on the sides, top and bottom of the compartment may be of cork,
fiberglass wool or polyurethane rigid foam. It will be retained in position by galvanised
sheeting.
The cooling may be effected by either circulating cold brine (relative density 1.047) through
pipes on the sides and deck head, or by blowing cold air through the compartment.
The compartment must be scrupulously clean when loading meat and dairy products. It is
recommended that after sweeping out, the compartment is wiped down with cloths wrung
out in a cleansing fluid; this will prevent the formation of mould on woodwork. If a fruit or
other strong smelling cargo has been carried in the compartment previously, it will also be
necessary to deodorize it. Spaces are swept down and all loose dirt removed. Any remaining
residues of previous cargoes will have to be scraped or washed off. After cleaning, the
spaces are sprayed with a mild disinfectant such as weak sodium hypochlorite solution,
which also helps to remove odours. Alternatively, an ozoniser may be used for the same
purpose, especially after the carriage of a strong-smelling cargo like oranges.
The bilges should be cleaned and sweetened and their suctions tested. The brine traps
should be cleaned out, refilled and tested. This also applies to those in the tween deck.
The brine traps serve a dual purpose they prevent the cold air from reaching the bilges and
thus freezing out the water in the pipes and also they prevent the bad odour from the bilges
reaching the cold chambers.
If the vessel is fitted with brine-pipes the side baffle boards (which keep the cargo clear of
the pipes) should be removed and the pipes wiped clean. If fitted with the cold air circulation
system, air ducts should be cleaned, this is particularly important if a dusty cargo has been
carried previously.
Any fat or grease spots on the deck should be scraped up.
The insulation should be inspected and any repairs necessary to it or to the sparring, which is
attached to it, must be effected.
Thermometers should, be made ready and, where fitted, thermometer pipes should be
erected.
Any ventilators leading to the compartment must be plugged. Air change plugs should also
be in position.
Dunnage must be pre-cooled before use. In most-trades the dunnage will be laid before the
loading commences.
If the compartment is fitted with gratings, these will have been scrubbed before being laid
down.
When chilled meat is to be carried, the requisite number of meat bars, hooks and chain will
have to be placed in the compartment for pre-cooling.
The hook and chains should be sterilized (this is usually done ashore).
When the compartment has been prepared it will be cooled to the loading temperature. It
will then be ready for the surveyor to carry out a loading port survey. In most cases this is in
essential before any cargo is loaded.
When the cargo has been loaded the portable brine-pipes will be fitted in the. square of the
hatch. Afterwards the insulated plug hatches must be shipped and fitted as tightly as
possible.
It is frequently necessary to paste paper over the joints to keep the hatch as airtight as
possible. In extreme cases the joints may have to be caulked and pitched. In the latter case,
the greatest. care must be taken when opening up as pitch and oakum falling onto carcass
meat can stain it.
When general cargo or frozen cargo at a different temperature is being carried in the deck
above, a layer of sawdust is often put over the hatches and deck to absorb any
condensation.
Occasionally it may be necessary to load cargo through a tween deck which contains
refrigerated cargo. The refrigeration should be stopped whilst the hatches are open,
otherwise an undue amount of frost may form. If this forms on brine pipes it will act as
insulation and prevent further cooling.
Refrigerated containers with their own built in cooling units are to be inspected as
thoroughly as for chambers above that is if they are being stuffed on board, this is
extremely rare. In general the containers are pre-cooled ashore and then are stuffed at the
providers place or in the dock from refrigerated trucks. The inspections are done by shore
surveyors.
Prior loading all the ships power points for these containers are to be tested and logged
down.
While receiving the containers the containers are to be inspected for any dents or gashes on
the body and the temperature card (circular) is to be noted.
The temperature is to be noted, however the temperature may a bit high on loading and it
comes down after the ships power is switched on. The temperature graph is to be monitored
and any sign of heating up is to be prevented. Some units have drawings to do some sort of
emergency arrangements if the unit fails during the voyage.
The graph card needs to be renewed once the time scale gets over and these are kept as
spare on board and are to be replaced by fresh cards, the filled in cards are to be kept with
the cargo/ chief officer for handing them ashore prior discharging.
Temperature records are vital in both the methods of carriage. Temperatures are to be
recorded at least three times a day and all the points provided and the same is to be
recorded, if automatic recorders are provided then the visual sightings also should be used
for checking.
For containers too the same procedure is to be followed, visual sightings are recorded
together with the automatic recording.
All records are to be kept safely are to be handed over (copies) to the shore authorities after
discharging. These records are vital in case there are claims about the cargo and the
temperature records are the only proof the ship has to refute the claims.
Prior loading the cargo in pallets are to be inspected (non containerized) by ships officer
together with the surveyor. Often the cargo is brought to the jetty and the packages may
show signs of softening (thaw) these are to be rejected. Also depending on the shippers
agreeing the temperature probes (which may puncture the cases) may be inserted to note
the temperature, this however may not be allowed since they apparently damage the cases
(paper hardboard). Any staining of the cases again is to be investigated and rejected if
necessary. Reefer cargo is loaded last and discharged first. All cargo is tallied on board and
ashore since some are liable for pilferage shrimps as such.
Dangerous Goods


Classes, divisions, packing groups
Definitions
Substances (including mixtures and solutions) and articles subject to the provisions of this
Code are assigned to one of the classes 1 -9 according to the hazard or the most
predominant of the hazards they present. Some of these classes are subdivided into
divisions. These classes or divisions are as listed below:
Class 1: Explosives
Division 1.1: substances and articles, which have a mass explosion hazard
Division 1.2: substances and articles, which have a projection, hazard but not a mass
explosion hazard
Division 1.3: substances and articles, which have a fire hazard and either a minor blast
hazard or a minor projection hazard or both, but not a mass explosion hazard
Division 1.4: substances and articles, which present no significant hazard
Division 1.5: very insensitive substances, which have a mass explosion hazard
Division 1.6: extremely insensitive articles which do not have a mass explosion hazard
Class 2: Gases
Class 2.1: flammable gases
Class 2.2: non-flammable, non-toxic gases
Class 2.3: toxic gases
Class 3: Flammable liquids
Class 4: Flammable solids; substances liable to spontaneous combustion; substances
which, in contact with water, emit flammable gases
Class 4.1: flammable solids, self-reactive substances and desensitized explosives
Class 4.2: substances liable to spontaneous combustion
Class 4.3: substances, which, in contact with water, emit flammable gases
Class 5: Oxidizing substances and organic peroxides
Class 5.1: oxidizing substances
Class 5.2: organic peroxides
Class 6: Toxic and infectious substances
Class 6.1: toxic substances -
Class 6.2: infectious substances
Class 7: Radioactive material
Class 8: Corrosive substances
Class 9: Miscellaneous dangerous substances and articles
The numerical order of the classes and divisions is not that of the degree of danger.
Marking, labelling and placarding
Packages containing dangerous goods shall be durably marked with the correct technical
name; trade names alone shall not be used.
Packages containing dangerous goods shall be provided with distinctive labels or stencils of
the labels, or placards, as appropriate, so as to make clear the dangerous properties of the
goods contained therein.
The method of marking the correct technical name and of affixing labels or applying stencils
of labels, or of affixing placards on packages containing dangerous goods, shall be such that
this information will still be identifiable on packages surviving at least three months
immersion in the sea. In considering suitable marking, labelling and placarding methods,
account shall be taken of the durability of the materials used and of the surface of the
package.
Packages containing dangerous goods shall be so marked and labeled except that:
.1 packages containing dangerous goods of a low degree of hazard or packed in limited
quantities or
.2 when special circumstances permit, packages that are stowed and handled in units that
are identified by labels or placards; may be exempted from labelling requirements.
General information prior loading/ discharging
The duty officer entrusted with the loading of the dangerous goods should have all the
relevant data regarding the dangerous goods that would be loaded, these would include:
Copy of the document from the shipper regarding the cargo
Classification of the DG
Quantity to be loaded
Proposed stowage
Type of packages
Shipping name that is the correct technical name
Segregation required from other cargo as well as from other DG
MFAG and EmS requirement for the safe handling of the cargo
Any fire hazard as per IMDG
Any temperature/ wetness restriction for the loading of the cargo
UN Numbers and Proper Shipping Names
Dangerous goods are assigned to UN Numbers and Proper Shipping Names according to
their hazard classification and their composition.
Dangerous goods commonly transported are listed in the Dangerous Goods List. Where an
article or substance is specifically listed by name, it should be identified in transport by the
Proper Shipping Name in the Dangerous Goods List. For dangerous goods not specifically
listed by name, generic or not otherwise specified entries are provided to identify the
article or substance in transport.
Each entry in the Dangerous Goods List is assigned a UN Number. This list also contains
relevant information for each entry, such as hazard class, subsidiary risk(s) (if any), packing
group (where assigned), packing and tank transport provisions, EmS, segregation and
stowage, properties and observations, etc.
Entries in the Dangerous Goods List are of the following four types:
Single entries for well-defined substances or articles e.g.
UN 1090 acetone
UN 1194 ethyl nitrite solution
Generic entries for well-defined groups of substances or articles e.g.
UN 1133 adhesives
UN 1266 perfumery product
Information on the special measures to be taken when a certain dangerous cargo is
handled
Additionally the chief officer should have attached relevant extracts from the IMDG code in
particular all the emergencies that could arise with the handling of the cargo. Also the
emergency clean-up measures as well as the first aid requirement as per the EmS
(Emergency Schedule of the IMDG) and MFAG.
Any special precautions mention as per the Dangerous List should be extracted.
Compatibility risks should be ascertained.
For example if the following cargo (class 3) is to be loaded, then:
Stowage of goods of class 3
The vapours from all substances of class 3 have a narcotic effect, and prolonged inhalation
may result in unconsciousness. Deep or prolonged narcosis may lead to death.
Class 3 substances should be stowed as indicated in the Dangerous Goods List. However,
substances with a flashpoint of 23C (c.c). or less packaged in jerricans, plastics (3Hl, 3H2),
drums, plastics (lHl,lH2) and plastics receptacles in a plastic drum (6HH1,6HH2)should be
stowed on, deck only unless packed in a closed cargo transport unit.
The substances of this class should be kept as cool as reasonably practicable during transit.
They should, in general, be stowed away from all possible sources of heat.
Adequate precautions should be taken to protect the flammable liquids from heat
emanating from bulkheads or other sources. Ventilation should be provided which should
effectively remove flammable vapours from the cargo space.
Adequate measures should be taken to prevent the penetration of leaking liquid or vapour
into any other part of the ship. Vapours may not necessarily be lighter than air and may sink
to the lower levels of a cargo space where they may be accidentally ignited and a flashback
to the flammable liquids may occur.
Whenever flammable liquids with a flashpoint of 23C c.c. or less are transported in portable
tanks, the stowage should be such that leaking vapours are unlikely to penetrate the
accommodation, machinery spaces and other work areas via entrances or other openings in
bulkheads or through ventilation ducts.
Where it is deemed necessary for a substance of this class to be stowed clear of living
quarters, it is included in the Dangerous Goods List.
On ships carrying passengers, substances in this class should be stowed well away from any
deck or spaces provided for the use of passengers. When such substances are transported
on board roll-on/roll-off ships, see chapter 7.4.
End extract
Reporting of incidents involving dangerous goods
When an incident takes place involving the loss or likely loss overboard of packaged
dangerous goods into the sea, the master, or other person having charge of the ship, shall
report the particulars of such an incident without delay and to the fullest extent possible to
the nearest coastal State. The report shall be based on the guidelines and general principles
adopted by IMO for dangerous goods, harmful substances and/or marine pollutants.
In the event of the ship referred to in paragraph 1 being abandoned, or in the event of a
report from such a ship being incomplete or unobtainable, the owner, charterer, manager or
operator of the ship, or their agents shall, to the fullest extent possible, assume the
obligations placed upon the master by this regulation.
The duty officer when he discovers an incident or accident has to immediately raise the
alarm and inform the Master regarding the same. The crew on deck should be the first to
renders assistance as well as start the clean up operations as well as try to minimise the
incident under the supervision of the duty officer as per the guidelines laid down for that
cargo as per the IMDG code and the Dangerous cargo list.
Actions to be taken
All actions after an accident are to be as per the following documents which have detailed
instructions for all types of emergencies.
The following gives a basic layout of a rescue scenario.
The IMO/WHO/ILO Medical First Aid Guide for Use in Accidents Involving Dangerous Goods
(MFAG) is the Chemicals Supplement to the International Medical Guide for Ships (IMGS),
which is published by the World Health Organization (WHO), Geneva.
The Maritime Safety Committee adopted this revised text of the Guide in May 1998, for use
in association with Amendment 30-00 of the IMDG Code, and will be further amended as
and when, necessary.
Table 1
RESCUE
Rescuers must be adequately protected from exposure before entering a contaminated area
in order to avoid injury.
When a chemical is unidentified, worst-case assumptions concerning toxicity must be
assumed.
ARRIVAL AT SCENE
Upon arrival at the scene, an initial assessment of the situation should be made and the size
of the incident should be determined.
Rescuers must NOT:
Enter a contaminated area without using a pressure-demand self-contained breathing
apparatus and wearing full protective clothing;
Enter an enclosed space unless they are trained members of a rescue team and follow
correct procedures;
Walk through any spilled materials;
Allow unnecessary contamination of equipment;
Attempt to recover shipping papers or manifests from contaminated area unless adequately
protected;
Become exposed while approaching a potentially contaminated area;
Attempt rescue unless trained and equipped with appropriate personal protective
equipment (PPE) and protective clothing for the situation.
QUICKLY ESTABLISH AN EXCLUSION OR HOT ZONE
Assume that anyone leaving the exclusion zone is contaminated and should be assessed and
decontaminated, if necessary.
Do not remove non-ambulatory casualties from the exclusion zone unless properly trained
personnel with the appropriate PPE are available and decontamination has been
accomplished.
INITIAL TRIAGE OF CASUALTIES (SORTING AND PRIORITY)
One unconscious casualty
Give immediate treatment to the unconscious casualty only, and
Send for help.
Several unconscious casualties
If there is more than one unconscious casualty:
Send for help, and
Give appropriate treatment to the worst casualty in the priority order of:
Casualties who have stopped breathing or have no pulse (see Table 2).
Casualties who ARE UNCONCIOUS (see Table 4).
Casualty is unconscious but breathing
If the casualty is unconscious or cyanotic (bluish skin) but breathing, connect to portable
oxygen.
Neck or back trauma
Apply neck and back support before moving casualty if there is any question of neck or back
trauma. Priority. Airway, Breathing, Circulation (A-B-C)
Initial management of Airway, Breathing and Circulation (A-B-C, see table 2) is all that should
be undertaken while there is potential for further injury to the casualty or to response
personnel.
Gross decontamination
If the casualty is contaminated with chemicals, gross decontamination should be performed.
Cut away or remove all suspected contaminated clothing, including jewellery and watches.
Brush or wipe off any obvious contamination.
Care should be taken to protect open wounds from contamination.
Every effort should be made by personnel to avoid contact with potentially contaminated
casualties. Rescuers should wear protective clothing, if necessary.
Cover or wrap casualty to prevent spread of contamination.
Removal of casualties from exclusion zone
Once gross decontamination has been performed, the casualties should be removed from
the exclusion zone.
If casualties can walk, lead them out of the exclusion zone to an area where
decontamination and further evaluation can take place.
If casualties are unable to walk, remove them on stretchers. If stretchers are unavailable,
carefully carry or drag casualties to an area where decontamination and further evaluation
can take place.
DECONTAMINATION
Decontaminate from head down
Take care not to introduce contaminants into open wounds.
Decontaminate exposed wounds and eyes before intact skin areas.
Cover wounds with a waterproof dressing after decontamination.

For external contamination, begin with the least aggressive methods
Limit mechanical or chemical irritation of the skin.
Wash contaminated area gently under a stream of water for at least ten minutes, and wash
carefully with soap and warm (never hot) water, scrubbing with a soft brush or surgical
sponge.
Reduce level of contaminants
Remove contaminants to the level that they are no longer a threat to casualty or response
personnel.
Isolate the casualty from the environment to prevent the spread of any remaining
contaminants. Contain runoff; bag contaminated clothing
If possible, contain all runoff from decontamination procedures for proper disposal.
Ensure that all potentially contaminated casualty clothing and belongings have been
removed and placed in properly labelled bags.
SUMMARY OF TREATMENT OF CASUALTIES
Assign highest priorities to Airway, Breathing, Circulation (ABC) and then decontamination.
Complete primary and secondary assessments as conditions allow.
Obtain information on chemicals to which the casualty has been exposed from shipping
papers, labels or other documents.
If there are multiple casualties, direct attention to the most seriously affected individuals
first.
Treat symptoms and signs as appropriate and when conditions allow.
Obtain RADIO MEDICAL ADVICE when conditions allow.
Perform invasive procedures only in uncontaminated areas.
Reassess the casualty frequently, because many chemicals have latent physiological effects.
Delay preventive measures until the casualty is decontaminated.
TRANSFER TO SHIPS HOSPITAL
Casualties who have been stabilized (airway, breathing and circulation) and decontaminated
can be transported to the ships hospital for further evaluation.
Further advice: see IMDG appendix 1
Packing requirements as per the Dangerous Goods List of the IMDG Code
Structure of the Dangerous Goods List.
The Dangerous Goods List is divided into 18 columns.
Among them the packing requirements are specified in column 8 and in column 9
Column 8 Packing Instructions: This column contains alpha numeric codes, which refer to
the relevant packing instructions. The packing instructions indicate the packagings (including
large packagings) which may be used for the transport of substances and articles.
A code including the letter P refers to packing instructions for the use of packagings
described in IMDG Chapters 6.1, 6.2 or 6.3
A code including the letter LP refers to packing instructions for the use of large packagings
described in IMDG Chapters 6.6
A code including the letter BP refers to the bulk packagings described in IMDG Chapters
4.3
When a code including the letters P, LP or BP is not provided, it means that the
substance is not allowed in that type of packaging.
When N/R is included in this column, it means that the substance or article need not be
packaged.
Column 9 Special packing provisions: This column contains alphanumeric codes, which refer
to the relevant special packing provisions specified in 4.1.4. The special packing provisions
indicate the packagings (including large packagings).
A special packing provisions including the letters PP refers to a special packing provision
applicable to the use of a packing instruction bearing the code P in 4.1.4.1
A special packing provision including the letter L refers to a special packing provision
applicable to a packing instruction bearing the code LP in 4.1.4.3
Reporting if the suitability and integrity of packages is found to be suspect
Documents
In all documents relating to the carriage of dangerous goods by sea where the goods are
named, the correct technical name of the goods shall be used (trade names alone shall not
be used) and the correct description given in accordance with the classification.
The shipping documents prepared by the shipper shall include, or be accompanied by, a
signed certificate or declaration that the shipment offered for carriage is properly packaged
and marked, labelled or placarded, as appropriate, and in proper condition for carriage.
The persons responsible for the packing of dangerous goods in a freight container or road
vehicle shall provide a signed container packing certificate or vehicle packing declaration
stating that the cargo in the unit has been properly packed and secured and that all applicable
transport requirements have been met. Such a certificate or declaration may be combined with
the document above.
Where there is due cause to suspect that a freight container or road vehicle in which
dangerous goods are packed is not in compliance with the requirements, or where a
container-packing certificate or vehicle packing declaration is not available, the freight
container or vehicle shall not be accepted for shipment.
Each ship carrying dangerous goods shall have a special list or manifest setting forth, in
accordance with the classification, the dangerous goods on board and the location thereof. A
detailed stowage plan, which identifies by class and sets out the location of all dangerous
goods on board, may be used in place of such a special list or manifest. A copy of one of
these documents shall be made available before departure to the person or organization
designated by the port State authority.
Cargo transport units, including freight containers, shall be loaded, stowed and secured
throughout the voyage in accordance with the Cargo Securing Manual approved by the
Administration. The Cargo Securing Manual shall be drawn up to a standard at least
equivalent to the guidelines developed by the IMO.
The above are as per SOLAS. If the duty officer feels that there is some discrepancy between
the document submitted and the markings on the cargo, he is to stop loading and inform the
Master.
If the packaging is suspect or if the duty officer feels that the packaging looks worn out or is
not sufficient then again he is to stop the loading and inform the Master.
General fire precautions
The prevention of fire in a cargo of dangerous goods is achieved by practicing good
seamanship, observing in particular the following precautions:
I. keep combustible material away from ignition sources;
II. protect a flammable substance by adequate packing;
III. reject damaged or leaking packages;
IV. stow packages protected from-accidental damage or heating;
V. segregate packages from substances liable to start or spread fire;
VI. where appropriate and practicable, stow dangerous goods in an accessible position
so that packages in the vicinity of a fire may be protected;
VII. enforce prohibition of smoking in dangerous areas and display clearly recognizable
NO SMOKING notices or signs; and
VIII. the dangers from short-circuits, earth leakages or sparking will be apparent. Lighting
and power cables, and fittings should be maintained in good condition. Cables or
equipment found to be unsafe should be disconnected. Where a bulkhead is required
to be suitable for segregation purposes, cables and conduit penetrations of the decks
and bulkheads should be sealed against the passage of gas and vapours. When
stowing dangerous goods on deck, the position and design of auxiliary machinery,
electrical equipment and cable runs should be considered in order to avoid sources
of ignition.
Fire precautions applying to individual classes, and where necessary to individual substances,
are recommended in following paragraphs and in the Dangerous Goods List.
Special fire precautions for class 1
The greatest risk in the handling and transport of goods of class 1 is that of fire from a source
external to the goods, and it is vital that any fire should be detected and extinguished before
it can reach such goods. Consequently, it is essential that fire precautions, fire-fighting
measures and equipment should be of a high standard and ready for immediate application
and use.
Compartments containing goods of class 1 and adjacent cargo spaces should be provided
with a fire detection system. If such spaces are not protected by a fixed fire-extinguishing
system, they should be accessible for fire-fighting operations.
No repair work should be carried out in a compartment containing goods of class 1. Special
care should be exercised in carrying out repairs in any adjacent space. No welding, burning,
cutting, or riveting operations involving the use of fire, flame, spark, or arc-producing
equipment should be carried out in any space other than machinery spaces and workshops
where fire-extinguishing arrangements are available, except in any emergency and, if in port,
with prior authorization of the port authority,
Special fire precautions for class 2
Effective ventilation should be provided to remove any leakage of gas from within the cargo
space or spaces, bearing in mind that some gases are heavier than air and may accumulate
in dangerous concentrations in the lower part of the ship.
Measures should be taken to prevent leaking gases from penetrating into any other part of
the ship.
If there is any reason to suspect leakage of a gas, entry into cargo spaces or other enclosed
spaces should not be permitted until the master or responsible officer has taken all safety
considerations into account and is satisfied that it is safe to do so. Emergency entry under
other circumstances should only be undertaken by trained crew wearing self-contained
breathing apparatus, and protective clothing when recommended, and always under the
supervision of a responsible officer.
Leakage from receptacles containing flammable gases may give rise to explosive mixtures
with air. Such mixtures, if ignited, may result in explosion and fire.
Special fire precautions for class 3
Flammable liquids give off flammable vapours which, especially in an enclosed space, form
explosive mixtures with air. Such vapours, if ignited, may cause a flashback to the place in
which the substances are stowed. Due regard should be paid to the provision of adequate
ventilation to prevent accumulation of vapours.
Special fire precautions and fire fighting for class 7
The radioactive contents of Excepted, Industrial, and Type A packages are so restricted that,
in the event of an accident and damage to the package, there is a high probability that any
material released, or shielding efficiency lost, would not give rise to such radiological hazard
as to hamper fire-fighting or rescue operations.
Type B (U) packages, Type B (M) packages and Type C packages are designed to be strong
enough to withstand severe fire without significant loss of contents or dangerous loss of
radiation shielding.
Precautions while loading discharging explosives
Following are the emergency schedule1-01 with respect to explosives under Class 1 Division
1.1
Primary hazard: Explosive substances and articles, which may detonate all at once in a fire
Associated hazards: Heavy debris and high speed fragments; possibility of the formation and
escape of toxic fumes.
Special Emergency equipment to be available: Protective clothing gloves, fire resistant
coveralls, fire mans helmet with visors
SCBA
Non sparking footwear
Soft brushes and plastic trays to pick up spillage
Emergency procedures:
Wear non sparking footwear when dealing with spillage. Use SCBA and protective clothing
when dealing with a spillage of materials having a subsidiary class 6.1 and or 8 label. Avoid
sources of ignition naked lights, unprotected light bulbs, electric hand tools, mechanical
shock and friction.
Use SCBA and protective clothing when dealing with fire.
Understanding the nature of the precautions that have been laid down under the EmS
(Emergency Schedule) it is important to note that all the above precautions need to be
taken.
Regarding whether water is to be kept available with a charged hose, is debatable as far as
the cargo is concerned however the likelihood of other non IMDG cargo catching fire does
remain as such for the other cargo the fire mains may be utilized.
Water if warranted by the IMDG code for the particular cargo may be used else it should not
be used unless shipper says it is OK to use water or to cover spillage on deck with water.
Additionally fire extinguishers CO2 systems should be kept in readiness.
The ship generally loads this type of cargo last some ports have special anchorages or
berths where such cargo is loaded, thus it is necessary to have the ship ready to leave berth
in case of any fire. As such prior loading the ship should be ready to sail at a short notice.
Segregating of dangerous goods



Segregation
General
The provisions of this chapter should apply to all cargo spaces on deck or under deck of all
types of ships and to cargo transport units.
The International Convention for the Safety of Life at Sea (SOLAS), 1974, as amended,
requires in regulation 6.1 of part A of chapter VII that incompatible goods should be
segregated from one another.
For the implementation of this requirement, two substances or articles are considered
mutually incompatible when their stowage together may result in undue hazards in case of
leakage or spillage, or any other accident.
The extent of the hazard arising from possible reactions between incompatible dangerous
goods may vary and so the segregation arrangements required should also vary as
appropriate. Such segregation is obtained by maintaining certain distances between
incompatible dangerous goods or by requiring the presence of one or more steel bulkheads
or decks between them, or a combination thereof. Intervening spaces between such
dangerous goods may be filled with other cargo compatible with the dangerous substances
in question.
The following segregation terms are used throughout this Code:
Away from;
Separated from;
Separated by a complete compartment or hold from;
Separated longitudinally by an intervening complete compartment or hold from.
The general provisions for segregation between the various classes of dangerous goods are
shown in the
segregation table.
In addition to the general provisions, there may be a need to segregate a particular
substance, material or article from other goods, which could contribute to its hazard.
Particular provisions for segregation are indicated in the Dangerous Goods List and, in the
case of conflicting provisions, always take precedence over the general provisions.
For example:
In the Dangerous Goods List entry for ACETYLENE, DISSOLVED, class 2.1, UN 1001, the
following particular segregation requirement is specified:
separated from chlorine
In the Dangerous Goods List entry for BARIUM CYANIDE, class 6.1, UN 1565, the following
particular
segregation is specified:
separated from acids
Where the Code indicates a single secondary hazard (one subsidiary risk label), the
segregation provisions applicable to that hazard should take precedence where they are
more stringent than those of the primary hazard.
Except for class 1, the segregation provisions for substances, materials or articles having
more than two hazards (2 or more subsidiary risk labels) are given in the Dangerous Goods
List.
In the Dangerous Goods List entry for BROMINE CHLORIDE, class 2.3, UN 2901, subsidiary
risks 5.1 and 8, the following particular segregation is specified:
segregation as for class 5.1 but separated from class 7.
Segregation of packages
Applicability
The provisions of this subsection apply to the segregation of:
packages containing dangerous goods and stowed in the conventional way;
dangerous goods within cargo transport units; and
dangerous goods stowed in the conventional way from those packed in such cargo transport
units.
Segregation of packages containing dangerous goods and stowed in the conventional way
Definitions of the segregation terms Legend
Reference package - BLUE
Package containing incompatible goods - RED
Deck resistant to fire and liquid BOLD LINE
NOTE. Full vertical lines represent transverse bulkheads between cargo spaces
(compartments or holds) resistant to fire and liquid.

Away from:
Effectively segregated so that the incompatible goods cannot interact dangerously in the
event of an accident but may be transported in the same compartment or hold or on deck,
provided a minimum horizontal separation of 3 metres, projected vertically, is obtained.

Separated from:
In different compartments or holds when stowed under deck. Provided the intervening deck
is resistant to fire and liquid, a vertical separation i.e. in different compartments, may be
accepted as equivalent to this segregation. For on deck stowage, this segregation means a
separation by a distance of sit least 6 metres horizontally.

Separated by a complete compartment or hold from:
Either a vertical or a horizontal separation. If the intervening decks are not resistant to fire
and liquid, then only a longitudinal separation, i.e. by an intervening complete
compartment or hold, is acceptable. For on deck stowage, this segregation means a
separation by a distance of at least 12 metres horizontally. The same distance has to be
applied if one package is stowed on deck and the other one in an upper compartment.
Note: One of the two decks must be resistant to fire and to liquid.

Separated longitudinally by an intervening complete compartment or hold from:
Vertical separation alone does not meet this requirement. Between a package under deck
and one on deck, a minimum distance of 24 metres, including a complete compartment,
must be maintained longitudinally. For on deck stowage, this segregation means a
separation by a distance of at least 24 metres longitudinally.
Containment covered by the term packaged form
Chapter 4.1 describes the different types of packaging for use with goods under the IMDG
code.
Definitions
Effectively closed: liquid-tight closure.
Hermetically sealed: vapour-tight closure.
Securely closed: so closed that dry contents cannot escape during normal handling; the
minimum provisions for any closure.
General provisions for the packing of dangerous goods, other than goods of classes 2, 6.2
or 7, in packagings, including Intermediate Bulk Containers (IBCs) and large packagings
Dangerous goods should be packed in good quality packagings, including IBCs and large
packagings, which should be strong enough to withstand the shocks and loadings normally
encountered during transport, including trans-shipment between cargo transport units
and/or warehouses as well as any removal from a pallet or overpack for subsequent manual
or mechanical handling. Packagings, including IBCs and large packagings, should be
constructed and closed so as to prevent any loss of contents when prepared for transport,
which might be caused under normal conditions of transport, by vibration, or by changes in
temperature, humidity or pressure (resulting from altitude, for example). No dangerous
residue should adhere to the outside of packages, IBCs and large packagings during
transport. These provisions apply, as appropriate, to new, re-used, reconditioned or
remanufactured packagings and to new and re-used IBCs and large packagings.
Parts of packagings, including IBCs and large packagings, which are in direct contact with
dangerous goods:
.1 should not be affected or significantly weakened by those dangerous goods; and
.2 should not cause a dangerous effect, such as catalyzing a reaction or reacting with the
dangerous goods.
Where necessary, they should be provided with a suitable inner coating or treatment.
Unless provided elsewhere in this Code, each packaging, including IBCs and large packagings,
except inner packagings, should conform to a design type successfully tested in accordance
with the provisions in the IMDG code.
When filling packagings, including IBCs and large packagings, with liquids, sufficient ullage
(outage) should be left to ensure that neither leakage nor permanent distortion of the
packaging occurs as a result of an expansion of the liquid caused by temperatures likely to
occur during transport. Unless specific provisions are prescribed, liquids should not
completely fill a packaging at a temperature of 55C. However, sufficient ullage should be
left in an IBC to ensure that at the mean bulk temperature of 50C it is not filled to more
than 98% of its water capacity.
Inner packagings should be packed in an outer packaging in such a way that, under normal
conditions of transport, they cannot break, be punctured or leak their contents into the
outer packaging. Inner packagings that are liable to break or be punctured easily, such as
those made of glass, porcelain or stoneware or of certain plastics, materials, etc., should be
secured in outer packagings with suitable cushioning material. Any leakage of the contents
should not substantially impair the protective properties of the cushioning material or of the
outer packaging.
Cushioning and absorbent material should be inert and suited to the nature of the contents.
The nature and the thickness of the outer packagings should be such that friction during
transport does not generate any heating likely to alter dangerously the chemical stability of
the contents.
Dangerous goods should not be packed together in the same outer packaging, or in large
packagings, with dangerous or other goods if they react dangerously with each other and
cause:
.1 combustion and/or evolution of considerable heat;
.2 evolution of flammable, toxic or asphyxiant gases;
.3 the formation of corrosive substances; or
.4 the formation of unstable substances.
Unless otherwise specified in the Dangerous Goods List, packages containing substances
should be hermetically sealed:
.1 evolve flammable gases or vapour;
.2 may become explosive if allowed to dry;
.3 evolve toxic gases or vapour;
.4 evolve corrosive gases or vapour; or
.5 may react dangerously with the atmosphere.
Liquids may only be filled into inner packagings which have an appropriate resistance to
internal pressure that may be developed under normal conditions of transport. Where
pressure may develop in a package by the emission of gas from the contents (as a result of
temperature increase or other cause), the packaging may be fitted with a vent, provided that
the gas emitted will not cause danger on account of its toxicity, its flammability, the quantity
released, etc. The vent should be so designed that, when the packaging is in the attitude in
which it is intended to be transported, leakages of liquid and the penetration of foreign
matter are prevented under normal conditions of transport.
New, remanufactured or re-used packagings, including IBCs and large packagings, or
reconditioned packagings and repaired IBCs should be capable of passing the tests
prescribed in IMDG code. Before being filled and handed over for transport, every
packaging, including IBCs and large packagings, should be inspected to ensure that it is free
from corrosion, contamination or other damage and every IBC should be inspected with
regard to the proper functioning of any service equipment. Any packaging which shows signs
of reduced strength as compared with the approved design type should no longer be used or
should be so reconditioned that it is able to withstand the design type tests. Any IBC which
shows signs of reduced strength as compared with the tested design type should no longer
be used or should be so repaired that it is able to withstand the design type tests.

Empty packagings, including IBCs and large packagings, that have contained a dangerous
substance should be treated in the same manner as is required by this Code for a filled
packaging, unless adequate measures have been taken to nullify any hazard.
Every packaging, including IBCS, intended to contain liquids should successfully undergo a
suitable leak proofness test, and be capable of meeting the appropriate test level indicated
in IMDG code for the various types of IBCs:
.1 before it is first used for transport;
.2 after remanufacturing or reconditioning of any packaging, before it is re-used for
transport;
.3 after the repair of any IBC, before it is re-used for transport.
For this test, the packaging, or IBC, need not have its closures fitted. The inner receptacle of
a composite packaging or IBC may be tested without the outer packaging, provided the test
results are not affected. This test is not necessary for inner packagings of combination
packagings or large packagings.
Packagings, including IBCS, used for solids which may become liquid at temperatures likely to
be encountered during transport should also be capable of containing the substance in the
liquid state.
Packagings, including IBCS, used for powdery or granular substances should be sift-proof or
should be provided with a liner.
Explosives, self-reactive substances and organic peroxides
Unless specific provision to the contrary is made in this Code, the packagings, including IBCs
and large packagings, used for goods of class 1, self-reactive substances of class 4.1 and
organic peroxides of class 5.2 should comply with the provisions for the medium danger
group (packing group 11).
Use of salvage packagings
Damaged, defective or leaking packages or dangerous goods that have spilled or leaked may
be transported in special salvage packagings. This does not prevent- the use of a bigger size
of packagings of appropriate type and performance level.
During transport, packagings, including IBCs and large packagings, should be securely
fastened to or contained within the cargo transport unit, so that lateral or longitudinal
movement or impact is prevented and adequate external support is provided.
Additional general provisions for the use of IBCs
When IBCs are used for the transport of liquids with a flashpoint of 61C (closed cup) or
lower, or of powders liable to dust explosion, measures should be taken to prevent a
dangerous electrostatic discharge.
For rigid plastics IBCs and composite IBCs with plastics inner receptacles, unless otherwise
approved by the competent authority, the period of use permitted for the transport of
dangerous liquids should be five years from the date of manufacture of the receptacle
except where a shorter period of use is prescribed because of the nature of the liquid to be
transported.
General provisions concerning packing instructions
Packing instructions applicable to dangerous goods of classes 1 to 9 are specified in chapter
4.1. They are subdivided in three sub-sections depending on the type of packagings to which
they apply:
sub-section 4.1.4.1 for packagings other than IBCs and large packagings: these packing
instructions are designated by an alphanumeric code comprising the letter P;
sub-section 4.1.4.2 for IBCS; these are designated by an alphanumeric code comprising the
letters IBC;
sub-section 4.1.4.3 for large packagings; these are designated by an alphanumeric code
comprising the letters LP.
Special packing provisions may also be specified in the packing instruction for individual
substances or articles. They are also designated by an alphanumeric code comprising the
letters:
PP for packagings other than IBCs and large packagings
B for IBCs
L for large packagings.
Column 8 of the Dangerous Goods List shows for each article or substance the packing
instructions) that should be used. Column 9 indicates the special packing provisions
applicable to specific substances or articles.
Each packing instruction shows, where applicable, the acceptable single and combination
packagings. For combination packagings, the acceptable outer packagings, inner packagings
and, when applicable, the maximum quantity permitted in each inner or outer packaging are
shown. Maximum net mass and maximum capacity are as defined in chapter 1.2.1.
Where the packing instructions in this chapter authorize the use of a particular type of outer
packaging in a combination packaging (such as 4G), packagings bearing the same packaging
identification code followed by the letters V, U or W marked in accordance with the
provisions of part 6 (such as 4GV, 4GU or 4GW) may also be used under the same
conditions and limitations applicable to the use of that type of outer packaging according to
the relevant packing instructions. For example, a combination packaging marked with the
packaging code 4GV may be used whenever a combination packaging marked 4G is
authorized, provided the provisions in the relevant packing instruction regarding types of
inner packagings and quantity limitations are respected.
The capacity of gas cylinders should not exceed 450 litres. The capacity for gas receptacles
should not exceed 1000 litres.
Dangerous Goods


Classes, divisions, packing groups
Definitions
Substances (including mixtures and solutions) and articles subject to the provisions of this
Code are assigned to one of the classes 1 -9 according to the hazard or the most
predominant of the hazards they present. Some of these classes are subdivided into
divisions. These classes or divisions are as listed below:
Class 1: Explosives
Division 1.1: substances and articles, which have a mass explosion hazard
Division 1.2: substances and articles, which have a projection, hazard but not a mass
explosion hazard
Division 1.3: substances and articles, which have a fire hazard and either a minor blast
hazard or a minor projection hazard or both, but not a mass explosion hazard
Division 1.4: substances and articles, which present no significant hazard
Division 1.5: very insensitive substances, which have a mass explosion hazard
Division 1.6: extremely insensitive articles which do not have a mass explosion hazard
Class 2: Gases
Class 2.1: flammable gases
Class 2.2: non-flammable, non-toxic gases
Class 2.3: toxic gases
Class 3: Flammable liquids
Class 4: Flammable solids; substances liable to spontaneous combustion; substances
which, in contact with water, emit flammable gases
Class 4.1: flammable solids, self-reactive substances and desensitized explosives
Class 4.2: substances liable to spontaneous combustion
Class 4.3: substances, which, in contact with water, emit flammable gases
Class 5: Oxidizing substances and organic peroxides
Class 5.1: oxidizing substances
Class 5.2: organic peroxides
Class 6: Toxic and infectious substances
Class 6.1: toxic substances -
Class 6.2: infectious substances
Class 7: Radioactive material
Class 8: Corrosive substances
Class 9: Miscellaneous dangerous substances and articles
The numerical order of the classes and divisions is not that of the degree of danger.
Marking, labelling and placarding
Packages containing dangerous goods shall be durably marked with the correct technical
name; trade names alone shall not be used.
Packages containing dangerous goods shall be provided with distinctive labels or stencils of
the labels, or placards, as appropriate, so as to make clear the dangerous properties of the
goods contained therein.
The method of marking the correct technical name and of affixing labels or applying stencils
of labels, or of affixing placards on packages containing dangerous goods, shall be such that
this information will still be identifiable on packages surviving at least three months
immersion in the sea. In considering suitable marking, labelling and placarding methods,
account shall be taken of the durability of the materials used and of the surface of the
package.
Packages containing dangerous goods shall be so marked and labeled except that:
.1 packages containing dangerous goods of a low degree of hazard or packed in limited
quantities or
.2 when special circumstances permit, packages that are stowed and handled in units that
are identified by labels or placards; may be exempted from labelling requirements.
General information prior loading/ discharging
The duty officer entrusted with the loading of the dangerous goods should have all the
relevant data regarding the dangerous goods that would be loaded, these would include:
Copy of the document from the shipper regarding the cargo
Classification of the DG
Quantity to be loaded
Proposed stowage
Type of packages
Shipping name that is the correct technical name
Segregation required from other cargo as well as from other DG
MFAG and EmS requirement for the safe handling of the cargo
Any fire hazard as per IMDG
Any temperature/ wetness restriction for the loading of the cargo
UN Numbers and Proper Shipping Names
Dangerous goods are assigned to UN Numbers and Proper Shipping Names according to
their hazard classification and their composition.
Dangerous goods commonly transported are listed in the Dangerous Goods List. Where an
article or substance is specifically listed by name, it should be identified in transport by the
Proper Shipping Name in the Dangerous Goods List. For dangerous goods not specifically
listed by name, generic or not otherwise specified entries are provided to identify the
article or substance in transport.
Each entry in the Dangerous Goods List is assigned a UN Number. This list also contains
relevant information for each entry, such as hazard class, subsidiary risk(s) (if any), packing
group (where assigned), packing and tank transport provisions, EmS, segregation and
stowage, properties and observations, etc.
Entries in the Dangerous Goods List are of the following four types:
Single entries for well-defined substances or articles e.g.
UN 1090 acetone
UN 1194 ethyl nitrite solution
Generic entries for well-defined groups of substances or articles e.g.
UN 1133 adhesives
UN 1266 perfumery product
Information on the special measures to be taken when a certain dangerous cargo is
handled
Additionally the chief officer should have attached relevant extracts from the IMDG code in
particular all the emergencies that could arise with the handling of the cargo. Also the
emergency clean-up measures as well as the first aid requirement as per the EmS
(Emergency Schedule of the IMDG) and MFAG.
Any special precautions mention as per the Dangerous List should be extracted.
Compatibility risks should be ascertained.
For example if the following cargo (class 3) is to be loaded, then:
Stowage of goods of class 3
The vapours from all substances of class 3 have a narcotic effect, and prolonged inhalation
may result in unconsciousness. Deep or prolonged narcosis may lead to death.
Class 3 substances should be stowed as indicated in the Dangerous Goods List. However,
substances with a flashpoint of 23C (c.c). or less packaged in jerricans, plastics (3Hl, 3H2),
drums, plastics (lHl,lH2) and plastics receptacles in a plastic drum (6HH1,6HH2)should be
stowed on, deck only unless packed in a closed cargo transport unit.
The substances of this class should be kept as cool as reasonably practicable during transit.
They should, in general, be stowed away from all possible sources of heat.
Adequate precautions should be taken to protect the flammable liquids from heat
emanating from bulkheads or other sources. Ventilation should be provided which should
effectively remove flammable vapours from the cargo space.
Adequate measures should be taken to prevent the penetration of leaking liquid or vapour
into any other part of the ship. Vapours may not necessarily be lighter than air and may sink
to the lower levels of a cargo space where they may be accidentally ignited and a flashback
to the flammable liquids may occur.
Whenever flammable liquids with a flashpoint of 23C c.c. or less are transported in portable
tanks, the stowage should be such that leaking vapours are unlikely to penetrate the
accommodation, machinery spaces and other work areas via entrances or other openings in
bulkheads or through ventilation ducts.
Where it is deemed necessary for a substance of this class to be stowed clear of living
quarters, it is included in the Dangerous Goods List.
On ships carrying passengers, substances in this class should be stowed well away from any
deck or spaces provided for the use of passengers. When such substances are transported
on board roll-on/roll-off ships, see chapter 7.4.
End extract
Reporting of incidents involving dangerous goods
When an incident takes place involving the loss or likely loss overboard of packaged
dangerous goods into the sea, the master, or other person having charge of the ship, shall
report the particulars of such an incident without delay and to the fullest extent possible to
the nearest coastal State. The report shall be based on the guidelines and general principles
adopted by IMO for dangerous goods, harmful substances and/or marine pollutants.
In the event of the ship referred to in paragraph 1 being abandoned, or in the event of a
report from such a ship being incomplete or unobtainable, the owner, charterer, manager or
operator of the ship, or their agents shall, to the fullest extent possible, assume the
obligations placed upon the master by this regulation.
The duty officer when he discovers an incident or accident has to immediately raise the
alarm and inform the Master regarding the same. The crew on deck should be the first to
renders assistance as well as start the clean up operations as well as try to minimise the
incident under the supervision of the duty officer as per the guidelines laid down for that
cargo as per the IMDG code and the Dangerous cargo list.
Actions to be taken
All actions after an accident are to be as per the following documents which have detailed
instructions for all types of emergencies.
The following gives a basic layout of a rescue scenario.
The IMO/WHO/ILO Medical First Aid Guide for Use in Accidents Involving Dangerous Goods
(MFAG) is the Chemicals Supplement to the International Medical Guide for Ships (IMGS),
which is published by the World Health Organization (WHO), Geneva.
The Maritime Safety Committee adopted this revised text of the Guide in May 1998, for use
in association with Amendment 30-00 of the IMDG Code, and will be further amended as
and when, necessary.
Table 1
RESCUE
Rescuers must be adequately protected from exposure before entering a contaminated area
in order to avoid injury.
When a chemical is unidentified, worst-case assumptions concerning toxicity must be
assumed.
ARRIVAL AT SCENE
Upon arrival at the scene, an initial assessment of the situation should be made and the size
of the incident should be determined.
Rescuers must NOT:
Enter a contaminated area without using a pressure-demand self-contained breathing
apparatus and wearing full protective clothing;
Enter an enclosed space unless they are trained members of a rescue team and follow
correct procedures;
Walk through any spilled materials;
Allow unnecessary contamination of equipment;
Attempt to recover shipping papers or manifests from contaminated area unless adequately
protected;
Become exposed while approaching a potentially contaminated area;
Attempt rescue unless trained and equipped with appropriate personal protective
equipment (PPE) and protective clothing for the situation.
QUICKLY ESTABLISH AN EXCLUSION OR HOT ZONE
Assume that anyone leaving the exclusion zone is contaminated and should be assessed and
decontaminated, if necessary.
Do not remove non-ambulatory casualties from the exclusion zone unless properly trained
personnel with the appropriate PPE are available and decontamination has been
accomplished.
INITIAL TRIAGE OF CASUALTIES (SORTING AND PRIORITY)
One unconscious casualty
Give immediate treatment to the unconscious casualty only, and
Send for help.
Several unconscious casualties
If there is more than one unconscious casualty:
Send for help, and
Give appropriate treatment to the worst casualty in the priority order of:
Casualties who have stopped breathing or have no pulse (see Table 2).
Casualties who ARE UNCONCIOUS (see Table 4).
Casualty is unconscious but breathing
If the casualty is unconscious or cyanotic (bluish skin) but breathing, connect to portable
oxygen.
Neck or back trauma
Apply neck and back support before moving casualty if there is any question of neck or back
trauma. Priority. Airway, Breathing, Circulation (A-B-C)
Initial management of Airway, Breathing and Circulation (A-B-C, see table 2) is all that should
be undertaken while there is potential for further injury to the casualty or to response
personnel.
Gross decontamination
If the casualty is contaminated with chemicals, gross decontamination should be performed.
Cut away or remove all suspected contaminated clothing, including jewellery and watches.
Brush or wipe off any obvious contamination.
Care should be taken to protect open wounds from contamination.
Every effort should be made by personnel to avoid contact with potentially contaminated
casualties. Rescuers should wear protective clothing, if necessary.
Cover or wrap casualty to prevent spread of contamination.
Removal of casualties from exclusion zone
Once gross decontamination has been performed, the casualties should be removed from
the exclusion zone.
If casualties can walk, lead them out of the exclusion zone to an area where
decontamination and further evaluation can take place.
If casualties are unable to walk, remove them on stretchers. If stretchers are unavailable,
carefully carry or drag casualties to an area where decontamination and further evaluation
can take place.
DECONTAMINATION
Decontaminate from head down
Take care not to introduce contaminants into open wounds.
Decontaminate exposed wounds and eyes before intact skin areas.
Cover wounds with a waterproof dressing after decontamination.

For external contamination, begin with the least aggressive methods
Limit mechanical or chemical irritation of the skin.
Wash contaminated area gently under a stream of water for at least ten minutes, and wash
carefully with soap and warm (never hot) water, scrubbing with a soft brush or surgical
sponge.
Reduce level of contaminants
Remove contaminants to the level that they are no longer a threat to casualty or response
personnel.
Isolate the casualty from the environment to prevent the spread of any remaining
contaminants. Contain runoff; bag contaminated clothing
If possible, contain all runoff from decontamination procedures for proper disposal.
Ensure that all potentially contaminated casualty clothing and belongings have been
removed and placed in properly labelled bags.
SUMMARY OF TREATMENT OF CASUALTIES
Assign highest priorities to Airway, Breathing, Circulation (ABC) and then decontamination.
Complete primary and secondary assessments as conditions allow.
Obtain information on chemicals to which the casualty has been exposed from shipping
papers, labels or other documents.
If there are multiple casualties, direct attention to the most seriously affected individuals
first.
Treat symptoms and signs as appropriate and when conditions allow.
Obtain RADIO MEDICAL ADVICE when conditions allow.
Perform invasive procedures only in uncontaminated areas.
Reassess the casualty frequently, because many chemicals have latent physiological effects.
Delay preventive measures until the casualty is decontaminated.
TRANSFER TO SHIPS HOSPITAL
Casualties who have been stabilized (airway, breathing and circulation) and decontaminated
can be transported to the ships hospital for further evaluation.
Further advice: see IMDG appendix 1
Packing requirements as per the Dangerous Goods List of the IMDG Code
Structure of the Dangerous Goods List.
The Dangerous Goods List is divided into 18 columns.
Among them the packing requirements are specified in column 8 and in column 9
Column 8 Packing Instructions: This column contains alpha numeric codes, which refer to
the relevant packing instructions. The packing instructions indicate the packagings (including
large packagings) which may be used for the transport of substances and articles.
A code including the letter P refers to packing instructions for the use of packagings
described in IMDG Chapters 6.1, 6.2 or 6.3
A code including the letter LP refers to packing instructions for the use of large packagings
described in IMDG Chapters 6.6
A code including the letter BP refers to the bulk packagings described in IMDG Chapters
4.3
When a code including the letters P, LP or BP is not provided, it means that the
substance is not allowed in that type of packaging.
When N/R is included in this column, it means that the substance or article need not be
packaged.
Column 9 Special packing provisions: This column contains alphanumeric codes, which refer
to the relevant special packing provisions specified in 4.1.4. The special packing provisions
indicate the packagings (including large packagings).
A special packing provisions including the letters PP refers to a special packing provision
applicable to the use of a packing instruction bearing the code P in 4.1.4.1
A special packing provision including the letter L refers to a special packing provision
applicable to a packing instruction bearing the code LP in 4.1.4.3
Reporting if the suitability and integrity of packages is found to be suspect
Documents
In all documents relating to the carriage of dangerous goods by sea where the goods are
named, the correct technical name of the goods shall be used (trade names alone shall not
be used) and the correct description given in accordance with the classification.
The shipping documents prepared by the shipper shall include, or be accompanied by, a
signed certificate or declaration that the shipment offered for carriage is properly packaged
and marked, labelled or placarded, as appropriate, and in proper condition for carriage.
The persons responsible for the packing of dangerous goods in a freight container or road
vehicle shall provide a signed container packing certificate or vehicle packing declaration
stating that the cargo in the unit has been properly packed and secured and that all applicable
transport requirements have been met. Such a certificate or declaration may be combined with
the document above.
Where there is due cause to suspect that a freight container or road vehicle in which
dangerous goods are packed is not in compliance with the requirements, or where a
container-packing certificate or vehicle packing declaration is not available, the freight
container or vehicle shall not be accepted for shipment.
Each ship carrying dangerous goods shall have a special list or manifest setting forth, in
accordance with the classification, the dangerous goods on board and the location thereof. A
detailed stowage plan, which identifies by class and sets out the location of all dangerous
goods on board, may be used in place of such a special list or manifest. A copy of one of
these documents shall be made available before departure to the person or organization
designated by the port State authority.
Cargo transport units, including freight containers, shall be loaded, stowed and secured
throughout the voyage in accordance with the Cargo Securing Manual approved by the
Administration. The Cargo Securing Manual shall be drawn up to a standard at least
equivalent to the guidelines developed by the IMO.
The above are as per SOLAS. If the duty officer feels that there is some discrepancy between
the document submitted and the markings on the cargo, he is to stop loading and inform the
Master.
If the packaging is suspect or if the duty officer feels that the packaging looks worn out or is
not sufficient then again he is to stop the loading and inform the Master.
General fire precautions
The prevention of fire in a cargo of dangerous goods is achieved by practicing good
seamanship, observing in particular the following precautions:
I. keep combustible material away from ignition sources;
II. protect a flammable substance by adequate packing;
III. reject damaged or leaking packages;
IV. stow packages protected from-accidental damage or heating;
V. segregate packages from substances liable to start or spread fire;
VI. where appropriate and practicable, stow dangerous goods in an accessible position
so that packages in the vicinity of a fire may be protected;
VII. enforce prohibition of smoking in dangerous areas and display clearly recognizable
NO SMOKING notices or signs; and
VIII. the dangers from short-circuits, earth leakages or sparking will be apparent. Lighting
and power cables, and fittings should be maintained in good condition. Cables or
equipment found to be unsafe should be disconnected. Where a bulkhead is required
to be suitable for segregation purposes, cables and conduit penetrations of the decks
and bulkheads should be sealed against the passage of gas and vapours. When
stowing dangerous goods on deck, the position and design of auxiliary machinery,
electrical equipment and cable runs should be considered in order to avoid sources
of ignition.
Fire precautions applying to individual classes, and where necessary to individual substances,
are recommended in following paragraphs and in the Dangerous Goods List.
Special fire precautions for class 1
The greatest risk in the handling and transport of goods of class 1 is that of fire from a source
external to the goods, and it is vital that any fire should be detected and extinguished before
it can reach such goods. Consequently, it is essential that fire precautions, fire-fighting
measures and equipment should be of a high standard and ready for immediate application
and use.
Compartments containing goods of class 1 and adjacent cargo spaces should be provided
with a fire detection system. If such spaces are not protected by a fixed fire-extinguishing
system, they should be accessible for fire-fighting operations.
No repair work should be carried out in a compartment containing goods of class 1. Special
care should be exercised in carrying out repairs in any adjacent space. No welding, burning,
cutting, or riveting operations involving the use of fire, flame, spark, or arc-producing
equipment should be carried out in any space other than machinery spaces and workshops
where fire-extinguishing arrangements are available, except in any emergency and, if in port,
with prior authorization of the port authority,
Special fire precautions for class 2
Effective ventilation should be provided to remove any leakage of gas from within the cargo
space or spaces, bearing in mind that some gases are heavier than air and may accumulate
in dangerous concentrations in the lower part of the ship.
Measures should be taken to prevent leaking gases from penetrating into any other part of
the ship.
If there is any reason to suspect leakage of a gas, entry into cargo spaces or other enclosed
spaces should not be permitted until the master or responsible officer has taken all safety
considerations into account and is satisfied that it is safe to do so. Emergency entry under
other circumstances should only be undertaken by trained crew wearing self-contained
breathing apparatus, and protective clothing when recommended, and always under the
supervision of a responsible officer.
Leakage from receptacles containing flammable gases may give rise to explosive mixtures
with air. Such mixtures, if ignited, may result in explosion and fire.
Special fire precautions for class 3
Flammable liquids give off flammable vapours which, especially in an enclosed space, form
explosive mixtures with air. Such vapours, if ignited, may cause a flashback to the place in
which the substances are stowed. Due regard should be paid to the provision of adequate
ventilation to prevent accumulation of vapours.
Special fire precautions and fire fighting for class 7
The radioactive contents of Excepted, Industrial, and Type A packages are so restricted that,
in the event of an accident and damage to the package, there is a high probability that any
material released, or shielding efficiency lost, would not give rise to such radiological hazard
as to hamper fire-fighting or rescue operations.
Type B (U) packages, Type B (M) packages and Type C packages are designed to be strong
enough to withstand severe fire without significant loss of contents or dangerous loss of
radiation shielding.
Precautions while loading discharging explosives
Following are the emergency schedule1-01 with respect to explosives under Class 1 Division
1.1
Primary hazard: Explosive substances and articles, which may detonate all at once in a fire
Associated hazards: Heavy debris and high speed fragments; possibility of the formation and
escape of toxic fumes.
Special Emergency equipment to be available: Protective clothing gloves, fire resistant
coveralls, fire mans helmet with visors
SCBA
Non sparking footwear
Soft brushes and plastic trays to pick up spillage
Emergency procedures:
Wear non sparking footwear when dealing with spillage. Use SCBA and protective clothing
when dealing with a spillage of materials having a subsidiary class 6.1 and or 8 label. Avoid
sources of ignition naked lights, unprotected light bulbs, electric hand tools, mechanical
shock and friction.
Use SCBA and protective clothing when dealing with fire.
Understanding the nature of the precautions that have been laid down under the EmS
(Emergency Schedule) it is important to note that all the above precautions need to be
taken.
Regarding whether water is to be kept available with a charged hose, is debatable as far as
the cargo is concerned however the likelihood of other non IMDG cargo catching fire does
remain as such for the other cargo the fire mains may be utilized.
Water if warranted by the IMDG code for the particular cargo may be used else it should not
be used unless shipper says it is OK to use water or to cover spillage on deck with water.
Additionally fire extinguishers CO2 systems should be kept in readiness.
The ship generally loads this type of cargo last some ports have special anchorages or
berths where such cargo is loaded, thus it is necessary to have the ship ready to leave berth
in case of any fire. As such prior loading the ship should be ready to sail at a short notice.
Segregating of dangerous goods



Segregation
General
The provisions of this chapter should apply to all cargo spaces on deck or under deck of all
types of ships and to cargo transport units.
The International Convention for the Safety of Life at Sea (SOLAS), 1974, as amended,
requires in regulation 6.1 of part A of chapter VII that incompatible goods should be
segregated from one another.
For the implementation of this requirement, two substances or articles are considered
mutually incompatible when their stowage together may result in undue hazards in case of
leakage or spillage, or any other accident.
The extent of the hazard arising from possible reactions between incompatible dangerous
goods may vary and so the segregation arrangements required should also vary as
appropriate. Such segregation is obtained by maintaining certain distances between
incompatible dangerous goods or by requiring the presence of one or more steel bulkheads
or decks between them, or a combination thereof. Intervening spaces between such
dangerous goods may be filled with other cargo compatible with the dangerous substances
in question.
The following segregation terms are used throughout this Code:
Away from;
Separated from;
Separated by a complete compartment or hold from;
Separated longitudinally by an intervening complete compartment or hold from.
The general provisions for segregation between the various classes of dangerous goods are
shown in the
segregation table.
In addition to the general provisions, there may be a need to segregate a particular
substance, material or article from other goods, which could contribute to its hazard.
Particular provisions for segregation are indicated in the Dangerous Goods List and, in the
case of conflicting provisions, always take precedence over the general provisions.
For example:
In the Dangerous Goods List entry for ACETYLENE, DISSOLVED, class 2.1, UN 1001, the
following particular segregation requirement is specified:
separated from chlorine
In the Dangerous Goods List entry for BARIUM CYANIDE, class 6.1, UN 1565, the following
particular
segregation is specified:
separated from acids
Where the Code indicates a single secondary hazard (one subsidiary risk label), the
segregation provisions applicable to that hazard should take precedence where they are
more stringent than those of the primary hazard.
Except for class 1, the segregation provisions for substances, materials or articles having
more than two hazards (2 or more subsidiary risk labels) are given in the Dangerous Goods
List.
In the Dangerous Goods List entry for BROMINE CHLORIDE, class 2.3, UN 2901, subsidiary
risks 5.1 and 8, the following particular segregation is specified:
segregation as for class 5.1 but separated from class 7.
Segregation of packages
Applicability
The provisions of this subsection apply to the segregation of:
packages containing dangerous goods and stowed in the conventional way;
dangerous goods within cargo transport units; and
dangerous goods stowed in the conventional way from those packed in such cargo transport
units.
Segregation of packages containing dangerous goods and stowed in the conventional way
Definitions of the segregation terms Legend
Reference package - BLUE
Package containing incompatible goods - RED
Deck resistant to fire and liquid BOLD LINE
NOTE. Full vertical lines represent transverse bulkheads between cargo spaces
(compartments or holds) resistant to fire and liquid.

Away from:
Effectively segregated so that the incompatible goods cannot interact dangerously in the
event of an accident but may be transported in the same compartment or hold or on deck,
provided a minimum horizontal separation of 3 metres, projected vertically, is obtained.

Separated from:
In different compartments or holds when stowed under deck. Provided the intervening deck
is resistant to fire and liquid, a vertical separation i.e. in different compartments, may be
accepted as equivalent to this segregation. For on deck stowage, this segregation means a
separation by a distance of sit least 6 metres horizontally.

Separated by a complete compartment or hold from:
Either a vertical or a horizontal separation. If the intervening decks are not resistant to fire
and liquid, then only a longitudinal separation, i.e. by an intervening complete
compartment or hold, is acceptable. For on deck stowage, this segregation means a
separation by a distance of at least 12 metres horizontally. The same distance has to be
applied if one package is stowed on deck and the other one in an upper compartment.
Note: One of the two decks must be resistant to fire and to liquid.

Separated longitudinally by an intervening complete compartment or hold from:
Vertical separation alone does not meet this requirement. Between a package under deck
and one on deck, a minimum distance of 24 metres, including a complete compartment,
must be maintained longitudinally. For on deck stowage, this segregation means a
separation by a distance of at least 24 metres longitudinally.
Containment covered by the term packaged form
Chapter 4.1 describes the different types of packaging for use with goods under the IMDG
code.
Definitions
Effectively closed: liquid-tight closure.
Hermetically sealed: vapour-tight closure.
Securely closed: so closed that dry contents cannot escape during normal handling; the
minimum provisions for any closure.
General provisions for the packing of dangerous goods, other than goods of classes 2, 6.2
or 7, in packagings, including Intermediate Bulk Containers (IBCs) and large packagings
Dangerous goods should be packed in good quality packagings, including IBCs and large
packagings, which should be strong enough to withstand the shocks and loadings normally
encountered during transport, including trans-shipment between cargo transport units
and/or warehouses as well as any removal from a pallet or overpack for subsequent manual
or mechanical handling. Packagings, including IBCs and large packagings, should be
constructed and closed so as to prevent any loss of contents when prepared for transport,
which might be caused under normal conditions of transport, by vibration, or by changes in
temperature, humidity or pressure (resulting from altitude, for example). No dangerous
residue should adhere to the outside of packages, IBCs and large packagings during
transport. These provisions apply, as appropriate, to new, re-used, reconditioned or
remanufactured packagings and to new and re-used IBCs and large packagings.
Parts of packagings, including IBCs and large packagings, which are in direct contact with
dangerous goods:
.1 should not be affected or significantly weakened by those dangerous goods; and
.2 should not cause a dangerous effect, such as catalyzing a reaction or reacting with the
dangerous goods.
Where necessary, they should be provided with a suitable inner coating or treatment.
Unless provided elsewhere in this Code, each packaging, including IBCs and large packagings,
except inner packagings, should conform to a design type successfully tested in accordance
with the provisions in the IMDG code.
When filling packagings, including IBCs and large packagings, with liquids, sufficient ullage
(outage) should be left to ensure that neither leakage nor permanent distortion of the
packaging occurs as a result of an expansion of the liquid caused by temperatures likely to
occur during transport. Unless specific provisions are prescribed, liquids should not
completely fill a packaging at a temperature of 55C. However, sufficient ullage should be
left in an IBC to ensure that at the mean bulk temperature of 50C it is not filled to more
than 98% of its water capacity.
Inner packagings should be packed in an outer packaging in such a way that, under normal
conditions of transport, they cannot break, be punctured or leak their contents into the
outer packaging. Inner packagings that are liable to break or be punctured easily, such as
those made of glass, porcelain or stoneware or of certain plastics, materials, etc., should be
secured in outer packagings with suitable cushioning material. Any leakage of the contents
should not substantially impair the protective properties of the cushioning material or of the
outer packaging.
Cushioning and absorbent material should be inert and suited to the nature of the contents.
The nature and the thickness of the outer packagings should be such that friction during
transport does not generate any heating likely to alter dangerously the chemical stability of
the contents.
Dangerous goods should not be packed together in the same outer packaging, or in large
packagings, with dangerous or other goods if they react dangerously with each other and
cause:
.1 combustion and/or evolution of considerable heat;
.2 evolution of flammable, toxic or asphyxiant gases;
.3 the formation of corrosive substances; or
.4 the formation of unstable substances.
Unless otherwise specified in the Dangerous Goods List, packages containing substances
should be hermetically sealed:
.1 evolve flammable gases or vapour;
.2 may become explosive if allowed to dry;
.3 evolve toxic gases or vapour;
.4 evolve corrosive gases or vapour; or
.5 may react dangerously with the atmosphere.
Liquids may only be filled into inner packagings which have an appropriate resistance to
internal pressure that may be developed under normal conditions of transport. Where
pressure may develop in a package by the emission of gas from the contents (as a result of
temperature increase or other cause), the packaging may be fitted with a vent, provided that
the gas emitted will not cause danger on account of its toxicity, its flammability, the quantity
released, etc. The vent should be so designed that, when the packaging is in the attitude in
which it is intended to be transported, leakages of liquid and the penetration of foreign
matter are prevented under normal conditions of transport.
New, remanufactured or re-used packagings, including IBCs and large packagings, or
reconditioned packagings and repaired IBCs should be capable of passing the tests
prescribed in IMDG code. Before being filled and handed over for transport, every
packaging, including IBCs and large packagings, should be inspected to ensure that it is free
from corrosion, contamination or other damage and every IBC should be inspected with
regard to the proper functioning of any service equipment. Any packaging which shows signs
of reduced strength as compared with the approved design type should no longer be used or
should be so reconditioned that it is able to withstand the design type tests. Any IBC which
shows signs of reduced strength as compared with the tested design type should no longer
be used or should be so repaired that it is able to withstand the design type tests.

Empty packagings, including IBCs and large packagings, that have contained a dangerous
substance should be treated in the same manner as is required by this Code for a filled
packaging, unless adequate measures have been taken to nullify any hazard.
Every packaging, including IBCS, intended to contain liquids should successfully undergo a
suitable leak proofness test, and be capable of meeting the appropriate test level indicated
in IMDG code for the various types of IBCs:
.1 before it is first used for transport;
.2 after remanufacturing or reconditioning of any packaging, before it is re-used for
transport;
.3 after the repair of any IBC, before it is re-used for transport.
For this test, the packaging, or IBC, need not have its closures fitted. The inner receptacle of
a composite packaging or IBC may be tested without the outer packaging, provided the test
results are not affected. This test is not necessary for inner packagings of combination
packagings or large packagings.
Packagings, including IBCS, used for solids which may become liquid at temperatures likely to
be encountered during transport should also be capable of containing the substance in the
liquid state.
Packagings, including IBCS, used for powdery or granular substances should be sift-proof or
should be provided with a liner.
Explosives, self-reactive substances and organic peroxides
Unless specific provision to the contrary is made in this Code, the packagings, including IBCs
and large packagings, used for goods of class 1, self-reactive substances of class 4.1 and
organic peroxides of class 5.2 should comply with the provisions for the medium danger
group (packing group 11).
Use of salvage packagings
Damaged, defective or leaking packages or dangerous goods that have spilled or leaked may
be transported in special salvage packagings. This does not prevent- the use of a bigger size
of packagings of appropriate type and performance level.
During transport, packagings, including IBCs and large packagings, should be securely
fastened to or contained within the cargo transport unit, so that lateral or longitudinal
movement or impact is prevented and adequate external support is provided.
Additional general provisions for the use of IBCs
When IBCs are used for the transport of liquids with a flashpoint of 61C (closed cup) or
lower, or of powders liable to dust explosion, measures should be taken to prevent a
dangerous electrostatic discharge.
For rigid plastics IBCs and composite IBCs with plastics inner receptacles, unless otherwise
approved by the competent authority, the period of use permitted for the transport of
dangerous liquids should be five years from the date of manufacture of the receptacle
except where a shorter period of use is prescribed because of the nature of the liquid to be
transported.
General provisions concerning packing instructions
Packing instructions applicable to dangerous goods of classes 1 to 9 are specified in chapter
4.1. They are subdivided in three sub-sections depending on the type of packagings to which
they apply:
sub-section 4.1.4.1 for packagings other than IBCs and large packagings: these packing
instructions are designated by an alphanumeric code comprising the letter P;
sub-section 4.1.4.2 for IBCS; these are designated by an alphanumeric code comprising the
letters IBC;
sub-section 4.1.4.3 for large packagings; these are designated by an alphanumeric code
comprising the letters LP.
Special packing provisions may also be specified in the packing instruction for individual
substances or articles. They are also designated by an alphanumeric code comprising the
letters:
PP for packagings other than IBCs and large packagings
B for IBCs
L for large packagings.
Column 8 of the Dangerous Goods List shows for each article or substance the packing
instructions) that should be used. Column 9 indicates the special packing provisions
applicable to specific substances or articles.
Each packing instruction shows, where applicable, the acceptable single and combination
packagings. For combination packagings, the acceptable outer packagings, inner packagings
and, when applicable, the maximum quantity permitted in each inner or outer packaging are
shown. Maximum net mass and maximum capacity are as defined in chapter 1.2.1.
Where the packing instructions in this chapter authorize the use of a particular type of outer
packaging in a combination packaging (such as 4G), packagings bearing the same packaging
identification code followed by the letters V, U or W marked in accordance with the
provisions of part 6 (such as 4GV, 4GU or 4GW) may also be used under the same
conditions and limitations applicable to the use of that type of outer packaging according to
the relevant packing instructions. For example, a combination packaging marked with the
packaging code 4GV may be used whenever a combination packaging marked 4G is
authorized, provided the provisions in the relevant packing instruction regarding types of
inner packagings and quantity limitations are respected.
The capacity of gas cylinders should not exceed 450 litres. The capacity for gas receptacles
should not exceed 1000 litres.
Cargo Handling Equipment


Care and Maintenance of Steel Wire Rope
Wire ropes have a lubricant incorporated during manufacture. This serves a dual purpose; it
provides corrosion protection and also minimises internal friction. The protection provided by
this manufacturing lubricant is normally adequate to prevent deterioration due, to corrosion
during the early part of a ropes life. However, the lubricant applied during manufacture must
be supplemented by lubrication in service. This service lubricant is termed the dressing the
kind of dressing used and the frequency of application varies with the type of rope and its
usage. Details of the maintenance of steel wire rope carried, or fitted in, ships is laid down in
the Maintenance Manual of the Company or the Planned Maintenance Schedule (PMS) of the
item. Wire hawsers should be stowed on reels under a fitted cover whenever possible. When
being reeled in or otherwise stowed, the surface of a wire hawser should be washed with fresh
water to free it from salt, then dried with cloths and lightly smeared with the appropriate
lubricant.
Inspecting Steel Wire Rope
Steel wire ropes carried or fitted in ships must be inspected periodically in accordance with
the PMS. When inspecting, the indications described below should be sought:
Distortion of Strands: This is the result of damage by kinking, crushing, serious crippling
round a bad nip, or other mistreatment. If likely to cause the strands to bear unequal
stresses they must be considered as reducing the strength of the rope by 30%; and should
they be sufficiently serious to cause the heart to protrude, the rope must be discarded. A
crushed rope may be restored to some extent by the careful use of a mallet.
Flattening of Some of the Outer Wires by Abrasion: These flats are easily seen because the
abrasion gives the flattened wires a bright and polished appearance, but they do not affect
the strength of the rope unless they are very pronounced. Flats, which extend to three-
quarters of the diameter of the wires will reduce their cross-sections - and therefore their
individual strengths - by 10%, and as only a limited number of wires will be affected the loss
in strength of the whole rope will be very small. (These flats must not be confused with
flattening of the whole rope, which indicates distortion of the strands and is therefore much
more serious).
Broken Wires: These are usually the result of fatigue and wear, and mostly occur in crane
wires. It is generally accepted that a wire rope is coming to the end of its useful life when
one wire of any strand breaks. To deal with a broken wire, grip with a pair of pliers the
broken end and bend the wire backwards and forwards until the wire breaks inside the rope
between the strands, where it can do no harm. A rope should be discarded if more than 5%
of its wires are broken in a length equal to 10 times the diameter of the rope; for example a
24mm diameter, 6X24 wire rope should be discarded if seven broken wires are found in a
length of 240mm. Because of the danger to handlers, berthing wires should be discarded if
any broken wires are discovered.
Corrosion:
Wire rope can be corroded by:
The action of damp on the wires from which the gaivanising has worn off, if this occurs to
the inner wires first it causes rust to fall out of the rope and is therefore easily detected;
The action of fumes and funnel gases, which attack the outside wires, the effect then
becomes visible on inspection;
Contact with acid, which soaks into the heart and attacks the inside wires; this is not
necessarily noticeable on the outside of the rope, and can be the cause of parting without
warning.
Lack of lubrication is a frequent cause of corrosion. When a wire rope is under tension it
stretches and becomes thinner, and during this process the individual wires are compressed
and friction is set up; the fibre heart and cores are also compressed, releasing oil to
overcome the friction. A wire rope of outwardly good appearance, but with a dry powdery
heart or core, has -not been properly maintained and should be treated with caution.
Effect of Extreme Cold:
When subjected to extreme cold a wire rope may become brittle and lose its flexibility, and
an apparently sound rope may part without warning. The brittleness is not permanent and
the rope will regain its resilience in a normal temperature, but the potential danger should
be remembered when working wires in very cold climates.
Testing of Steel Wire Rope
The wire from which the rope is to be made is tested before manufacture of the rope to
ensure it complies with the relevant Standards with regard to tensile strength, torsion and
galvanising properties. After manufacture of each production length of rope, test samples
are cut from the finished rope and strand. These samples are used for a tensile test to
destruction, tests of preforming of the rope, and tests on a mixture of the individual wires
with regard to diameter, tensile strength, torsion and quality of galvanising. Each coil of wire
is accompanied by a certificate of conformity and a test certificate showing the guaranteed
minimum breaking strength of the wire. (WHEN NEW.)
General Remarks on Steel Wire Rope
How to Measure the Size of a Rope
The size of a wire rope is the diameter in millimetres of a true circle, which will just enclose
all the strands. Measure at each of three places at least 2m apart. The average of these
measurements is to be taken as the diameter of the rope.
Sheaves for Wire Rope
Size of Sheave Required for a Wire Rope Hoist. The diameter of sheave required for each
type of six-strand wire rope supplied should be at least twenty times the diameter of the
wire. The diameter of a sheave used for any wire rope will considerably affect the life of that
rope. As the rope bends round a sheave the strands and wires farthest from the centre of
curvature move apart and those nearest the centre of curvature move closer together. This
results in the generation of considerable friction between these wires and strands, and the
smaller the sheave the greater will be the friction. Friction also increases rapidly with the
speed at which the rope is moving. While the rope is bent round a sheave the outer wires
are also subjected to a marked additional stress, and the smaller the diameter of the sheave
the greater will be the stress. For these reasons the minimum diameters of sheaves
recommended from practical experience for various types of ropes at speeds not exceeding
60m per minute are 20 times the diameters of the ropes. For each increase in speed of 30m
per minute, 5% must be added to these figures; this will give a rope a reasonable life, but it is
emphasized that its life will be greatly increased if still larger sheaves are used. Similarly, if a
smaller sheave than that recommended has to be accepted it will shorten the life of the
rope, and on no account should a sheave be used that is more than 20% smaller than that
determined by reference to the above criteria.
Use of Correct Sheave:
The life of a rope used for hoisting can also be considerably shortened by using the wrong
type of sheave. The groove in the sheave must fit and support the rope as it travels round
the sheave, otherwise there will be increased internal friction and external wear. Figure
below shows a sheave with too wide a groove, which results in a flattening of the rope and
considerable distortion and internal friction.

Figure below shows a sheave with too narrow a groove, which results in the rope not being
supported, the wires of the strands being subjected to considerable wear, and friction being
set up between the rope and the sides of the groove.

The groove of the correct sheave should be shaped in cross-section to the true arc of a circle
for a distance equal to one-third of the circumference of the rope, and the radius of the
groove should be between 5 and 10% greater than the specified radius of the rope.

Cargo Blocks

Rigging of cargo blocks:

Union Purchase derricks with 2 sets of individual side guys.

Union Purchase derricks with 1 set of individual side guys and a centre guy.

Rigging for a Gun Tackle:
Using one of a set of derricks to load heavy loads, this uses the gynfall wire of the other
derrick as a steam (power) guy and also uses the gynfall wire of another derrick as the other
steam guy.
The derrick head block is connected to a floating block and the gun tackle set up as shown
below.


Working with Derricks:
While topping/ lowering derricks the following are to be ensured:
Both side guys are to be rigged and attended to.
As the derrick is being lowered or topped the guys are to be heaved up or slackened.
The gynfall wire is to be slackened when topping up the derrick
The person attending to the lock should be attentive and at the slightest doubt about the
speed or range of topping/ lowering he has to release the lock. So that the derrick is
prevented from having a free fall.
Lowering of the derrick should be within limits as set out in the derrick rigging plan
While parking the derrick, the control over the side guys should be especially good since with
a slight swing the boom is liable to damage other structures.
The derricks should not be lowered or topped if the ship is rolling as this would make
controlling the derrick very difficult.
The end rope of the controlling side guys should be held after a full turn on the rams horn
and there should be adequate clear slack. In case of an emergency the next turns should be
put on quickly
If a rams horn is not available then other suitable points may be used, however railing are
not to be used.
Derricks are secured either on a horizontal crutch (light derricks) or vertically with clamping
to the mast.
Prior to lowering the derrick the following are to be inspected and if any are found wanting
they are to be made good:
The crutch post and the bracket at the base are to be inspected
The grommet attached to the eye pad (for the gynfall wire) is to be inspected
The crutch wood sheathing is to be checked if damaged then a canvas packing may be made
in lieu
After the derrick is parked, the crutch clamp is to be fitted and the locking arrangement
fixed. There should be no play.
The side guys are to be tightened and fixed on either side, the extra rope of the guys being
neatly coiled onto pallets or slung on railings and tied as a whole the rope should be
covered by a canvas cover
The gynfall wire hook is to be hooked to the grommet and the wire tightened (just).
The topping wire should not have any weight, but neither should it be slack
The heel of the derrick should be covered with canvas and so should be the gynfall and the
heel block
The preventer wire should be coiled and placed on a pallet
Types of Slings in common use:
Beside those mentioned there are various other slings in use.
Plate sling: Normally the hinges clamp hangs loose, but once fitted on to the plate and the
wire pulled up, the clamps hold the plate very firmly.

Open rope sling: This is used for various types of delicate cargo. Not good for heavy weights.

Canvas sling: Used for lifting small bags of rice and other cereals, the canvas is useful for
collecting any spillage that may be caused.


Snotter: This is used for various cargos. It is the most versatile form of sling. Has been used
even for container loading, by attaching hook/ shackles to one end and using for such
snotters.

Pallet:
This is unitized cargo on a wooden pallet (the bottom double tier of wood). Such cargo may
be handles using wore slings but the more safe and common is to use nylon straps or rope
slings.
If the cargo is loaded on to the ship and the pallet retains the nylon strap then it is termed as
pre-slung cargo. The strap is returned to the ship after discharging the cargo.

Hook Handling:
Bales are soft cargo and they liable to be damaged by hooks, which penetrate the surface
and go deep inside.
Bales especially of hessian, bagged cargo and other such cargo are rendered useless if the
hooks punch holes into them.
Such cargo have a label saying use no hooks.
However many port workers use the same hooks to handle these cargo
The preferred hooks for such cargoes are shown below.
These contain about 3 rows of small raised metal pieces that good at gripping but do not
damage the cargo.
Some bagged cargo come with ears protruding from the four corners of the bags, these
ears are material of the bag and facilitate the handling of the cargo.

Unitized cargo and Pre-slung cargo
Unitized cargo are cargo such as tea or bagged sugar/ asbestos which are placed on top of a
wooden pallet and are strapped together into a unit.
The advantages of this is that the pallet (now referred to the whole) is easily moved and
stored by forklifts.
Much manual labour is not required. These types of pallets may be stacked more than one
high, though genially 2 high.
Ease of lashing and faster loading is the essential advantages. However a lot of broken
stowage occurs if the hold dimensions are not square. Thus these type of cargo were
unsuitable in old ships which had a tunnel in the after holds and the bilges were rounded.
Since these cargo came with their own wooden pallets the dunnaging cost was also saved.
After the development of unitized cargo, to speed up further the handling process the cargo
pallets were pre-slung with nylon straps.
Thus a trailer arriving on the jetty had the pallets neatly arranged and with their own slings.
All it took from the shore labour was for a person to hook on the slings. Once on board the
slings were not returned but the pallets was stowed with the sling. At the discharging port
the forklift brought the pallet top the hatch square and aging the pallet was lifted out with
the same sling. On completion of discharge if no cargo was being loaded on the ship the
slings were brought back on the ship. The slings were the property of the ship and a strict
tally was maintained. The slings were made of nylon straps in various colours and were
certified as to the SWL.
With the advent and popularization of containers pre-slung cargo system died out. Unitized
cargo is still existent and containers are loaded with unitized cargo.
Cranes versus Derricks
Using various cargo gear for handling of cargo.
Until the early 80s the primary gear was the derrick. A ship would have a set 0of derricks
for each hatch, sometimes if the hatch was big the two sets of derricks. One for the fore part
and the other for the after part. The advantages of the derricks is that the boom never
moved after it was rigged into position. The only moving parts are the sheaves of the blocks
and the wires. As such it was and still is the fastest means of discharging cargo.
The advantages of discharging with derricks are:
Very few moving parts
Time to discharge the least
Not much skill required to operate the derricks
Breakdown rate low
Easy to maintain and to repair on board
Spares are easily obtained from even small workshops
Spares are cheap
The disadvantages are:
Cannot discharge large and heavy packages
To be effective the derrick plumbing position has to be properly judged.
Has to be re-rigged every time the discharge area or loading square changes
Requires forklifts to feed the loading area
Cranes are used to handle heavy and large packages including grabs on bulk carriers.
The advantages of the cranes are:
Can discharge from 360 angle
Can handle cargo from anywhere in the hatch square
Depending on the SWL of the crane can handle very heavy packages
Sophisticated and has various safety cut outs to prevent damage and accident.
The disadvantages are:
Is slow
Requires skilled person to operate
With unskilled labour requires frequent resetting of the safety cut outs.
Maintenance difficult and time consuming
The good service provided by a crane is dependent on the maintenance
Repairs even more difficult and time consuming
Spares are to be ordered in advance from the manufacturer
Wires are of special construction and are very expensive.
Rigging other derricks:
Velle Derrick Rigging



The above is a Velle derrick. This type of derrick is a swinging derrick and is capable of lifting
heavy weight and may be found on container-oriented vessels (GC as well as container
cargo).
The rig is one of the most complicated. On a ship the crew has to be very well experienced to
rig up this derrick. The length of the wire is also of special length and may be of 250 280
metres.
There are 3 winches in operation; the 2 extreme winches have separate barrels, which turn
in the opposite direction. The extreme winches share 2 wires, 1 wire starts at 1 winch and
ends on the other. The same is for the other wire.
The gynfall wire is on a single centre winch. The controls are usually joystick control 1 for
the swinging and the other for the lifting. Thus the extreme winches control the swinging as
well as the topping/ lowering action and are controlled by a single control joystick.
This is a rare rigging plan and the author has taken great pains to personally draw it out
while serving on a ship rigged with 22T Velle derricks.
Use of Forklifts:
The precautions prior lowering and using forklifts inside the holds:
The forklift should not have any oil leakages
The height of the hold should be considered while lowering a tall forklift
The weight of the forklift together with the cargo should not exceed the load density of the
hold
The forklift should not be emitting profuse quantities of smoke
Adequate fire fighting arrangements should be inside the hold for any fire of the forklift
Jute and other flammable cargo should be kept away from any ingress of oil from any leaking
forklift
The driver should not drive the forklift rashly
Adequate lighting should be ensured
Saw dust and sand should be kept stand by for any unforeseen oil leaks.
Cargo Handling Safety

Safety while working with cargo gear
Derricks are long hollow steel booms rotating on swivels (heel), they each have a part rope
guy and a steel pendant which is used for heaving and positioning the derrick and also to
keep the derrick in place. The rope is used in a tackle and can absorb sudden shocks, which
come on the derrick while in operation. On the opposite side to the cargo being worked a
preventer guy made of wire rope is fitted which is kept slightly slack than the rope guy, This
enables the rope guy to stretch before any load comes on the preventer guy. This preventer
is the last shock and strain absorber, if the preventer is weak or is damaged it can part with
disastrous consequences. So maintaining the preventer and fixing it right is of utmost
importance.
When the two derricks are used together such that one derrick is positioned just above the
loading area on the jetty and the other is positioned above the un loading area within the
hold, and the gynfall (load lifting) wires are joined together, the arrangement is called a
UNION PURCHASE. This is the fastest method of working cargo, however the loads that this
arrangement can lift are less than the individual SWL of the derrick. Additionally there is a
risk of the angle subtended at the hook point between the two-gynfall wires going beyond
120degrees when the gynfall wires together act as a pulling force on the derricks laterally
and can part the rope guys and or the preventer wire.
Thus while the Union Purchase may be the fastest method it requires careful rigging of the
derricks as well as experienced winch men to handle the operation together with the duty
officer keeping an alert watch on the working of the same.

Cargo blocks are maintained during the voyage, but due to various reasons especially with
bush bearings sheaves, the bearing may burn out. Prior breakdown however the block would
give an indication by a shrill metallic sound, the crew and duty officer on deck is to be alert
on deck and the moment a noise is heard the cargo work is to be stopped and the cause
investigated.
After each shift of cargo handling when the stevedores take a break all the cargo gear is to
be examined for any wear and tear, if required the defective items are to be replaced. If new
blocks are being put to use, they should be greased before fitting them. The test certificates
and the cargo-rigging plan should be checked to see that the correct item is being fitted.
Often a cargo block breaks down and on examining it is seen that it had a SWL 5T marked on
it. Instantly a 5T block is brought from the store and fitted, it could be that the block that
had been fitted earlier was of a lesser SWL so it is always better to check the rigging plan.
The handling of the cargo gear also needs to be supervised and any extreme rough handling
should be stopped. Where the gyn fall wire rubs against the hatch coaming or gunwale
suitable padding should be place.
The derricks should be properly rigged and the preventer wire should, if it has been rigged
properly, stretch when the load is in between the two derricks (in case of union purchase).
With no load the preventer should be with some slack.
The cargo hook should have a locking clip to prevent the sling from slipping out of the hook.
Cargo handling areas should be cordoned off so that no person is found walking or standing
under a cargo load. Free passage may be used of the non-working side of the cargo hatch.
A helmet is no safety for a load if it falls helmets are satisfactory if some loose small
objects fall.
For heavy individual loads a swinging derrick is often used either a single derrick is used
where the guy ropes are removed and other winch wires (also called steam guys) are used to
control the movement of the derrick.
A number of other types of rigging have over the years been tried out some with great
success and some with little.
Jumbo derricks were derricks attached to a Mast and could lift as the name suggests heavy
loads, the forward Jumbo derrick was generally for extra heavy loads while the aft derrick
was for slightly lesser loads. In preparing for operation the Jumbo derricks required four
winches 1 for topping the derrick, one for lifting the load and two for swinging the derrick.
As such prior using the Jumbo derrick was rigged and the lashings were then removed. The
rigging entailed that four light derricks were inoperable since their winches were
requisitioned, so efficient planning on the part of the chief officer was required.
Stulken derricks had a single boom but the rigging was such that a single operator could
control the movement of the derrick, another advantage was that these derricks could
service two adjacent holds by being capable of being plumbed for either hold.
Velle derricks (with Thomson rig) were also very popular for ships, which often loaded heavy
loads such as containers; in this the control again was unified into a single man operation.
The above derricks were however very difficult to rig if the wire had to be changed, and
often the crew would spend an entire day rigging one derrick.
Cargo cranes are used on many ships and especially on bulk cargo carriers. These may be
light cranes for general cargo ships or heavy-duty cranes for lifting huge grabs or containers.
Ships, which have slots for containers but also load general cargo, are often fitted with
cranes with SWL up to 40 tonnes. If a single crane is incapable of being used to lift such
heavy containers then two cranes are twinned to handle the load. The control is unified
and both the cranes work in tandem.
Hatch Covers
Hatch covers especially the Macgregor rolling hath covers should be opened by a responsible
person and after opening the hatch covers should be locked to prevent their rolling and
closing on their own due to excessive trim.
Partially opening of hatch covers should be avoided unless there is a means of locking them
into place.
Prior opening a hatch cover the eccentric wheels should be examined to see whether any
have not been made upright for opening. All loose gear on top of the hatch cover should be
removed. Under no circumstances should a hatch cover be opened with a load on it. Also the
hatch cover recess should be physically checked to see that not obstruction is present and
that no stevedore is napping in the recess.
Similarly a hatch cover should not be closed with load on it and any deck cargo loaded onto
hatch cover should be done only after the hatch cover has be battened down (eccentric
wheels turned down, cleats and wedges locked.
Prior closing it should also be ensured that the track way is clear of all ropes, portable light
wires and any other obstruction and that the locking has been removed.
Tween deck hatch covers once they are opened are to be fenced off, generally stanchions
(Height 1.2m) are provided which have to be rigged and the wire/ chains fitted. Nobody is
to be allowed to work unless these are rigged.
Cargo Lighting
Portable lights are required to be rigged in holds where there is no provision for fixed
lighting system.
These lights are commonly called cargo cluster lights and have 4 or more light bulbs fixed to
a common pan shaped metal holder. A wire mesh covers the front of the pan and the inside
of the pan is painted white to reflect the light.
The light is attached to a short length of small dia rope to facilitate its being fixed at the
coaming.
The lights are to be checked in the afternoon and should be rigged and in place by sunset.
The lights should be switched when there is adequate light in the hold in the morning and
should be un-rigged and stored neatly.
They should be switched on only after the gangs come for the work and should be promptly
switched off once all have left the hold. Often the cargo lights are not removed and the
hatch covers are closed especially when closing due to rain. This is fraught with danger, for
the lead is cut and the cluster light falls into the hold, the bulbs are hot and may cause a fire,
also the cut lead has power in it and may cause a short circuit for the system or may
electrocute any person close by.
An experienced crew should supervise the rigging of cargo lights since if loading jute or other
flammable cargo the distance off from the cargo should be maintained. Also the shore
people may tend to drag a light inside the hold to facilitate loading, this should be
supervised.
The electric cord should never lift the lights rather the ropes attached for the same should
be used.
In holds where fixed lighting is available the light fittings should be inspected prior switching
on and then only the lights are to be switched on. Water seepage especially during rain may
cause short circuits and may eventually lead to fires.
All lights should be switched off when no longer required.
Oil Tanker



A tanker is a specialized ship intended for the carriage of bulk liquid cargo. An Oil tanker
again is further divided into 2 basic types, namely Crude Oil Tanker and Product Oil Tanker.
For both of the above the cargo of oil is carried within the tanks similar to the holds of other
ships, the difference being that the bulkheads are extra strengthened to take in the load,
and the hatch or rather the tank openings are very small, the sole purpose of having them is
for Man Entry and for small repair work in the dry docks.
The cargo of oil is loaded on to the ships tanks by pipelines, which are fixed on the ship
(permanent structure), the shore pipelines are connected to the ships pipelines at the
manifold on either side of the ship. Note that some special ships also have manifolds at the
bow and at the stern.
The shore pipelines may be connected using flexible steel rimmed rubber hoses (small ports/
Ship to ship transfers/ SBM) the flexible come in small lengths are connected to each other
to make them long pieces.
The shore pipelines may also be connected with rigid loading arms also called chiksons,
which are remotely controlled and take in the roll of the ship to a certain extent but the fore
and aft movement of the ship has to be kept to a minimum.
The combined pipeline system of the shore and the ship deliver the oil to the cargo oil tanks
directly via the drop lines. These are as the name suggests pipelines, which drop to the
bottom of the tanks vertically from the pipeline on deck thus bypassing the pump room.
There are various cross- over valves, which are opened in order to load a group of tanks.
The shore system starts to pump/ delivers by gravity (some Persian Gulf ports) at a slow rate,
so that any leakages can be detected and to check whether the right tank is receiving the oil
or not, once the shore and the shipside are satisfied the pumping loading of the cargo is
increased. In case of any subsequent leakages that are detected the ship valves should not
be shut abruptly, rather the shore has to be informed first and then only the ship valves are
to shut, this to prevent pressure surge from bursting the pipelines.
To prevent this surge from affecting the pipelines the cargo valves have set times at which
they close this depends on the size of the valves typically a 550mm valve would shut at
about 24 seconds, whereas a 250mm valve would shut at 6-8 seconds.
After the ship completes her loading the stage is set for the unloading or discharging
operation.
While loading the cargo had by passed the pump room, now however the cargo from the
tanks is allowed to flow to the pump room through the bottom pipelines. Just within the
pumproom and at the pumproom bulkhead are situated isolation valves known as Bulkhead
Master valves, by opening the valves the oil is led to the pump suction valve and on opening
that the oil flows to the centrifugal pumps. Turbines, which are situated in the Engine Room,
commonly drive these pumps; the shaft penetrates the ER bulkhead and drives the pump
situated at the bottom of the pumproom.
The pump accelerates the flow of the oil into the discharge pipeline and this oil is thus led on
the deck pipelines and to the manifold from where it flow through the flexible pipeline or
the hard loading arm to the shore pipeline system.
The Pump Room
This is a cofferdam kind of space in fact it is accepted as a cofferdam, which begins on main
deck and ends at the keel.
It may have more than 2 decks, however these decks are not normally solid decks but are
partial decks made of expanded metal, so you are able to see right to the bottom.
There would be a companionway leading from the top to the next deck and so on right to
the bottom.
At the lowermost deck are situated the Cargo Oil Pumps (COPs). The numbers of pumps
vary in number for crude oil tankers it is normal to have 4 pumps, three being used at any
one time.
For product oil tankers the number of pumps depend on the number of grade of oil that the
ship is capable of carrying.
So if the ship can carry 4 grades of oil then she would be having 4 pumps.
Once the gravity flow to the COPs is not possible the stripped pumps are started, these
pumps are of the reciprocating type and have great capacity to create partial vacuum to suck
out the remaining oil from the tanks. Again on a product oil tanker the number of stripped
pumps would be equal to the number of grades of oil that it can carry.
Earlier on Crude oil carrier there would be stripper pumps of the reciprocating type however
today largely eductors are used to remove the remaining oil from the tank. Generally 2
eductors are provided on each crude oil tanker. However 1 stripper pump is always provided
to strip the cargo lines of any residual oil and to pump the same to the shore system.
The pumproom is a hazardous area as such the light fittings are gas tight and only tanker
safety torches are used. The ventilation system is of the exhaust type and has intakes from
all the levels with the intakes being fitted with closing devices so that if required only a
certain level can be evacuated.
Hydrocarbon gases being heavier than air tend to settle at the bottom of the pumproom as
such the main exhaust are always from the bottom level.
The pumproom lighting is devised in such a way that the lights do not come on unless the
ventilation has been started and is kept on for 15 minutes.
AT the top of the pumproom a harness and lifting arrangement is provided to lift out a
person from the lowermost deck, for this reason a clear passage is left vertically from the
top to the bottom of the pumproom.
Fire mans outfit are also placed at the top of the pumproom, the pumproom may have
different types of fixed fire fighting appliances such as total flooding by CO2 or by foam
applicators fitted in the bilges (below the floor plates under the lowermost deck).
Bilge alarms are fitted which give alarms when the bilges are filled a high level and a low
level alarm is fitted which gives indications in the Engine room as well as in the Cargo Control
room.
Picture shows the main deck layout of a Product tanker (capable of carrying 4 grades of oil):

The same tanker with the tank layout.

And part of the pump room layout of the same tanker.


The above shows the location of the drop valves; drop lines, line master, bulkhead master
and the bottom lines.
Cargo Oil Pumps (COP)
A centrifugal pump, in the pumproom bottom platform. The dark green pipeline is the
discharge line. The pump consists of an impeller which rotates within the casing. Due to this
rotation which is generally about 1000 1700 rpm the oil is speeded up and this increase in
velocity causes the oil to flow out at a great pressure. These pumps are capable of delivering
a very high rate of discharge (up to 4000 m3/hr). With this type of pump the level of oil has
to be above the pump as such the pump is situated at the bottom of the pump room.

Another detail of the same centrifugal pump.

The earlier centrifugal pump situated in the pumproom is driven by a shaft which is
connected to the steam turbine situated in the ER. The shaft passes from the ER to the
pumproom through the pumproom bulkhead via a gas and oil tight gasket.

The turbines are driven by superheated steam from the boiler in the ER.
Positive displacement pumps such as the reciprocating pump work on the principle of a hand
pump the movement of the piston creates a vacuum which sucks out the fluid. However
the size of the pump is dependent on the size of the piston and the length of the strokes so
for discharging at a high rate is practically impossible. In general these pumps are used to
discharge small quantities of oil such as the strippings the balance that the centrifugal
pump cannot discharge due to the oil going below the level of the pump. The pump is used
today on crude tankers to strip out the pipelines after discharging and then collecting these
line content (small) and then pumping them to shore.
Eductors
Eductors work on the principles of Bernoullis Principle.
A driving fluid is pumped down the main line, with very high velocity, through a constriction,
and past a relatively smaller opening, thus creating a vacuum.
When eductors are used for clean ballast, the driving fluid is seawater.
When used for stripping crude oil, the driving fluid is the cargo itself- delivered by means of a
bypass from one of the main cargo pumps.
When used for stripping tank washings, the driving fluid is from the secondary slop tank and
then re-circulated back to the primary slop tank. In the latter case the driving fluid is either
crude oil or seawater, depending on the tank cleaning method.
Eductors are simple and rugged, have no moving parts, and do not become air locked like
other type of pumps. They are widely used on tankers of all types and sizes.


Tank layout of a crude oil tanker:

The Pipeline system:
Pipeline systems on tankers differ in their degree of sophistication, depending on
employment of the tanker.
ULCCs and VLCCs have relatively simple pipeline systems usually the direct line system.
Some product (parcel) tankers may have very sophisticated piping systems. This could be the
ring main system or in case of a chemical product tanker it could mean an individual pipeline
and an individual pump for every tank on board.
Basically there are three systems of pipelines found on tankers, and the fourth system being
the free flow system found on large crude carriers
Ring Main System
Direct line system
Single line to Single tank system (Chemical/Product ship)
Free Flow system
Ring Main System:

It is generally of a square or circular layout.
It is used mostly on product tankers, as segregation of cargo is required.
Though the system is expensive, as more piping, and extra number valves are used.
However if the vessel is carrying many grades of cargo, the advantages compensate for the
extra cost of the original outlay.
Direct Line System:

This system is mainly found on crude oil carriers where up to 3 grades of cargo can be
carried as most of the direct pipeline systems is fitted with three direct lines.
This system is cheaper to construct. The disadvantages over the ring main system, is that line
washing is more difficult, the system has fewer valves which make pipeline leaks difficult to
control, as the system lacks versatility there is problem with line and valve segregation.
This system provides the vessel to carry as many grades as there are tanks.
The disadvantage is the cost factor having a multitude of pumps on board.
Free flow Tanker:
This system is usually found on large crude carriers, where the cargo piping is not used for
the discharge of cargo.
Instead, gate valves are provided on the bulkheads of the tanks which when opened; allow
the oil to flow freely in the aft most tank and into the COP.
The advantages of this system are primarily the cost factor, it allows for fast drainage and
efficient means of pumping the cargo tanks. Disadvantages are of single crude being
shipped.
Independent System:
This layout is not very common in the tanker trade.
This system is quite normal on chemical ships.
There are some Product Tankers that have this system fitted on the ships.
This is a single line servicing an individual tank through an independent pump that could be
either a submersible pump or a deep well pump.
Enclosed Space Entry
An enclosed space is one with restricted access that is not subject to continuous ventilation
and in which the atmosphere may be hazardous due to the presence of hydrocarbon gas,
toxic gases, inert gas or oxygen deficiency. This definition includes cargo tanks, ballast tanks,
fuel tanks, water tanks, lubricating oil tanks, slop and waste oil tanks, sewage tanks,
cofferdams, duct keels, void spaces and trunkings, pipelines or fittings connected to any of
these. It also includes inert gas scrubbers and water seals and any other item of machinery
or equipment that is not routinely ventilated and entered, such as boilers and main engine
crankcases.
Many of the fatalities in enclosed spaces on oil tankers have resulted from entering the
space without proper supervision or adherence to agreed procedures. In almost every case
the fatality would have been avoided if the simple guidance in this chapter had been
followed. The rapid rescue of personnel who have collapsed in an enclosed space presents
particular risk. It is a human reaction to go to the aid of a colleague in difficulties, but far too
many additional and unnecessary deaths have occurred from impulsive and ill-prepared
rescue attempts.
Respiratory hazards from a number of sources could be present in an enclosed space. These
could include one or more of the following:
Respiratory contaminants associated with organic vapours including those from aromatic
hydrocarbons, benzene, toluene, etc.; gases such as hydrogen sulphide; residues from inert
gas and particulates such as those from asbestos, welding operations and paint mists.
Oxygen deficiency caused by, for example, oxidation (rusting) of bare steel surfaces, the
presence of inert gas or microbial activity.
Hydrocarbon Vapours
During the carriage and after the discharge of hydrocarbons, the presence of hydrocarbon
vapour should always be suspected in enclosed spaces for the following reasons:
Cargo may have leaked into compartments, including pumprooms, cofferdams, permanent
ballast tanks and tanks adjacent to those that have carried cargo.
Cargo residues may remain on the internal surfaces of tanks, even after cleaning and
ventilation.
Sludge and scale in a tank which has been declared gas free may give off further
hydrocarbon vapour if disturbed or subjected to a rise in temperature.
Residues may remain in cargo or ballast pipelines and pumps.
The presence of gas should also be suspected in empty tanks or compartments if non-
volatile cargoes have been loaded into non-gas free tanks or if there is a common ventilation
system which could allow the free passage of vapours from one tank to another.
Oxygen Deficiency
Lack of oxygen should always be suspected in all enclosed spaces, particularly if they have
contained water, have been subjected to damp or humid conditions, have contained inert
gas or are adjacent to, or connected with, other inerted tanks.
Other Atmospheric Hazards
These include toxic contaminants such as benzene or hydrogen sulphide, which could remain
in the space as residues from previous cargoes.
ATMOSPHERE TESTS PRIOR TO ENTRY
General
Any decision to enter an enclosed space should only be taken after the atmosphere within the
space has been comprehensively tested from outside the space with test equipment that has
recently been calibrated and checked for correct operation.
It is essential that all atmosphere testing equipment used is:
Suitable for the test required;
Of an approved type;
Correctly maintained;
Frequently checked against standard samples.
A record should be kept of all maintenance work and calibration tests carried out and of the
period of their validity. Testing should only be carried out by personnel who have been
trained in the use of the equipment and who are competent to interpret the results
correctly.
Care should be taken to obtain a representative cross-section of the compartment by
sampling at several depths and through as many deck openings as practicable. When tests
are being carried out from deck level, ventilation should be stopped and a minimum period
of about 10 minutes should be allowed to elapse before readings are taken.
Even when tests have shown a tank or compartment to be safe for entry, pockets of gas
should always be suspected. Hence, when descending to the lower part of a tank or
compartment, further atmosphere tests should be made. Regeneration of hydrocarbon gas
should always be considered possible, even after loose scale has been removed. The use of
personal detectors capable of continuously monitoring the oxygen content of the
atmosphere, the presence of hydrocarbon vapour and, if appropriate, toxic vapour is
strongly recommended. These instruments will detect any deterioration in the quality of the
atmosphere and can provide an audible alarm to warn of the change in conditions.
While personnel remain in a tank or compartment, ventilation should be continuous and
frequent atmosphere tests should be undertaken. In particular, tests should always be made
before each daily commencement of work or after any interruption or break in the work.
Sufficient samples should be drawn to ensure that the resulting readings are representative
of the condition of the entire space.
Hydrocarbon Vapours
To be considered safe for entry, whether for inspection, cold work or hot work, a reading of
not more than 1% LFL must be obtained on suitable monitoring equipment.
Benzene
Checks for benzene vapour should be made prior to entering any compartment in which a
cargo that may have contained benzene has recently been carried. Entry should not be
permitted without appropriate personal protective equipment if statutory or recommended
Permissible Exposure Limits (PELs) are likely to be exceeded. Tests for benzene vapours can
only be undertaken using appropriate detector equipment, such as that utilizing detector
tubes. (Benzene causes cancer, and has a delayed action which may be up to 20years)
Detector equipment should be provided on board all vessels likely to carry cargoes in which
benzene may be present.
Hydrogen Sulphide
Although a tank which has contained sour crude or sour products will contain hydrogen
sulphide, general practice and experience indicates that, if the tank is thoroughly washed,
the hydrogen sulphide should be eliminated. However, the atmosphere should be checked
for hydrogen sulphide content prior to entry and entry should be prohibited in the event of
any hydrogen sulphide being detected. Hydrogen sulphide may also be encountered in
pumprooms and appropriate precautions should therefore be taken.
Oxygen Deficiency
Before initial entry is allowed into any enclosed space, which is not in daily use, the
atmosphere should be tested with an oxygen analyzer to check that the normal oxygen level
in air of 21% by volume is present. This is of particular importance when considering entry
into any space, tank or compartment that has previously been inerted.
Generally nearly all substances have been assigned Permissible Exposure Limits (PEL) and /or
Threshold Limit Values (TLVs). The term Threshold Limit Value (TLV) is often expressed as a
time weighted Average (TWA). The use of the term Permissible Exposure Limit refers to the
maximum exposure to a toxic substance that is allowed by an appropriate regulatory body.
The PEL is usually expressed as a Time Weighted Average, normally averaged over an eight-
hour period.
Short Term Exposure Limit (STEL), is normally expressed as a maximum airborne
concentration averaged over a 15-minute period.
The values are expressed as parts per million (PPM) by volume of gas in air. Toxicity can be
greatly influenced by the presence of some minor components such as aromatic
hydrocarbons (e.g. benzene) and hydrogen sulphide. A TLV of 300PPM, corresponding to
about 2%LEL, is established for gasoline vapours.
Entry Procedures
General
A responsible officer prior to personnel entering an enclosed space should issue an entry
permit. An example of an Enclosed Space Entry Permit is provided in ISGOTT.
Suitable notices should be prominently displayed to inform personnel of the precautions to
be taken when entering tanks or other enclosed spaces and of any restrictions placed upon
the work permitted therein.
The entry permit should be rendered invalid if ventilation of the space stops or if any of the
conditions noted in the checklist change.
No one should enter any cargo tank, cofferdam, double bottom or other enclosed space
unless an entry permit has been issued by a responsible officer who has ascertained
immediately before entry that the atmosphere within the space is in all respects safe for
entry. Before issuing an entry permit, the responsible officer should ensure that:
The appropriate atmosphere checks have been carried out, namely oxygen content is 21% by
volume, hydrocarbon vapour concentration is not more than 1% LFL and no toxic or other
contaminants are present.
Effective ventilation will be maintained continuously while the enclosed space is occupied.
Lifelines and harnesses are ready for immediate use at the entrance to the space.
Approved positive pressure breathing apparatus and resuscitation equipment are ready for
use at the entrance to the space.
Where possible, a separate means of access is available for use as an alternative means of
escape in an emergency.
A responsible member of the crew is in constant attendance outside the enclosed space in
the immediate vicinity of the entrance and in direct contact with a responsible officer. The
lines of communications for dealing with emergencies should be clearly established and
understood by all concerned.
In the event of an emergency, under no circumstances should the attending crew member
enter the tank before help has arrived and the situation has been evaluated to ensure the
safety of those entering the tank to undertake rescue operations.
Regular atmosphere checks should be carried out all the time personnel are within the space
and a full range of tests should be undertaken prior to re-entry into the tank after any break.
The use of personal detectors and carriage of emergency escape breathing apparatus are
recommended.
Reference should be made to ISGOTT for additional guidance on entry into pumprooms.

Cargo Measurement


Tank quantities are measured by noting the level of the fluid in the tank and then referring to
the tank calibration tables and noting down the quantity specified against that level.
Thus we take the sounding of a tank water and fuel on all type of ships and then follow the
above practice. Note that prior to referring to the tables the tank level has to be corrected for
error due to trim and list. These corrections are generally given in the tank calibration tables.
The above method though fine by all are turned upside down on a tanker. A tanker loads oil
and it is not feasible to take a sounding every now and then besides it is very messy. On
tankers therefore instead of sounding the reverse is measured that is the vacant level to
reach the top of the tank or the ullage.
Thus ullage tables are nothing but the sounding table reversed.
Note the following:
The maximum sounding of a tank is 24.35m the maximum ullage is also 24.35m.
When the sounding is 10m the ullage would be 24.35 10 = 14.35m
Thus when a tank is filling up the sounding increases, whereas the ullage reduces.
Once the liquid level is obtained the same is seen for the quantity (Volume) in the calibration
book.
This is the Gross volume at Natural Temperature GVn (observed temperature being taken of
the liquid at three levels and then averaged)
The sounding of any water which may be present in the tanks is now taken (some water is
usually present in crude oil and also sometimes in product oil). The calibration tables are
again referred and the volume of Free Water is obtained.
Thus the Net Volume at Natural (NVn) is found by subtracting the water form the GVn.
This NVn is now converted to a volume at 15C by looking up the correction in the ASTM
tables a factor is found, which converts the Volume at Natural temperature to a volume at
15C.
This would then be the Net volume of oil loaded.
The conversion is required since the loading temperature may be 40C whereas the
temperature of the oil after a voyage of 30 days would drop to about 30C or so. Obviously
the volume would then contract, so a standard temperature correction is done to 15C at both
the load as well as the disport.
For weight calculations the volume at 15C is taken and this is multiplied by the density at
15C of the oil (actually a factor which is 0.0011 less than the density at 15C is used)
Bale Capacity:
This is the cubic capacity of a space when the breadth is taken from the inside of the cargo
battens, the depth from the wooden ceiling to the underside of the deck beams and the length
from the inside of the bulkhead stiffeners or sparring where fitted.
Grain Capacity:
This is the cubic capacity of a space when the lengths, breadths and the depths are taken right
to the ships side plating. An allowance is usually made for the volume occupied by frames
and beams.
Stowage Factor:
This is the volume occupied by unit weight of cargo. Usually expressed as cubic metres/
tonne. It does not take into account space, which may be lost due to broken stowage. However
it obtained by multiplying the greatest length by the greatest breadth with the greatest height.
Example:
A bale of Hessian has the following dimensions: L 1.2 M, B 1.2 M and H 1.5 M. The
bale weighs 800 KGS.
The SF then would be obtained by:
Volume: L x B x H = 1.2 x 1.2 x 1.5 = 2.16 CBM
So, 2.16 CBM would weigh 0.8 MT
Or 1 MT of the cargo in bales would occupy 2.7 CBM

Broken Stowage:
The space between packages which remains unutilized. This is generally expressed as a
percentage and the amount that is to be allowed varies with differ rent cargo and the shape of
the hold. It is greatest when large cases have to be loaded in a n end hold, where the after end
narrows down considerably.
BS is generally not given in any of the booking lists, but is a ship/ hold experience factor or a
sister ship experience factor for that particular cargo. The most commonly accepted figure is
about 10%, thus with a BS of 10% the available cargo space that may be loaded would be
90%.
Example: Given to load a quantity of light packaged cargo having a SF at 2.7 CBM/MT, the
hold space (bale capacity) is given as 885 CBM. To find the amount of cargo that may be
loaded in the hold.
The bale capacity is 885 CBM but since the BS is 10% the available space would be 885 x
90% Or 796.5 CBM Thus the cargo that can be loaded would be 796.5/ 2.7 = 295 MT (about).
However this BS that is given is for a proper stow as per earlier estimates, the final stow
should also be a good stow or the BS that would be obtained on final completion would vary.
Thus on final completion of loading if the tween deck was loaded with only 275 MT then the
BS that was obtained would be:
Full capacity 885 CBM at 2.7 CBM/ MT could take in 885/ 2.7 = 328 MT
But it finally took in only 275 MT thus had a shortfall was 53 MT which was due to BS.
Thus,
328 MT 275 MT = 53
And 53 / 328 = 0.16
Expressed as a percentage = 16% was lost due to BS instead of the earlier estimated figure of
10%.
Example-101
Given to load No. 1 Lower Hold
Bale capacity 962 m3
Max Height 11.945m
Permissible Load 9.2 t/ m2
Forward Breadth 4.5m
After Breadth 11.5m
Mean Breadth 8m
Length 10.5m

Area of the hold Length x Mean Breadth
A = 11 x 8 = 88m2
Permissible Load density 9.2 t/m2
Therefore the load if evenly spread all over the hold would enable the hold to be loaded with:
88 x 9.2 = 809.6 MT
Example-102
Given to load No. 1 Lower Hold
Bale capacity 962 m3
Max Height 11.945m
Permissible Load 9.2 t/ m2
Forward Breadth 4.5m
After Breadth 11.5m
Mean Breadth 8m
Length 10.5m
Cargo SF 2.7 m3/t
Volume 962 m3
Cargo can load Volume/ SF
Cargo to load 962/ 2.7
Cargo to load 356 MT

Example-103
Given to load No. 1 Lower Hold
Bale capacity 962 m3
Max Height 11.945m
Permissible Load 9.2 t/ m2
Forward Breadth 4.5m
After Breadth 11.5m
Mean Breadth 8m
Length 10.5m
Cargo 150 MT, SF 2.7 m3/t to load only in after half of the hatch space
After breadth 11.5m
Mid Breadth 8m
Mean breadth 9.75m
Length 5.25m
Area of hold as above 51.2 m2
Volume of above 611 m3
Max permissible load on 51.2 m2 9.2 x 51.2 = 471 MT
Since the cargo has a SF of 2.7 m3/t the volume occupied by the cargo would be:
Volume/ SF
611/ 2.7 = 226 MT
So the after half of the hold would take in 226 MT of the cargo and would remain within the
permissible load density.
Let us now fill up the forward half of the hold with a cargo having a SF of 0.8 m3/t (heavy
cargo)
Cargo ?? MT, SF 0.8 m3/t to load in forward half of the hatch space
After breadth 4.5m
Mid Breadth 8m
Mean breadth 6.25m
Length 5.25m
Area of hold as above 32.8 m2
Volume of above 392 m3
Permissible load would be: 32.8 m2 x 9.2 (SF) = 302 MT
Cargo that could be loaded as per SF Volume/ SF = 392/ 0.8 = 490 MT
But the permissible load is 302 MT, so the cargo could not be loaded right up to the top of
the hold. So there would be a height restriction.
First we find the Volume as required for the permissible load of 302 MT
Load 302 = Volume/ 0.8
Or Volume = 302 x 0.8 = 242 m3
Since we know the area as 32.8 m2 we can find the height,
Volume/ Area or 242/ 32.8 = 7.4 m
Thus the cargo of 302 MT could be loaded only up to a height of 7.4m.
Enclosed Space Entry

An enclosed space is one with restricted access that is not subject to continuous ventilation
and in which the atmosphere may be hazardous due to the presence of hydrocarbon gas, toxic
gases, inert gas or oxygen deficiency. This definition includes cargo tanks, ballast tanks, fuel
tanks, water tanks, lubricating oil tanks, slop and waste oil tanks, sewage tanks, cofferdams,
duct keels, void spaces and trunkings, pipelines or fittings connected to any of these. It also
includes inert gas scrubbers and water seals and any other item of machinery or equipment
that is not routinely ventilated and entered, such as boilers and main engine crankcases.
Many of the fatalities in enclosed spaces on oil tankers have resulted from entering the space
without proper supervision or adherence to agreed procedures. In almost every case the
fatality would have been avoided if the simple guidance in this chapter had been followed.
The rapid rescue of personnel who have collapsed in an enclosed space presents particular
risk. It is a human reaction to go to the aid of a colleague in difficulties, but far too many
additional and unnecessary deaths have occurred from impulsive and ill-prepared rescue
attempts.
Respiratory hazards from a number of sources could be present in an enclosed space. These
could include one or more of the following:
Respiratory contaminants associated with organic vapours including those from aromatic
hydrocarbons, benzene, toluene, etc.; gases such as hydrogen sulphide; residues from inert gas
and particulates such as those from asbestos, welding operations and paint mists.
Oxygen deficiency caused by, for example, oxidation (rusting) of bare steel surfaces, the
presence of inert gas or microbial activity.
Hydrocarbon Vapours
During the carriage and after the discharge of hydrocarbons, the presence of hydrocarbon
vapour should always be suspected in enclosed spaces for the following reasons:
Cargo may have leaked into compartments, including pumprooms, cofferdams, permanent
ballast tanks and tanks adjacent to those that have carried cargo.
Cargo residues may remain on the internal surfaces of tanks, even after cleaning and
ventilation.
Sludge and scale in a tank which has been declared gas free may give off further hydrocarbon
vapour if disturbed or subjected to a rise in temperature.
Residues may remain in cargo or ballast pipelines and pumps.
The presence of gas should also be suspected in empty tanks or compartments if non-volatile
cargoes have been loaded into non-gas free tanks or if there is a common ventilation system
which could allow the free passage of vapours from one tank to another.
Oxygen Deficiency
Lack of oxygen should always be suspected in all enclosed spaces, particularly if they have
contained water, have been subjected to damp or humid conditions, have contained inert gas
or are adjacent to, or connected with, other inerted tanks.
Other Atmospheric Hazards
These include toxic contaminants such as benzene or hydrogen sulphide, which could remain
in the space as residues from previous cargoes.
ATMOSPHERE TESTS PRIOR TO ENTRY
General
Any decision to enter an enclosed space should only be taken after the atmosphere within the
space has been comprehensively tested from outside the space with test equipment that has
recently been calibrated and checked for correct operation.
It is essential that all atmosphere testing equipment used is:
Suitable for the test required;
Of an approved type;
Correctly maintained;
Frequently checked against standard samples.
A record should be kept of all maintenance work and calibration tests carried out and of the
period of their validity. Testing should only be carried out by personnel who have been
trained in the use of the equipment and who are competent to interpret the results correctly.
Care should be taken to obtain a representative cross-section of the compartment by sampling
at several depths and through as many deck openings as practicable. When tests are being
carried out from deck level, ventilation should be stopped and a minimum period of about 10
minutes should be allowed to elapse before readings are taken.
Even when tests have shown a tank or compartment to be safe for entry, pockets of gas should
always be suspected. Hence, when descending to the lower part of a tank or compartment,
further atmosphere tests should be made. Regeneration of hydrocarbon gas should always be
considered possible, even after loose scale has been removed. The use of personal detectors
capable of continuously monitoring the oxygen content of the atmosphere, the presence of
hydrocarbon vapour and, if appropriate, toxic vapour is strongly recommended. These
instruments will detect any deterioration in the quality of the atmosphere and can provide an
audible alarm to warn of the change in conditions.
While personnel remain in a tank or compartment, ventilation should be continuous and
frequent atmosphere tests should be undertaken. In particular, tests should always be made
before each daily commencement of work or after any interruption or break in the work.
Sufficient samples should be drawn to ensure that the resulting readings are representative of
the condition of the entire space.
Hydrocarbon Vapours
To be considered safe for entry, whether for inspection, cold work or hot work, a reading of
not more than 1% LFL must be obtained on suitable monitoring equipment.
Benzene
Checks for benzene vapour should be made prior to entering any compartment in which a
cargo that may have contained benzene has recently been carried. Entry should not be
permitted without appropriate personal protective equipment if statutory or recommended
Permissible Exposure Limits (PELs) are likely to be exceeded. Tests for benzene vapours can
only be undertaken using appropriate detector equipment, such as that utilizing detector tubes.
Detector equipment should be provided on board all vessels likely to carry cargoes in which
benzene may be present.
Hydrogen Sulphide
Although a tank which has contained sour crude or sour products will contain hydrogen
sulphide, general practice and experience indicates that, if the tank is thoroughly washed, the
hydrogen sulphide should be eliminated. However, the atmosphere should be checked for
hydrogen sulphide content prior to entry and entry should be prohibited in the event of any
hydrogen sulphide being detected. Hydrogen sulphide may also be encountered in
pumprooms and appropriate precautions should therefore be taken.
Oxygen Deficiency
Before initial entry is allowed into any enclosed space, which is not in daily use, the
atmosphere should be tested with an oxygen analyzer to check that the normal oxygen level in
air of 21% by volume is present. This is of particular importance when considering entry into
any space, tank or compartment that has previously been inerted.
Generally nearly all substances have been assigned Permissible Exposure Limits (PEL) and
/or Threshold Limit Values (TLVs). The term Threshold Limit Value (TLV) is often
expressed as a time weighted Average (TWA). The use of the term Permissible Exposure
Limit refers to the maximum exposure to a toxic substance that is allowed by an appropriate
regulatory body.
The PEL is usually expressed as a Time Weighted Average, normally averaged over an eight-
hour period.
Short Term Exposure Limit (STEL), is normally expressed as a maximum airborne
concentration averaged over a 15-minute period.
The values are expressed as parts per million (PPM) by volume of gas in air. Toxicity can be
greatly influenced by the presence of some minor components such as aromatic hydrocarbons
(e.g. benzene) and hydrogen sulphide. A TLV of 300PPM, corresponding to about 2%LEL, is
established for gasoline vapours.
Entry Procedures
General
An entry permit should be issued by a responsible officer prior to personnel entering an
enclosed space. An example of an Enclosed Space Entry Permit is provided in ISGOTT.
Suitable notices should be prominently displayed to inform personnel of the precautions to be
taken when entering tanks or other enclosed spaces and of any restrictions placed upon the
work permitted therein.
The entry permit should be rendered invalid if ventilation of the space stops or if any of the
conditions noted in the checklist change.
No one should enter any cargo tank, cofferdam, double bottom or other enclosed space unless
an entry permit has been issued by a responsible officer who has ascertained immediately
before entry that the atmosphere within the space is in all respects safe for entry. Before
issuing an entry permit, the responsible officer should ensure that:
The appropriate atmosphere checks have been carried out, namely oxygen content is 21% by
volume, hydrocarbon vapour concentration is not more than 1% LFL and no toxic or other
contaminants are present.
Effective ventilation will be maintained continuously while the enclosed space is occupied.
Lifelines and harnesses are ready for immediate use at the entrance to the space.
Approved positive pressure breathing apparatus and resuscitation equipment are ready for use
at the entrance to the space.
Where possible, a separate means of access is available for use as an alternative means of
escape in an emergency.
A responsible member of the crew is in constant attendance outside the enclosed space in the
immediate vicinity of the entrance and in direct contact with a responsible officer. The lines
of communications for dealing with emergencies should be clearly established and understood
by all concerned.
In the event of an emergency, under no circumstances should the attending crew member
enter the tank before help has arrived and the situation has been evaluated to ensure the safety
of those entering the tank to undertake rescue operations.
Regular atmosphere checks should be carried out all the time personnel are within the space
and a full range of tests should be undertaken prior to re-entry into the tank after any break.
The use of personal detectors and carriage of emergency escape breathing apparatus are
recommended.
Reference should be made to ISGOTT for additional guidance on entry into pumprooms.

S
S
S
h
h
h
i
i
i
p
p
p


C
C
C
o
o
o
n
n
n
s
s
s
t
t
t
r
r
r
u
u
u
c
c
c
t
t
t
i
i
i
o
o
o
n
n
n



Ship Dimensions and Form
General Cargo Vessel
These types of ships in general are built with longitudinal framing at the decks and in the
double bottoms. Transverse framing is at the sides.
Profile


The transverse strength is given by fitting transverses at the deck and plate floors are fitted
in the double bottoms.
Longitudinal framing is not usual in general cargo vessels due to the high broken stowage
involved. Also deep transverses then have to be fitted about 3.7 metres to give the ship
transverse strength.
Bilge wells are fitted with a cubic capacity of 0.17 cbm. Nowadays ceiling on top of tank tops
are generally not fitted as such the plating is increased by 2mm. However where ceiling is
fitted they should be removable in sections. The ceiling where fitted should have a clear
space for drainage at least of 12.5mm.
Cargo battens are fitted to the sides and to the turn of the bilges size of 50mm thick and
spacing between rows of 230mm.
Midship

Shown above is a centre line bulkhead in the lower hold and in the tween deck. This extends
from the transverse watertight bulkhead to the hatch coamings.
Tankers
These ships may have two or more longitudinal bulkheads today with double hull concept
at least 3 but normally 4.
The bottom and deck are also framed longitudinally and so are the sides and the sides of the
longitudinal bulkheads.
The length of a tank is not to exceed 0.2L. As the size of the tanker grows transverse wash
bulkhead are fitted at about mid length of the tank. These are for size of tanks over 0.1L or
15m whichever is more.
Centre line was bulk heads are fitted where the breadth exceeds the dimensions as laid out
in the Rules for different size of tanks.
Cofferdams are provided both forward of the oil carrying space as well as in from of the ER
bulkhead. Generally the pumproom is located within the cofferdam aft. Some ships have a
forward pump room located in the forward cofferdam.
The cofferdams are to be at least 760mm in length
Some smaller ships have a combined transverse and longitudinal framing system.
In lieu of bulwarks these ships are to have open rails on deck.
Cargo tanks are tested by a head of water in the cargo tank 2.45m above the highest point
of the tank.
Generally a system of staggered test is undertaken. Alternate tanks are filled and the empty
tanks is inspected. Once all the empty tanks are inspected, the filled tanks are empties and
the reverse tanks are filled and the other alternates inspected.
Inspecting of the tank welding are done by rafting within a tank.
Profile

Plan

Midship


Bulk Carriers:
These ships are characterised by their ability to carry cargo in bulk. If carrying grain and
other lighter cargo all the holds are filled.
However if heavy cargo such as iron ore is carried then alternate holds are filled and to the
designed loads only.
Profile

The vessel may be constructed on the combined system, longitudinal framing together with
transverse framing which are fitted at the sides. The longitudinal framing is fitted in the
double bottoms, the deck and the bottoms of the wing tanks.
The wing tanks may be utilised to carry cargo as well as remain empty. They carry ballast
water during the ballast passage.
Transverse webs are fitted at in the wing tanks at intervals as laid out in the Rules. And side
stringers are fitted at about 1/3
rd
and 2/3
rd
the depth of the tanks.
Plan

Midship


Combination Carriers:
These ships are capable of carrying ore as well as oil in bulk.
Transverse bulkheads are usually of the cofferdam type with all the stiffening on the inside.
There is a rise of floor of the inner bottom which facilitates drainage to the drain well
arranged on the centre line. The pipelines run through a duct keel. The duct keep entrance in
the pumproom has a oil and gas tight door.
Profile

On the top the hatch covers are mainly the side rolling Macgregor type.
The hatch breadth is usually about 50% of the breadth of the beam. The main disadvantage
of this type of ship is the stability since they are not built with a longitudinal partition in
the centre the free surface effect is enormous and this necessitates overall loading
complexities.
Plan

Together with this is the sloshing effect which tend to damage the fitting inside.
The stability book would give the loading levels as well as the loading stability requirements
as per the Rules.
Midship

Container:
Longitudinal framing is used throughout the main body length of the ship. Transverse
framing is used on the fore part and the after part.
Profile

The ships are built having a cellular construction at the sides. Strong longitudinal box girders
are formed port and starboard by the upper deck the second deck top of the shell plating
and top of the longitudinal bulkhead. The upper deck and the sheer strake form the box
girder. These girders also provide stiffness against racking stresses and used as water ballast
tank spaces.
Midship

A form of bulkhead is fitted at intervals, centre to centre with water tight bulkheads being
fitted as required by the Rules. The bulkhead gives support to the double bottom structure.
The container guides consist of angle bars about 150mm x 150mm x 14mm thick connected
to vertical webs and adjoining structure spaced 2.6m apart. The bottom of the guides is
bolted to brackets welded to the tank top and beams. The brackets are welded to doubling
plates, which are welded to the tank top.
Ro Ro
Roll on Roll off ships have generally two ramps at either end of the ship to facilitate the
loading of vehicles.
The main characteristic of these types of ships is the clear decks un interrupted by
transverse bulkheads. Deck heights are sufficient to accommodate the various types of
vehicles carried.
Profile

The lower decks may be used for carriage of cars while the upper may be used for the
carriage of bigger vehicles.
Transverse strength is maintained by fitting deep closely spaced web frames in conjunction
with deep beams. These are usually fitted every 4
th
frame and about 3 m apart.
The lower decks which are divided by watertight bulkheads have hydraulically operated
sliding bulkhead doors which are opened while working cargo in port.
The deck thickness is increased to take the concentrated loads; a reduction in the spacing of
the longitudinals with an increase in size. A centre line row of pillars is fitted.
Ramps are fitted at the bow and at the stern to facilitate the loading and discharging of
vehicles. The separate decks are reached by fixed and sometimes hydraulically operated
foldable operated ramps.
A service car is provided within the ship to transfer the lashing gear to the different decks.
Midship

The stern ramps are generally set at an angle to the ships centre line to ensure that the ship
can work cargo in any berth.
Passenger:
The basic construction of these vessels follows the dry cargo vessel in their detail, a large
number of decks being fitted.
Profile

Each passenger ship is differently built with the naval architects and the classification
societies agreeing on the various additions to the various pillars and bulkheads.
However the basic rule and the provisions of SOLAS, MARPOL are complied with.
Midship


Midship in way of ER


Definitions
Camber
The purpose of rounding the beam is to ensure a good drainage of the water and also to
strengthen the upper deck and the upper flange of the ship girder against longitudinal
bending stresses- especially the compression stresses.
Rise Of Floor
This is the distance from the line of floor to the horizontal, measured at the ship side.
Purpose basically is to allow drainage of the double bottom water/ oil to the centre line
suctions.

Tumblehome
This is the inward slope of the side plating from the water line to the upper deck today
ships generally do not have a tumblehome.
Flare
This is the curvature of the side plating at the forward and gives additional buoyancy and
thus helps to prevent the bows from diving too deeply into the water when pitching.
The anchors are also clear when lowered from the flare of a ship.

Sheer
This is the rise of ships deck fore and aft. This again adds buoyancy to the ends where it is
needed during pitching. For calculating the freeboard a correction is applied for the sheer. In
modern ship the after sheer has been greatly reduced.

Rake
This is the slope, which the forward end has with between the bottom plating and the upper
deck. The length between perpendiculars and the length overall difference is mostly due to
the rake forward. It helps to cut the water and thus adds to the ships form.

Parallel Middle Body
This is the part of the main body of the ship and it is a box like structure enabling maximum
cargo carrying capacity. It also helps in the pushing when tugs are used to assist the vessel in
berthing. Cargo stowage is also greatly facilitated.
Entrance
This part is the fore end of the ship and helps give the box like mid length a ship shaped
structure.
Run
The after part similarly to the fore part entrance helps in giving the box like mid length a ship
shaped structure and thus the handling of the vessel is enhanced.

Length means 96 per cent of the total length on a waterline at 85 per cent of the least
moulded depth measured from the top of the keel, or the length from the fore side of the
stem to the axis of the rudder stock on that waterline, if that be greater. In ships designed
with a rake of keel the waterline on which this length is measured shall be parallel to the
designed waterline.


Moulded breadth: is the greatest moulded breadth measured inside plating.
Breadth (B) is the greatest moulded breadth of the ship at or below the deepest subdivision
load line.
Draught (d) is the vertical distance from the moulded baseline at midlength to the waterline
in question.
Depth and the draught both are measured from the top of the keel. The depth is measure
from the top of the deck beam. If there is a camber then allowance is given as 1/3 rd of the
camber.
The rest of the meanings are all self-explanatory.


Definitions
Forward perpendicular
This is represented by a line, which is perpendicular to the intersection of the designed load
water-line with the forward side of the stem.
After perpendicular
A line represents this, which is perpendicular to the intersection of the after edge of the
rudderpost with the designed load water line. This is the case for both single and twin-screw
ships. For some ships having no rudderpost, the after perpendicular is taken as the centre-
line of the rudderstock.
Length between perpendiculars
This is the horizontal distance between the forward and after perpendiculars.
Length on the designed load waterline
This is the length, as measured on the water-line of the ship when floating in still water in
the loaded, or designed, condition.
Length overall
This is the length measured from the extreme point forward to the extreme point aft.
Base line
This represents the lowest extremity of the moulded surface of the ship. At the point where
the moulded base line cuts the midship section a horizontal line is drawn, and it is this line,
which acts as the datum, or base line, for all hydrostatic calculations. This line may, or may
not, be parallel to the load water line depending on the type of ship.
Moulded depth
This is the vertical distance between the moulded base line and the top of the beams of the
uppermost continuous deck measured at the side amidships.
Moulded beam
This is the maximum beam, or breadth, of the ship measured inside the inner shell strakes of
plating, and usually occurs amidships.
Moulded draught
This is the draught measured to any water-line, either forward or aft, using the moulded
base line as a datum.
Extreme beam
This is the maximum breadth including all side plating, permanent fenders etc.
Extreme draught
This is obtained by adding to the draught moulded the distance between the moulded base
line and a line touching the lowest point of the underside of the keel. This line is continued
to the FP and AP, where it is used as the datum for the sets of draught marks.
Load Lines and Draught Marks

Deck line
The deck line is a horizontal line 300 millimetres in length and 25 millimetres in breadth. It
shall be marked amidships on each side of the ship, and its upper edge shall normally pass
through the point where the continuation outwards of the upper surface of the freeboard
deck intersects the outer surface of the shell, provided that the deck line may be placed with
reference to another fixed point on the ship on condition that the freeboard is
correspondingly corrected. The location of the reference point and the identification of the
freeboard deck shall in all cases be indicated on the International Load Line Certificate
(1966).
Freeboard. The freeboard assigned is the distance measured vertically downwards amidships
from the upper edge of the deck line to the upper edge of the related load line.
Freeboard deck. The freeboard deck is normally the uppermost complete deck exposed to
weather and sea, which has permanent means of closing all openings in the weather part
thereof, and below which all the openings in the sides of the ship are fitted with permanent
means of watertight closing. In a ship having a discontinuous freeboard deck, the lowest line
of the exposed deck and the continuation of that line parallel to the upper part of the deck is
taken as the freeboard deck. At the option of the owner and subject to the approval of the
Administration, a lower deck may be designated as the freeboard deck, provided it is a
complete and permanent deck continuous in a fore and aft direction at least between the
machinery space and peak bulkheads and continuous athwartships. When this lower deck is
stepped the lowest line of the deck and the continuation of that line parallel to the upper
part of the deck is taken as the freeboard deck. When a lower deck is designated as the
freeboard deck, that part of the hull which extends above the freeboard deck is treated as a
superstructure so far as concerns the application of the conditions of assignment and the
calculation of freeboard. It is from this deck that the freeboard is calculated.
Load Line Mark
The Load Line Mark shall consist of a ring 300 millimetres in outside diameter and 25
millimetres wide which is intersected by a horizontal line 450 millimetres in length and 25
millimetres in breadth, the upper edge of which passes through the centre of the ring. The
centre of the ring shall be placed amidships and at a distance equal to the assigned summer
freeboard measured vertically below the upper edge of the deck line.
The Load line rules which were brought in were due to the fact that the ships were being
loaded in such a way that the ships were foundering.
Thus the important fact to remember is that it was the freeboard that was being restricted,
from very low to a safe figure.
Depending on this freeboard the load line circle was marked as well as the other marks were
made for different zones and densities.
Thus the chapter on CONDITIONS OF ASSIGNMENT OF FREEBOARD is very important as it
determines as to how much would be the distance between the deck line and the load line
circle.
Once this is determined the load line marks are painted, keeping the above in reference.
The calculations give rise to the assigned summer freeboard.
Lines to be used with the Load Line Mark
The lines which indicate the load line assigned in accordance with these Regulations shall be
horizontal lines 230 millimetres in length and 25 millimetres in breadth which extend
forward of, unless expressly provided otherwise, and at right angles to, a vertical line 25
millimetres in breadth marked at a distance 540 millimetres forward of the centre of the
ring.
The following load lines shall be used:

(a) The Summer Load Line indicated by the upper edge of the line which passes through the
centre of the ring and also by a line marked S.
(b) The Winter Load Line indicated by the upper edge of a line marked W.
(c) The Winter North Atlantic Load Line indicated by the upper edge of a line marked WNA.
(d) The Tropical Load Line indicated by the upper edge of a line marked T.
(e) The Fresh Water Load Line in summer indicated by the upper edge of a line marked F.
The Fresh Water Load Line in summer is marked abaft the vertical line. The difference
between the Fresh Water Load Line in summer and the Summer Load Line is the allowance
to be made for loading in fresh water at the other load lines.
(f) The Tropical Fresh Water Load Line indicated by the upper edge of a line marked TF, and
marked abaft the vertical line.
If timber freeboards are assigned in accordance with these Regulations, the timber load lines
shall be marked in addition to ordinary load lines. These lines shall be horizontal lines 230
millimetres in length and 25 millimetres in breadth which extend abaft unless expressly
provided otherwise, and are at right angles to, a vertical line 25 millimetres in breadth
marked at a distance 540 millimetres abaft the centre of the ring.
The following timber load lines shall be used:
(a) The Summer Timber Load Line indicated by the upper edge of a line marked LS.
(b) The Winter Timber Load Line indicated by the upper edge of a line marked LW.
(c) The Winter North Atlantic Timber Load Line indicated by the upper edge of a line marked
LWNA
(d) The Tropical Timber Load Line indicated by the upper edge of a line marked LT.
(e) The Fresh Water Timber Load Line in summer indicated by the upper edge of a line
marked LF and marked forward of the vertical line.
The difference between the Fresh Water Timber Load Line in summer and the Summer
Timber Load Line is the allowance to be made for loading in fresh water at the other timber
load lines.
(f) The Tropical Fresh Water Timber Load Line indicated by the upper edge of a line marked
LTF and marked forward of the vertical line.
Where the characteristics of a ship or the nature of the ships service or navigational limits
make any of the seasonal lines inapplicable, these lines may be omitted.
Where a ship is assigned a greater than minimum freeboard so that the load line is marked
at a position corresponding to, or lower than, the lowest seasonal load line assigned at
minimum freeboard in accordance with the present Convention, only the Fresh Water Load
Line need be marked.
On sailing ships only the Fresh Water Load Line and the Winter North Atlantic Load Line
need be marked.
Where a Winter North Atlantic Load Line is identical with the Winter Load Line
corresponding to the same vertical line, this load line shall be marked W.
Additional load lines required by other international conventions in force may be marked at
right angles to and abaft the vertical line specified in paragraph (1) of this Regulation.
Mark of assigning authority
The mark of the Authority by whom the load lines are assigned may be indicated alongside
the load line ring above the horizontal line which passes through the centre of the ring, or
above and below it. This mark shall consist of not more than four initials to identify the
Authoritys name, each measuring approximately 115 millimetres in height and 75
millimetres in width.
Details of marking
The ring, lines and letters shall be painted in white or yellow on a dark ground or in black on
a light ground. They shall also be permanently marked on the sides of the ships to the
satisfaction of the Administration. The marks shall be plainly visible and, if necessary, special
arrangements shall be made for this purpose.
ZONES, AREAS AND SEASONAL PERIODS

The zones and areas are, in general, based on the following criteria:
Summer - not more than 10 per cent winds of force 8 Beaufort (34 knots) or more.
Tropical - not more than 1 per cent winds of force 8 Beaufort (34 knots) or more. Not more
than one tropical storm in 10 years in an area of 5 square in any one separate calendar
month.
In certain special areas, for practical reasons, some degree of relaxation has been found
acceptable.
Tropical Zone
(1) Northern boundary of the Tropical Zone
The northern boundary of the Tropical Zone is- the parallel of latitude 13N from the east coast
of the American continent to longitude 60W, thence the rhumb line to the point latitude 10N
longitude 58W, thence the parallel of latitude 10N to longitude 20W, thence the meridian of
longitude 20W to latitude 30N and thence the parallel of latitude 30N to the west coast of
Africa; from the east coast of Africa the parallel of latitude 8N to longitude 70E, thence the
meridian of longitude 70E to latitude 13N, thence the parallel of latitude 13N to the west coast
of India; thence the south coast of India to latitude 1030N on the east coast of India, thence
the rhumb line to the point latitude 9N, longitude 82E, thence the meridian of longitude 82E
to latitude 8N, thence the parallel of latitude 8N to the west coast of Malaysia, thence the
coast of South-East Asia to the east coast of Vietnam at latitude 10N, thence the parallel of
latitude 10N to longitude 145E, thence the meridian of longitude 145E to latitude 13N and
thence the parallel of latitude 13N to the west coast of the American continent.
Saigon is to be considered as being on the boundary line of the Tropical Zone and the
Seasonal Tropical Area.
(2) Southern boundary of the Tropical Zone
The southern boundary of the Tropical Zone is- the rhumb line from the Port of Santos,
Brazil, to the point where the meridian of longitude 40W intersects the Tropic of Capricorn;
thence the Tropic of Capricorn to the west coast of Africa; from the east coast of Africa the
parallel of latitude 20S to the west coast of Madagascar, thence the west and north coasts of
Madagascar to longitude 50E, thence the meridian of longitude 50E to latitude 10S, thence
the parallel of latitude 10S to longitude 98E, thence the rhumb line to Port Darwin, Australia,
thence the coasts of Australia and Wessel Island eastwards to Cape Wessel, thence the
parallel of latitude 11S to the west side of Cape York; from the east side of Cape York the
parallel of latitude 11S to longitude 150W, thence the rhumb line to the point latitude 26S,
longitude 75W, and thence the rhumb line to the west coast of the American continent at
latitude 30S.
Coquimbo and Santos are to be considered as being on the boundary line of the Tropical and
Summer Zones.
(3) Areas to be included in the Tropical Zone
The following areas are to be treated as included in the Tropical Zone-
(a) The Suez Canal, the Red Sea and the Gulf of Aden, from Port Said to the meridian of
longitude 45E.
Aden and Berbera are to be considered as being on the boundary line of the Tropical Zone
and the Seasonal Tropical Area.
(b) The Persian Gulf to the meridian of longitude 59E.
(c) The area bounded by the parallel of latitude 22S from the east coast of Australia to the
Great Barrier Reef, thence the Great Barrier Reef to latitude 11S. The northern boundary of
the area is the southern boundary of the Tropical Zone.
Seasonal Tropical Areas
The following are Seasonal Tropical Areas:
(1) In the North Atlantic
An area bounded-
on the north by the rhumb line from Cape Catoche, Yucatan, to Cape San Antonio, Cuba, the
north coast of Cuba to latitude 20N and thence the parallel of latitude 20N to longitude
20W;
on the west by the coast of the American continent;
on the south and east by the northern boundary of the Tropical Zone.
Seasonal periods:
TROPICAL: 1 November to 15 July
SUMMER: 16 July to 31 October.
(2) In the Arabian Sea
An area bounded-
on the west by the coast of Africa, the meridian of longitude 45E in the Gulf of Aden, the
coast of South Arabia and the meridian of longitude 59E in the Gulf of Oman;
on the north and east by the coasts of Pakistan and India;
on the south by the northern boundary of the Tropical Zone.
Seasonal periods:
TROPICAL: 1 September to 31 May
SUMMER: 1 June to 31 August.
(3) In the Bay of Bengal
The Bay of Bengal north of the northern boundary of the Tropical Zone.
Seasonal periods:
TROPICAL: 1 December to 30 April
SUMMER: 1 May to 30 November.
(4) In the South Indian Ocean
(a) An area bounded-
on the north and west by the southern boundary of the Tropical Zone and the east coast of
Madagascar;
on the south by the parallel of latitude 20S;
on the east by the rhumb line from the point latitude 20S, longitude 50E, to the point
latitude 15S, longitude 5130E, and thence by the meridian of longitude 5130E to latitude
10S.
Seasonal periods:
TROPICAL: 1 April to 30 November
SUMMER: 1 December to 31 March.
(b) An area bounded-
on the north by the southern boundary of the Tropical Zone;
on the east by the coast of Australia;
on the south by the parallel of latitude 15S from longitude 5130E, to longitude 120E and
thence the meridian of longitude 120E to the coast of Australia;
on the west by the meridian of longitude 5130E.
Seasonal periods:
TROPICAL: 1 May to 30 November
SUMMER: 1 December to 30 April.
(5) In the China Sea
An area bounded-
on the west and north by the coasts of Vietnam and China from latitude 10N to Hong Kong;
on the east by the rhumb line from Hong Kong to the Port of Sual (Luzon Island) and the
west coasts of the Islands of Luzon, Samar and Leyte to latitude 10N;
on the south by the parallel of latitude 10N.
Hong Kong and Sual are to be considered as being on the boundary of the Seasonal Tropical
Area and Summer Zone.
Seasonal periods:
TROPICAL: 21 January to 30 April
SUMMER: 1 May to 20 January.
(6) In the North Pacific
(a) An area bounded-
on the north by the parallel of latitude 25N;
on the west by the meridian of longitude 160E;
on the south by the parallel of latitude 13N;
on the east by the meridian of longitude 130W.
Seasonal periods:
TROPICAL: 1 April to 31 October
SUMMER: 1 November to 31 March.
(b) An area bounded-
on the north and east by the west coast of the American continent;
on the west by the meridian of longitude 123W from the coast of the American continent to
latitude 33N and by the rhumb line from the point latitude 33N, longitude 123W, to the
point latitude 13N, longitude 105W;
on the south by the parallel of latitude 13N.
Seasonal periods:
TROPICAL: 1 March to 30 June and
1 November to 30 November
SUMMER: 1 July to 31 October and
1 December to 28/29 February.
(7) In the South Pacific
(a) The Gulf of Carpentaria south of latitude 11S.
Seasonal periods:
TROPICAL: 1 April to 30 November
SUMMER: 1 December to 31 March.
(b) An area bounded-
on the north and east by the southern boundary of the Tropical Zone;
on the south by the Tropic of Capricorn from the east coast of Australia to longitude 150W,
thence by the meridian of longitude 150W to latitude 20S and thence by the parallel of
latitude 20S to the point where it intersects the southern boundary of the Tropical Zone;
on the west by the boundaries of the area within the Great Barrier Reef included in the
Tropical Zone and by the east coast of Australia.
Seasonal periods:
TROPICAL: 1 April to 30 November
SUMMER: 1 December to 31 March.
Summer Zones
The remaining areas constitute the Summer Zones.
However, for ships of 100 metres (328 feet) and under in length, the area bounded-
on the north and west by the east coast of the United States;
on the east by the meridian of longitude 6830W from the coast of the United States to
latitude 40N and thence by the rhumb line to the point latitude 36N, longitude 73W;
on the south by the parallel of latitude 36N;
is a Winter Seasonal Area.
Seasonal periods:
WINTER: 1 November to 31 March
SUMMER: 1 April to 31 October
Reading Draughts:
The following figure shows the draught marks between 11m and 12m.

It means that the mark is submerged up to the level of the mark, measurement of draught
being from the bottom up.
When the water is touching exactly the 11M mark at the bottom, only then is the draught
read as 11m. anywhere above that is more than 11m.
The height of the mark being 20cm, therefore the top of the 11m mark would read a draught
of 11.20 m.
The bottom of the decimal mark of 2 coincides with the top of the 11M mark and is to be
read as 11.20m.
The decimal marks are each 10 cm in height.
Since the decimal marks are at 2, 4, 5 and 8, the odd numbered decimal being ignored,
thus the top of this 2 would read as 30 cm above the 11m mark or 11.30m.
If the water level were at a position between the top of 2 and the bottom of 4 then the
reading would be 11.35m.
Rest of the marks are self explanatory.
If reading the draughts in choppy sea condition then the average of at least 5 readings would
give a reasonable draught. Note do not read only the highest or the lowest since these may
be due to out of the normal waves.
For loading to draught marks or when being surveyed for load line compliance, the draught
may be used to check for overloading or submerging the load line mark. However it should
be remembered that it is the freeboard that is being checked.
For load line surveys the surveyor would mark a long baton (wooden) with the total length of
the freeboard (summer) and others and then checks with the same against the deck line and
the markings on the shipside (midship marks).
Ship Stresses

Shear force and bending moments


When a section such as a beam is carrying a load there is a tendency for some parts to be
pushed upwards and for other parts to move downwards, this tendency is termed Shearing.
The Shear force at a point or station is the vertical force at that point. The shear force at a
station may also defined as being the total load on either the left hand side or the right hand
side of the station; load being defined as the difference between the down and the upward
forces, or for a ship the weight would be the downward force and the buoyancy would be the
upward thrust or force.
The longitudinal stresses imposed by the weight and buoyancy distribution may give rise to
longitudinal shearing stresses. The maximum shearing stress occurs at the neutral axis and a
minimum at the deck and keel. Vertical shearing stresses may also occur.

Bending Moment
The beam, which we have been considering, would also have a tendency to bend and the
bending moment measures this tendency.
Its size depends upon the amount of the load as well as how the load is placed together with
the method of support.
Bending moments are calculated in the same way as ordinary moments that is multiplying
force by distance, and so they are expressed in weight length units.
As with the calculation of shear force the bending moment at a station is obtained by
considering moments either to the left or to the right of the station.
Hogging and sagging
Hogging When a beam is loaded or other wise is subjected to external forces such that the
beam bends with the ends curving downwards it is termed as hogging stress.
For a ship improper loading as well as in a seaway when riding the crest of a wave the
unsupported ends of the ship would have a tendency similar to the beam above.


Sagging In this case the beam is loaded or other wise subjected to external forces making
the beam bend in such a way that the ends curve upwards, this is termed as sagging.
Similar with a ship if improper loaded or when riding the trough of a wave with crests at
both ends then the ship is termed to be sagging.

For Hogging the ship ends to curve downwards would mean that the weight/ load amidships
is much less than at the end holds/ tanks.
For Sagging the ship would have been loaded in such a manner that a greater percentage of
the load is around the midship area.
In a seaway the hogging and the sagging stresses are amplified when riding the crests and
falling into the troughs. Thus especially for large ships there are two conditions in the stability
software Sea Condition and Harbour condition.


A ship loaded while set in the harbour condition may allow loading with hogging/ sagging
stresses reaching a high level, when this state of loading is transferred to a Sea condition in
the software the results would be catastrophic since now the wave motions have also been
incorporated.
Thus planning a loading should always be in the Sea Condition.


Discharging in port may be planned in the Harbour Condition.
Hogging and sagging cause compressive and tensile stresses on the ship beam notably on
the deck and the keel structure.
Water pressure and Thrust
Pressure is force per unit area and water pressure is dependent on the head of the water
column affecting the point of the measurement of the pressure.
Let us assume an area of 1sq.m. then this area of water up to a depth of 1 m below the surface
would have a volume of 1sq.m. x 1m = 1cbm and the weight of this volume would be 1cbm x
density of the water = 1MT (assuming that it is FW) or 1000kgf, therefore the pressure
exerted by this mass would be 1000kgf/sq.m.
Similarly if now the depth of measurement is increased to 3m then the volume of this area
subtending up to the 3m mark would be 1sq.m x 3 = 3cbm and the weight of the water would
be 3MT or 3000kgf and the pressure exerted would be 3000kgf/sq.m.
If now the liquid had not been FW but any other then the weight would be found by
multiplying the volume by the density of the liquid. And thus the pressure exerted would be
found.
If we now increase the area of the square of water plane would it make a difference in the
pressure?
Let us consider a area of 2000sq.m then the volume of this water at a depth of 1 m would be
2000cbm and the weight would be 2000MT (consider FW) and the pressure exerted would be
2000,000kgf/ 2000sq.m which would give us again 1000kgf/sqm, thus the pressure is
independent of the area of the water plane.
Thrust however is different, thrust is taken to be the total weight of the liquid over an area.
Thus for the previous example the thrust would be 2000 tonnes.

Thus the thrust is given by: the area of the water plane x pressure head x density of the liquid.
Thrust always acts at right angles to the immersed surface and for any depth the thrust in any
of the directions is the same. The pressure head which is used in the above calculation of
thrust is the depth of the geometrical centre of the area below the surface of the liquid.
For a ship the thrust on the ship side changes as the depth increases, however the bottom is
affected uniformly for a set depth.
Centre of pressure of an area is the point on the area where the thrust could be considered to
act. It is taken that the centre of pressure is at 2/3rds the depth below the surface for ordinary
vertical bulkheads and at half the depth in the case of collision bulkheads.
Racking stress and its causes
In a seaway as a ship rolls from one side to the other the different areas of the ship have
motion which are dependent on the nature of the subject area. The accelerations are thus not
similar due to the various masses of the different sections (although joined together). These
accelerations on the ships structure are liable to cause distortion in the transverse section. The
greatest effect is under light ship conditions.


Local Stresses
Panting
This is a stress, which occurs at the ends of a vessel due to variations in water pressure on the
shell plating as the vessel pitches in a seaway. The effect is accentuated at the bow when
making headway.

Pounding:
Heavy pitching assisted by heaving as the whole vessel is lifted in a seaway and again as the
vessel slams down on the water is known as pounding or slamming. This may subject the
forepart to severe blows from the sea. The greatest effect is experienced in the light ship
condition.

Stresses caused by localized loading
Localized heavy loads may give rise to localized distortion of the transverse section.
Such local loads may be the machinery (Main engine) in the engine room or the loading of
concentrated ore in the holds.

Shearing force Curve
The following example shown is for an old tanker in the ballast condition.
The compartments loaded are the Fpk tank, WB tanks 2P and 2S, WB tank 3C and other
miscellaneous tanks in the after section of the tanker.
The SF is calculated as per the manual with the multipliers having been set by the shipyard
and approved by the classification society.
If we are to assume that the ship is a beam then the loads are at the fore end midship region
and the after section which has the accommodation as well as the ER.
The SF curve is reproduced and the maximum occur at frames 54 and between 68 to 72, this
corresponds to the area on the ship mid 4C and between 2C (aft to mid region). Note that
the signs have changed between the frames 54 and 68 with a point between frames 59 to 63
(3C mid to aft) registering 0 value.






Bending Moment Curve
The following example shown is for a old tanker in the ballast condition.
The compartments loaded are the Fpk tank, WB tanks 2P and 2S, WB tank 3C and other
miscellaneous tanks in the after section of the tanker.
The BM is calculated as per the manual with the multipliers having been set by the shipyard
and approved by the classification society.
If we are to assume that the ship is a beam then the loads are at the fore end midship region
and the after section which has the accommodation as well as the ER.
The BM curve is reproduced and the maximum occur at frames 59 and 76, this corresponds to
the area on the ship 4C forward bulkhead and 2C forward bulkhead. Note that the signs
have changed twice.








Hull Structure

Structural components on ships plans and drawings: frames, floors, transverse frames, deck
beams, knees, brackets, shell plating, decks, tank top, stringers, bulkheads and stiffeners,
pillars, hatch girders and beams, coamings, bulwarks







Bow and stern framing, cant beams, breasthooks


Description of standard steel sections: flat plate, offset bulb plate, equal angle, unequal
angle, channel, and tee



Longitudinal, transverse and combined systems of framing on transverse sections of the
ships
Longitudinal framing Open floors

Longitudinal framing Plate floors

Transverse framing Open floors


Transverse framing Plate floors

Duct keel



Stress concentration in the deck round hatch openings
Holes cut in the deck plating by way of hatchways, masts and others create areas of high
local stress due to lack of continuity created by the opening.
Compensation for loss of strength at hatch openings
Compensation around some of these openings may be overcome by increasing the sizes of
the material used, buy a careful disposition of the material and by paying careful attention to
the structural design.

Compensating for the stress concentration around hatch corners by rounding off the square
hatch corner ends



The corners radiused to reduce the stress concentration

A hatch corner in plan view, showing the structural arrangements
A transverse section through a hatch coaming, showing the arrangement of coamings and
deep webs



Deck-freeing arrangements - scuppers, freeing ports, and open rails




Connection of superstructures to the hull at the ships side

A plane bulkhead, showing connections to deck, sides and double bottom and the arrangement
of stiffeners



A corrugated bulkhead

Transverse bulkheads have vertical corrugations and fore and aft bulkheads have
horizontal ones
The basic idea of a bulkhead in addition to the water tight integrity is to add to the girder
strength of the ship beam.
Thus for a transverse bulkhead, which extends from the port to the starboard side or vice
versa, the framing is done in a vertical manner so that the compressive and the tensile stress
may be reduced for the beam.
Similarly for a longitudinal bulkhead which runs parallel to the shipside the framing is done
vertically, again so that the additional strength would enhance the stress compensating
effect of the ship beam.

Construction of the corrugated bulkhead

A fitted corrugated bulkhead


Purpose of bilge keels and their attachment to the ships side
Bilge keels are fitted at the turn of the bilge to resist rolling. They also improve the steering
qualities of the ship though very slightly.
The ends are to be gradually tapered and should not end on an un-stiffened panel.



Stress relieving while fitting the bilge keel

Hold drainage systems
The hold drainage system of older cargo vessels had limber board covered upper side of the
tank side bracket areas. The drainage conduit was these areas and the pipelines were
connected to the after ends, which passed through the lightening holes in the DBs.

The limber boards were removable for cleaning as they were frequently damaged (edges)
leaving gaps through which cargo residue would accumulate.
Modern ships do not have the side bilges and have only a strum box at the after end of the
holds and these are connected in the similar way to pipelines, which run through the DBs.

Bow and Stern

Pounding and the additional provisions to withstand such pounding:
Heavy pitching assisted by heaving as the whole vessel is lifted in a seaway may subject the
forepart to severe blows from the sea. The greatest effect is experienced in the light ship
condition. To compensate for this the bottom is strengthened from 0.5L to between 0.25L and
0.3L from forward depending on the block coefficient, unless the ballast draught forward is
over 0.04L.


Bottom framed Longitudinally
Longitudinals are to be spaced 1000mm apart between 0.2L and 0.3L from forward and
700mm apart between 0.2L from forward and the collision bulkhead. Plate floors are to be
fitted alternate frames, side girders not more than 2.1m apart.



Bottom framed Transversely
Frame spacing abaft 0.2L from forward is not to exceed 1000mm and between 0.2L and the
collision bulkhead 700mm. Forward of the collision bulkhead 610mm. Plate floors are to be
fitted at every frame. Intercostal side girders are to be not more than 2.2m apart with half
height side girders not more than 1.1m apart, the girders extending as far as is practicable.
Panting
This is a stress, which occurs at the ends of a vessel due to variations in water pressure on the
shell plating as the vessel pitches in a seaway. The effect is accentuated at the bow when
making headway.

Panting arrangements are to extend 0.15L from forward and abaft the after peak bulkhead.
Tiers of beams spaced not more than 2000mm apart vertically are to be fitted at alternate
frames in the fore peak or below the lower deck above the water line if the forepeak is small.
Alternatively perforated flats may be fitted in lieu of panting beams 2.5m apart vertically.

Tiers of beams are to be supported at the centreline by a partial wash bulkhead or pillars.
Beams are to be bracketed to frames and the frames to which no beams are attached are to be
bracketed to the stringer. Stringer plates attached to the shell are to be fitted at each tier of
beams.
Abaft the collision bulkhead intercostals side stringers having the same depth as the frames
are to be fitted in line with those forward of the collision bulkhead and are to extend aft for
0.15L from the fore end. Stringers may be omitted if the shell plating is of increased
thickness.
Abaft the after peak bulkhead the structure is to be efficiently stiffened by deep floors and
tiers of beams in association with stringers spaced 2500mm apart vertically.





Stern Frame
Stern frames may be cast/ forged or fabricated from steel plate. In the case of cast or forged
steel frames they may be in one piece or in two or more sections riveted or welded together
(thermit welding).
Where a riveted connection is used the two sections of the bar are scarphed together and the
class rules for the scarph are 3D and the depth as one and one third D, where D is the depth of
the bar used in the construction of the frame.

A scarph fitted in a rudder post should not be above the highest gudgeon.
Cast steel and fabricated stern frames are to be strengthened at intervals by transverse webs.
All stern frames are to be efficiently attached to the adjoining structure and the lower part of
the stern frame is to be extended forward to provide an efficient connection to the flat plate
keel.
With larger stern frames there is a tendency for the whole stern or propeller post and adjacent
sections to be fabricated.
Fittings

Mechanical Hatch covers
The figures shown below illustrate the various parts of a mechanical hatch cover. These
hatch covers may be made up of several individual pontoons (so named because prior to the
MacGregor type of rolling hatch covers the pontoons had to be individually lifted and
battened down).

The pontoons (individual parts of the hatch covers) are connected to one another and can
easily and quickly be rolled into or out of position leaving clear hatchways and decks. The
normal practice for the lengthwise opening of hatches but sideways opening hatchways are
found on large bulk carriers and OBOs.
The smaller versions are mainly operated either manually (using wire and winch) or
electrically. The larger ones are nearly all operated hydraulically.
The wheels on the side on which the pontoons rollere are eccentric in their construction thus
when in the battened (lowered) position the clearance between the wheel and the trackway is
minimum and the pontoon sits on the trackway, the rubber gaskets being compressed by the
compression bar.

The cross wedges are used to ensure the pontoon rubber gaskets compress against the
compression bars of the forward pontoons.
The side cleats ensure that the pontoons stay compressed to the trackway compression bar
and the ship motion is effectively compensated or removed.
These hatch cover systems consist of various parts:
The pontoons, eccentric wheels, trackway wheels, cross wedges, and the side cleats.

Battening down a hatch is to be done after reading the operations manual.
A hatch cover should not be battened with cargo on top.

The Channels are to be swept prior battening so that the packing do not rest on dirt.
The drain channel on the front of the hatch pontoons are to be cleaned prior closing the
hatch.
Once the wheels are turned the next item to be engaged are the cross wedges and the side
cleats are to be fitted last.


Prior proceeding to sea (long voyage) the hatch cover sealing should be tested with chalk
marks made on all the compression bars on the hatch coaming as well as on the pontoons.
The hatch is to be battened and then opened to see if all the rubber gaskets have got chalk
mark on them or not if not hen rectification to be done.
Oil tight hatchcover
These hatch covers are small in size and may have butterfly nut locking arrangement. The
sealing is done by Hi-nitrile rubber which is not affected by oil.

Manhole covers do not vary much in design, their shape however are sometimes different
for different places.
When fitted outside a tank they may be either circular or elliptical. But when fitted inside they
are almost always elliptical to facilitate their removal.
Usual size openings vary between 450mm to about 600mm.

Roller, Multi-angle, Pedestal and Panama fairleads
A roller is to be found on the forward and after stations area generally at the leads to the
mooring ropes as well as on top of old man pedestals.
These facilitate the hauling of ropes since they reduce the friction when the rope is hauled
through a panama fairlead which has no rollers.


A panama fairlead is o named since they were mostly used in the Panama Canal. The ship is
hauled by small locomotives and the wires are sent out through these leads they are of
adequate strength to prevent the metal being cut open by the wires.


A multi angle fairlead again is a fairlead used due necessity when in the great Lakes. The ship
moves through numerous locks as the ship is made to climb a great height the Welland
Canal system itself uses about 13 lock gates to cross the Niagara falls. The movement of the
ship being fast and the difference in height being enormous the ship steadies itself with 2
wires forward and 2 wires aft, when in the locks. These wires are passed through the multi
angle fairleads to reduce the enormous friction generated.


Mooring bitts are prefabricated and then are welded onto the deck. The size of the bitts are
dependent on their use. Thus a small set may be fitted next to an occasional winch while the
larger ones are fitted at the mooring stations.
The bitts are hollow and as such require care to ensure that the sides do not corroded and
holed.



A typical forecastle mooring and anchoring arrangement, showing the leads of moorings



Securing anchors and making spurling pipes watertight in preparation for a sea passage
Once the anchor has been washed the anchor is hove right up into the hawse pipe, the bow
stopper is lowered and the locking pin inserted.
The winch is reversed a little to make the chain sit properly into the slot of the bow stopper
and then the brake is tightened and the windlass gear removed.
The anchor chain at the deck level (hawse pipe) is lashed with extra lashings as provided by
the shipyard, if none are present or if expecting heavy weather, then extra wire rope
lashings are taken, The wire rope to be used should be tested one, if an old (good condition)
life boat falls are available then this makes a very good extra lashing wire. This wire is flexible
and can be used by hand. A number of turns (figure of eight) are taken around two sets of
bitts. The free ends being fastened by bull dog clips at least two fixed in opposite directions.
Generally the shipyard would have provide lashing point as well as short length of wire
attached to a bottle screw. These should be well oiled and are the most efficient for lashing
the anchor. The wire should be tight.
Once the anchor is lashed the hawse pipe covers are not placed but stowed under deck or in
their stowage positions.
The spurling pipe area is chipped to remove any residual remains of earlier cement.
The metal spurling pipe covers are placed around the chain and over the spurling pile. The
clips provided at the edges of the covers should be hooked to the lips of the spurling pipe.
A new canvas cover is then placed over the metal covers just fitted and is tied around the
lips of the spurling pipe as well as the chain. No empty spaces should be found.
Cement mixture is prepared and the entire cover is covered with this mixture.
Cable stopper
A chain stopper as shown below may be of various designs, but all serve the same purpose
to hold the cable.
The cable is passed through the stopper with the holding bar lifted up by the
counterweight on top. There is a pin to hold the bar in this position.
Once the decision has been taken to hold the cable, the safety locking pin is removed and
the bar is eased down on top of the cable. Note that the default position of the holding bar is
to arrest the cable, only a effort is required to keep it up.
Once the bar is placed over the cable the cable may have to be adjusted a little to ensure
that the flat part of the cable falls in the holding area and not the vertical section, the safety
locking pin is now introduced to prevent the bar from jumping u[ in case the cable slip from
the brake.
Once the lacking pin is in position the brake can be released and the stopper would do the
work of holding the cable.




Masts and Sampson posts






Bilge and ballast piping system of a cargo ship
The following shows a bilge and ballast line diagram of a general cargo ship.
The bilges are all fitted with non return valves so that not water may be inadvertently be
pumped into the holds.
The bilges are serviced by a bilge pump which incorporates a strainer and this should be
checked before starting the pump.





The strum box fitted in the holds is to be kept clean and the perforations are to be checked
that they are not closed due to muck and rust.
Same with the mud boxes in the ER fitted into the system.


Arrangement of a fire main
Capacity of fire pumps
The capacity of the fire pumps is stated in SOLAS but need not exceed 25m
3
per hour
Arrangements of fire pumps and of fire mains
Ships shall be provided with independently driven fire pumps as follows:
Passenger ships of 4,000 tons gross tonnage and upwards at least three
Passenger ships of less than 4,000 gross tonnage and cargo ships of 1,000 tons gross tonnage
and upwards at least two
Cargo ships of less than 1,000 tons gross tonnage to the satisfaction of the Administration
Sanitary, ballast, bilge or general service pumps may be accepted as fire pumps, provided
that they are not normally used for pumping oil and that if they are subject to occasional
duty for the transfer or pumping of oil fuel, suitable change-over arrangements are fitted.
The arrangement of sea connections, fire pumps and their sources of power shall be such as
to ensure that:
In passenger ships of 1,000 gross tonnage and upwards, in the event of a fire in any one
compartment all the fire pumps will not be put out of action.
In cargo ships of 2,000 gross tonnage and upwards, if a fire in any one compartment could
put all the pumps out of action there shall be an alternative means consisting of a fixed
independently driven emergency pump which shall be capable of supplying two jets of water
to the satisfaction of the Administration. The pump and its location shall comply with the
following requirements:
The capacity of the pump shall not be less than 40% of the total capacity of the fire pumps
required by this regulation and in any case not less than 25 m3/h.
Number and position of hydrants
The number and position of hydrants shall be such that at least two jets of water not
emanating from the same hydrant, one of which shall be from a single length of hose, may
reach any part of the ship normally accessible to the passengers or crew while the ship is
being navigated and any part of any cargo space when empty, any ro-ro cargo space or any
special category space in which latter case the two jets shall reach any part of such space,
each from a single length of hose. Furthermore, such hydrants shall be positioned near the
accesses to the protected spaces.
Pipes and hydrants
Mainly galvanised steel pipes are used and during repairs no doublers or such part renewals
are allowed change is flange to flange renewal.
The arrangement of pipes and hydrants are to be such as to avoid the possibility of freezing.
On cargo ships where deck cargo may be carried, the positions of the hydrants are to be
such that they are always readily accessible and the pipes are to be arranged, as far as
practicable, to avoid risk of damage by such cargo.
A valve is to be fitted at each fire hydrant so that any fire-hose may be removed while the
fire pump is at work.


The above figure shows a typical fire mains line. Note that the emergency fire pump is
located away from the machinery space as per rules.
Isolation valves are provided so that any system being damaged the other system may be
used for example the port system and the starboard system.
In the machinery space a separate pump (Fire and GS pump) is also coupled, this is generally
used when washing decks, and as an emergency measure while the fire pump is being
overhauled.
Sounding pipes
Sounding pipes covers come with varied designs. That shown below is a sunken cap type
generally the cap is made of brass. The justification being that of the two thread and cap
assembly the thread of the brass is to wear out first and that of the deck pad. The renewal of
the brass cap being inexpensive and convenient rather than the deck pad which entails hot
work.
The metal cap (not sunken) type of covers have a chain attached to them to prevent their
being washed overboard.


Air pipes to ballast tanks or fuel oil tanks


The above figure shows a design of air pipe cover.
In normal condition the ball remains at the bottom of the air pipe head and the tank
breathes in and out through the vent.
However in the event that the air pipe is submerged then the ball floats up and closes the
opening at the top thus preventing any water from entering the tank.
Sea spray and rain is prevented from entering the tank by the design of the head. It is totally
enclosed and a rectangular plate, which leaves a small gap between the mesh and itself,
allowing the breathing of the tank.
Fittings and lashings for the carriage of containers on deck


In the figure above the containers on deck are loaded on top of shoes which are welded on top
of the deck as well on top of the hatch covers.
Twistlocks are fitted on the shoes and the containers placed on the twistlocks. Hinged eyes
are welded on deck to secure the container rod lashings.
Rudder and Propellers




The shape of a rudder plays an important part in its efficiency. The area of the rudder is
approximately 2% of the product of the length of the ship and the designed draught.
Since the vertical dimensions of the rudder are somewhat restricted due to the area
constraint as mentioned above, the fore and aft dimensions are increased.
Again due to this increased dimensions the torque necessary to turn this rudder is overcome
by fitting balanced or semi balanced rudders. Such a rudder has about 1/3
rd
of the rudder
area forward of the turning axis.

An ideal rudder is one where the centre of pressure and the turning axis coincide for all
angles of the helm.
An unbalanced rudder consists of a number of pintles and gudgeons, the top pintle being the
locking pintle which prevents any vertical movement in the rudder and the pintle And
gudgeon taking the weight of the rudder.

Principle of screw propulsion
Some people still occasionally refer to the propeller as the airscrew, a very accurate and
descriptive term that reflects the basic design and function of the propeller.
Leonardo da Vinci had proposed the concept of a helical screw to power a machine
vertically into the air.
The propeller uses that principle to provide propulsion through the air, much like a threaded
screw advances through a solid medium, with some notable exceptions, primarily related to
the loss of forward movement because the medium is not solid.
Nonetheless, the propeller is similar to a screw in some common features. First, the pitch of
a propeller is the theoretical distance the propeller would move forward in one revolution
(similar to a screw) and conceptually is the same as the pitch of a screw, namely the distance
between threads if the propeller were a continuous helix.
The second feature that relates to its screw design is that the angle of the blade changes
along the radius, so that close to the hub, the angle is very steep and at the tip of the blade it
is much more shallow.
From a practical standpoint, this means that unless the pitch for a given propeller is known,
it requires a trigonometric calculation to determine the pitch empirically.
Thirdly, just as screws come in left hand and right hand threads, propellers have the same
designation. When facing the water/ air flow if the top of the propeller moves to the right, it
is designated Right Hand and if to the left it is Left Hand. (As viewed from the front a
right hand propeller turns counterclockwise and a left hand propeller turns clockwise.)
Propellers will frequently be stamped as RH or LH.
Propeller and some definitions



Boss or Hub
The central portion of a screw propeller to which the blades are attached and through which
the driving shaft is fitted.
Rake
The point displacement, from the propeller plane to the generator line in the direction of the
shaft axis. Aft displacement is considered positive rake (see Figure 2). The rake at the blade
tip or the rake angle are generally used as measures of the rake. The strength criteria of
some classification societies use other definitions for rake.
Skew
The displacement of any blade section along the pitch helix measured from the generator
line to the reference point of the section (see Figure 2). Positive skew- back is opposite to
the direction of ahead motion of the blade section. The skew definition pertains to midchord
skew, unless specified otherwise.
Back (of blade)
The side of a propeller blade which faces generally in the direction of ahead motion. This
side of the blade is also known as the suction side of the blade because the average pressure
there is lower than the pressure on the face of the blade during normal ahead operation.
Tip
The maximum reach of the blade from the center of the propeller hub. It separates the
leading edge from the trailing edge.
Radius
Radius of any point on a propeller.
Pitch
The pitch of a propeller is the theoretical distance the propeller would move forward in one
revolution (similar to a screw) and conceptually is the same as the pitch of a screw, namely
the distance between threads if the propeller were a screw. For this reason, propellers will
frequently be stamped with a designation such as D 2550/P2610. This means that the
diameter (in this case length of propeller or thickness of a screw) is 2.550 meters, and the
pitch is 2.610 meters, so that in a mathematical sense, one revolution of this propeller would
move it forward a distance of 2.610 meters.
Comparing fixed-pitch with controllable-pitch propellers
Advantages of a controllable pitch propeller
Allow greater manoeuvrability
Allow engines to operate at optimum revs
Removes need for reversing engines
Reduced size of Air Start Compressors and receivers
Improves propulsion efficiency at lower loads
Disadvantages
Greater initial cost
Increased complexity and maintenance requirements
Increase stern tube loading due to increase weight of assembly, the stern tube bearing
diameter is larger to accept the larger diameter shaft required to allow room for Oil Tube
Lower propulsive efficiency at maximum continuous rating
Prop shaft must be removed outboard requiring rudder to be removed for all prop
maintenance.
Increased risk of pollution due to leak seals
Sketches the arrangement of an oil-lubricated sterntube and tailshaft

Stern tubes are fitted to provide a bearing for the tail end shaft and to enable a watertight
gland to be fitted at an accessible position.
The tube is usually constructed of cast steel with a flange at its forward end and a thread at
the after end. It is inserted from forward and this end is bolted over packing to the after
peak bulkhead. A large nut is placed over the thread at the after end, tightened and secured
to the propeller post.
In an oil lubricated stern tube the bearings are made of white metal. A gland is fitted to each
end of the stern tube and since the after end gland will not be accessible during sea service it
is made self adjusting. The flange shown is attached to the propeller so that it rotates with
the shaft and oil tightness is obtained by a rotating gland.
States how the propeller is attached to the tailshaft
The after end of the tail end shaft is tapered to receive the propeller boss and a key is
provided to transfer the torque from the shaft to the propeller. A nut fitted with a locking
plate secures the propeller in position and as an additional safeguard it is fitted with a left
hand thread in association with a right hand ed propeller or vice versa.
To remove the propeller and the tail end shaft the propeller should be slung on special eyes
provide on the shell for this purpose the rope guards removed and the propeller nut
slackened.
The propeller is then started from the shaft by driving steel wedges between the boss and
the propeller post. When it is free the nut is removed.

Cross-section of a shaft tunnel


S
S
S
t
t
t
a
a
a
b
b
b
i
i
i
l
l
l
i
i
i
t
t
t
y
y
y




Displacement

Mass, Weight, Force and Gravity
Mass is the amount of matter that is contained within a body.
The S.I. units of Mass are:
Grammes
Kilogrammes = 1000 grammes
Metric ton = 1000 kilogrammes
Force is the product of Mass and acceleration
The S.I. Unit of force is:
Kilogramme m/ s
2
or Newton (N)
Example: The car hit the tree with a great force. What would be the great force, this may be
calculated by applying the above.
However the car may not have been speeding or increasing the acceleration but may have
been traveling at a constant speed, in that case we come to Momentum
Momentum is the product of Mass and velocity.
So in case of nautical terms the constant velocity of a ship is of great importance.
If a ship bangs against a jetty with some velocity then there will be damage to the jetty but if
the same ship reduces her speed or velocity then the impact damage will be considerably
less.
Coming back to Mass and Weight
Weight and Mass are often confused in everyday life.
Weight is actually the resultant force that acts on a body having some mass.
Weight is thus a product of the mass of the body and the acceleration due to the earths
gravity.
So, the S.I. Units of Weight should actually be kg m/s
2
or Newton (N)
Here since the acceleration due to gravity is known as 9.81m/s
2

Therefore we may write:
a mass of 1 kg having a weight of 1kg 9.81 m/s
2
as 9.81 kg m/s
2

Or simply 1 kgf, which is saying 9.81 N
Or conveniently since 9.81 is constant on the surface of the earth
We may write the weight to be:
1 kgf, this is the force that is being exerted on a mass of 1 kg.
But if have to express this in Newton then it would be:
9.81 N
However again since the gravity factor is common the unit of Weight is also expressed as kg.
Thus:
1 tonne = 1 metric ton force = 1000 kgf
Or 1 tonne is a measure of 1 metric ton weight.
Moment is the product of force and distance
The S.I. Units of Moment is the Newton-metre (Nm)
Since we have seen that force is expressed in kgf or N and the S.I. Unit of distance kg is the
metre
Thus, 9.81 N = 1 kgf
And, 9810 N = 1000 kgf or 1 tonne
So, the unit generally used for large moments is the tonnes-metre
Pressure is the force that acts on a body to cause it to change in some form.
If it does not change and there is room for it to move then it does so.
Pressure is thrust or force per unit area and is expressed as:
Kilogrammes-force units per square metre or
Kilogrammes-force units per square centimetre or for larger pressure in tonnes-metre (t/m
2
)
Density is defined as mass per unit volume or is expressed as unit of mass per unit of volume
Or grammes/ cubic centimetre (gms/cc or gms/cm
3
)
Fresh water has a density of 1 gm/cm
3
or 1000kg/m
3

Both are correct since:
1 kg is 1000 gms and 1 metre is 100 cm, since we are talking of cubic quantity 1 cubic metre
would be 100x100x100 cubic cm
So to equate it would be 1000 kg/m
3

Or 1 t/m
3

Thus the density of FW may be expressed as 1gm/cm
3
or 1t/m
3

Relative density is a factor without any unit.
Relative density is expressed as the density of the substance divided by the density of FW
Thus the RD of FW would be 1/1 or 1
And the RD of SW would be 1.025/1 or 1.025
So basically it is expressed as the same numerical value but without a unit.
Archimedes found that when a body is immersed in water then the volume of water that
overflowed as a result of this immersion was equal to the volume of the body.
However the weight of the body plays an important part in this.
Although the volume of the displaced water is the same as that of the body the weight may
not be the same.
Let us assume that a log of wood of dimension 1metre by 1metre by 12 metres is taken (thus
the volume is 12 metre
3
, or 12 cbm), let the weight of the log be 8 t. (assumed density of the
log at 0.667 t/m
3
)
This log when it is fully immersed (using external force) in a tank full of water will make some
water overflow, the quantity of water that would overflow would be 12 metre
3
, or 12 cbm
But the weight of this water would be 12 t at the density of 1t/cbm

So we see that the weight of the water is more than the weight of the fully immersed log of
wood and so the log will float.
But at what level?
Now if we remove the force that was holding the log underwater the log will bounce back to
the surface and only a portion of the log will remain underwater.
This amount will depend on the volume that it displaces and the weight of that displaced
water. Both have to be equal.
If we assume that only 67% of the log is immersed (12cbm x 0.67) then the volume of the
water displaced would also be 8 cbm and its weight would be 8 t and that was the weight of
the log.
So the log would float in a state of equilibrium
However the log would still be capable to taking extra load, and we can place weight on the
log up to a maximum of 4t, any weight beyond that, and the log would sink.
Let us work out the same example with a bar of iron of the same dimensions, thus the
volume would be 12 cbm and at a density of iron at 7.86 gm/m
3
the weight of the bar would
be 94t.
The volume of water that this bar would displace would be 12 cbm but the weight would be
only 12 t.
This being a much lesser figure than the weight of the iron bar, the iron bar would sink.
Can we now make this bar of iron float?
Yes, we can but we then need to flatten it out to a sheet of iron.
We then need to bend the four edges so that the sheet is turned into a open cardboard box.
This will give the iron sheet a much larger volume, the empty space on top of the sheet
would also contribute to the volume but without adding to the weight (assuming the weight
of air to be negligible)
The sheet + air combination however has the same weight.
Now it will float on the water at a level as determined by the weight of water that it would
displace at that level.

Centre of Gravity is the point of a body at which all the mass of the body may be assumed to
be concentrated.
The force of gravity acts vertically downwards from this point with a force equal to the
weight of the body.
Basically the body would balance around this point.
The Centre of Gravity of a homogeneous body is at its geometrical centre.
Buoyancy and Centre of Buoyancy
So what makes the log or the open box iron sheet float.
The fact that they are on the surface of the water is due to the earths gravity or the weight
of the body.
That it does not sink is due to Archimedes principle.
We may also say that a force is pushing up the box. This force is dependent on the volume of
the box within the water as well as its weight.
This force is termed as the force of Buoyancy.
It will act in case of a uniformly loaded box shaped vessel through the centre of gravity of
the underwater volume of the box.
However if the loading is not uniform, by which we mean that if say only the fore part is
loaded with some other weight then obviously the underwater volume of the box will
change and the centre of buoyancy will pass through centre of gravity of the new
underwater volume of the box.
Centre of Buoyancy can be defined as the geometrical centre of the underwater volume and
the point through which the total force of buoyancy may be considered to act vertically
upwards with a force equal to the weight of the water displaced by the body.
Reserve Buoyancy
We have seen the condition of the sheet of iron, which was turned, into an open cardboard
box, which floated very nicely on the surface of the water.

What happens if you now decide to tilt the box, depending on how high the edges are the
water will enter the enclosed area and the combination of sheet+ air will become sheet + air
+ some water.
This may make the box much more heavier than the weight of the volume of water displaced
and the box would sink.
Thus we require to put a water tight cover on the open box. This would ensure that no water
would enter the open space within the box and the sheet+ air combination would remain
intact and the box would float perpetually.
Thus what we have created is Reserve buoyancy.
A ship in a sea way floats on water, which may be calm and also may be rough.
When in a rough seaway the ship rides the waves, the waves support sometimes the ends of
the ship and then at the midway mark.
In either of the case the ship would have a tendency to sink to a lower level since the weight
of the ship and that of the water that it displaces would be different.
Thus the requirement for a ship to have reserve buoyancy, to meet any eventual sea
condition where more sheet + air combinations would be required to be brought into use.
Coefficient of fineness of water-plane area (Cw):
A ship floats on water. If at the water line the ship were to be cut off then the area at the
water level is known as the ships water plane
If we now divide this area of water plane with an imaginary rectangle having the length
similar to the maximum length of the water plane and breadth similar to the maximum
breadth of the water plane then this ration is termed as the coefficient of fineness of water
plane area or Cw
Cw = Area of water-plane/Area of rectangle ABCD


Similarly if we know the Cw at a particular draft then we may find the actual water plane
area of the ship by measuring the maximum length and the greatest breadth.
Area of the water-plane = L x B x CW
The block coefficient of fineness of displacement (Cb):
In exactly the same manner as we obtained the water plane area, if we were to measure the
volume of the underwater part of the ship and divide this with the volume of a box having its
length as that of the ship at that particular draft and breadth of the box as the maximum
breadth of the underwater volume, then we would arrive at a ratio.
This ratio is termed as the block coefficient of fineness of displacement,
or Cb
Cb at any particular draft is the ratio of the volume of displacement at that draft to the the
volume of a rectangular block having the same overall length, breadth and depth.
Knowing how the Cb was arrived at, we understand that for a box shaped vessel the ratio of
Cb be 1.
Also finer the lines of a ship the lower would be the Cb.
Thus a VLCC would be tending towards 1, whereas a slender yacht or a warship would be
closer to 0.5.
Again this value of Cb would depend on the draft of that particular ship, since at the load
draft a ship, even a small one appears quite box shaped but as the light draft is approached
the fine curvature of the ship is apparent.

For merchant ship, this value (depending upon draft) will range from about 0.500 to 0.850,
with some typical values as shown below:
ULCC 0.850 General Cargo ships 0.700
Oil tankers 0.800 Passenger ships 0.625
Bulk carriers 0.750 Container / Ro-Ro 0.575
Tugs 0.500
Cb = Volume of displacement / L x B x draft
Therefore as in the case of Cw, the underwater volume of a ship may be found at that
particular draft by:
Volume of displacement = L x B x draft x Cb
The value of Cb is used to determine the carrying capacity of a Life Boat.
In figure, the shaded portion represents the volume of the ships displacement at the draft
concerned, enclosed in a rectangular block having the same dimensions.

SHIPS LIFEBOAT BLOCK COEFFICIENT
The problem of loading/ declaring the number of persons that it can carry in a Life Boat is
that we do not have any load line marks to guide us.
And even if there was one it would be difficult to embark looking at the load line mark.
So how is the number of passengers determined for a life boat.
The block coefficient of the boat is taken, in this case there is no need to launch the boat in
the water and note the draft.

Say the If we accept that the Cb of wooden lifeboat is 0.6
Therefore, volume of the entire lifeboat would be given by
L x B x draft x 0.6 cubic metres
Now that the volume of the lifeboat has been found, the next step is to determine the
number of persons that it would safely carry.
To determine this the following is used and result is the closest whole number so obtained.
Volume of the boat / volume of each person
(both in cubic metres)
Here the size of the person is generally not taken into consideration but the volume is
adjusted with the length of the boat.
For lifeboat lengths:
7.3 m or more the volume of a person is taken as 0.283
4.9 m the volume of a person is taken as 0.396
For intermediate boat lengths the values are interpolated.
Effect of change of density on draft when the displacement is constant
It has been already explained that the body floats on water at a particular level/ draft, as
long as the weight of the body is equal to the weight of the volume of water that is displaced
by the underwater volume of the body.
Thus the volume of the water depends on the underwater volume of the body, and
The weight of this volume of water depends on the density of the water.
Thus when a ship moves from water of a higher density to a water of lesser density, the
weight of the water volume will become less.
To compensate for this weight loss an additional volume of water has to be displaced, this is
only possible if the underwater volume of the body is increased.
So the body/ ship will sink lower in the water of a lesser density, or the draft will increase.

For box shaped vessels since the shape is uniform all the way from the top to the bottom,
the walls being all vertical, it is easy to calculate the sinkage or the rising of the vessel with
the change in the density.
The resulting effect on box shaped vessels will be:
New mass of water displaced = Old mass of water displaced
New volume x New density = Old volume x Old density
New Volume = Old density
Old Volume New density
But volume = L x B x draft
L x B x New draft = Old density
L x B x Old draft New density
New draft = Old density
Old draft New density
The resulting effect on ship shape vessels will be:
New displacement = Old displacement
New volume/Old volume = Old density/New density
Due to the fact that the ships underwater shape is not like a box shaped vessel, the
underwater volume does not linearly change.
To find the change in draft of a ship shape, the FWA must be known. This is the number of
mm that a ships draft changes when passing from SW to FW.
FWA (in mm) = Displacement/(4 x TPC).
When the density of the water lies between these two (SW & FW) then the value (in mm)
that the ships draft changes when she enters the SW is called the Dock Water Allowance.
DWA (in mm) = FWA (1025 DW density)/25
Keeping the draft constant, in effect means that no load has been added or removed.
But if the draft remains unchanged, even when the density of the water has changed implies
that some change to the displacement has occurred.

Let us consider:
A ship floats in the water at a certain draft, therefore the underwater volume of the ship
displaces an equal volume of water. This volume of water when multiplied with the density
of the water gives us the weight of the water, which again is equal to the weight of the
whole ship.
Now if the density of the water is reduced (travelling from SW to FW), the following would
happen:
The weight of the displaced water would become less. And consequently to compensate for
this loss in weight an additional volume of water would have to be displaced.
To get an additional volume of water displaced means that the unde5rwater volume of the
ship has to increase.
If we do not want the underwater volume of the ship to increase then we have to remove
weights fr0om the ship.
Thus we see that to keep the draft constant, in a changing density scenario we have to either
lighten the ship or we have add more weights to the ship.
However, since the draft has not changed, the volume of water displaced also has remained
unchanged.
New vol. of water displaced = Old vol. of water displaced
New displacement = Old displacement
New density Old density
New displacement = New density
Old displacement Old density
Tonnes per centimetre immersion (TPC)
This is the mass that must be added/ or removed to a ship in order that the mean draft of a
ship changes by a value of ONE centimetre.
The figures that are given are for SALT WATER only and corrections have to be applied for
obtaining the values in FW and in other dock waters.
The TPC is not constant for the ship in all states of loading. The TPC changes as the
underwater form changes, thus the TPCs are given against the drafts.
For every draft there is a different TPC, the most notable changes are between the light draft
and the half way load draft, close to the summer draft the values changes are very small..
The Tonnes per Centimetre is therefore dependent on the underwater form of the ship and
this is determined by the water plane at the surface of the water.
So to calculate the TPC the water plane is essential.
TPC = (water plane area x density of water) / 100
water plane area (WPA) is in m2
Density is in t/m3.
Now let the mass w tones be loaded such that the draft increases by 1 cm & the ship now
floats at new Waterline WL
Since the draft increase is by 1 cm the mass loaded is equal to TPC.
Also as the displaced water quantity increases by some amount, this weight of extra water
displaced equals to TPC as well.
Mass = Volume x Density
= Area x 1/100 x 1.025 tonnes
= 1.025A/100 tonnes
TPCSW = 1.025 A/100
TPCFW = A/100
TPCDW = (RDDW x TPCSW )/1.025

Note: TPC is always stated for Salt Water unless otherwise specifically mentioned.
Effect of draft and density on TPC
Since the TPC as has been seen is dependent on the 2 factors:
1. Water plane area which determines the underwater volume of the ship
2. And the density of the water on which the ship is floating
Thus if any of these two factors change the TPC will be affected.
For box shaped vessels the 1
st
factor is not applicable since the shape is uniform all the way
from the top to the bottom, the walls are all vertical. The 2
nd
factor of density needs to be
attended to. As the density increases the TPC also increases.
However for most ships being ship shaped meaning not box shaped, means that both the
factors affect the TPC. The water plane area would change as the ship sinks deeper into the
water or is lightened. Also the density affects the TPC in the same way as for a box shaped
vessel.
TPC Curves
TPC is calculated for a range of drafts extending beyond the light and loaded drafts.
This calculated TPC is then tabulated or plotted in a graphical form and these graphs are
called the TPC curves.
On board a ship the TPCs are given in both a tabulated form alongside the drafts as well as
in a graphical form.
Displacement Curves
Displacement of the ship in SW (1.025) at various drafts is given in both a tabular form as
well as in a graphical form.
A displacement curve is one from which the displacement of the ship at any particular draft
can be found, and vice versa.
Fresh Water Allowance (FWA)
In the basic principle of why a ship floats it is understood that the weight of the volume of
water displaced by a ship is equal to weight of the entire ship.
The volume of the displaced water is again equal to the volume of the underwater volume of
the ship.
Now when the weight of this displaced water is calculated we take the product of the
volume of the water and the density of the water.
So, if the density of the water changes, then the weight of the displaced water changes, the
weight of the ship remaining unchanged.
Thus to keep the ship floating something has to be adjusted and adjustment is in the
underwater volume of the ship.
So a ship floating in waters of different densities will do so at different levels.
Thus to keep the ship floating something has to be adjusted and adjustment is in the
underwater volume of the ship.
So a ship floating in waters of different densities will do so at different levels.
So we can replace the word level by the nautical word draft
Thus we may now define Fresh Water Allowance as the amount in millimetres by which a
ships MEAN DRAFT changes when she moves between SALT WATER and FRESH WATER.
As a ship moves from SW to FW, the weight of the displaced water reduces RD of SW at
1.025 and FW at 1.000, so additional volume of water is required to float the ship, this
means that the underwater volume of the ship has to increase so the ship sinks lower to
compensate the above. So the draft increases.
In the same way if a ship moves from FW to SW, the weight of the displaced water would be
more than the weight of the ship, so the weight of the water has to be reduced, this may be
reduced if the volume of the water is reduced, this again depends on the underwater
volume of the ship, so the underwater volume of the ship is reduced.
And so the ship rises a little and the draft of the ship reduces.
FWA (in mm) = Displacement/ 4x ( (water plane area x density of water) / 100)
Or FWA = Displacement / ( 4 x TPC)

Effect of draft on FWA:
For box shaped vessel, FWA is the same at all drafts.
For ship shaped vessels, FWA increases with draft. As the draft increases, both the
displacement and the TPC increase, but the rate of change of displacement is higher than
that of the TPC.
Derivation of the FWA formula
Consider a ship floating in SW at load Summer draft at waterline WL.
Let volume of SW displaced at this draft be V.


Now let W1L1 be the waterline for the ship when displacing the same mass of fresh water.
Let v be the extra volume of water displaced in FW.
Total volume of fresh water displaced will be V + v.
Mass = Volume x density
Mass of SW displaced = 1025V
Mass of fresh water displaced = 1000 (V + v)
But mass of FW displaced = Mass of SW displaced.
1000(V + v) = 1025V
v = V/40

Assume that w is the mass of SW in volume v and W in volume V,
Then, replacing the factor as obtained above we get:
w = W/40
But w is a factor that is a product of the FWA and the TPC
Now since the FWA is in mm and the TPC is in cm, they both have to be converted to metres
Thus:
W = (((FWA mm x 100)cm X TPC cm) / 100 ) metres
Simplifying we have:
w = (FWA x 100 x TPC) / 100 = W / 40
Or (FWA x TPC) = W / 40
But w = TPC x (FWA/10)
Hence W/40 = TPC (FWA/10) or FWA = W/(4 x TPC).
Where W = Loaded SW displacement in tonnes.
Mass = Volume x density (22*100*12)/100=242=W/40
W=9680
9680/4/12=2420/12=242/1.2=22
Mass of SW displaced = 1025V
Mass of fresh water displaced = 1000 (V + v)
But mass of FW displaced = Mass of SW displaced.
1000(V + v) = 1025V
v = V/40 TPC = (water plane area x density of water) / 100
Assume that w is the mass of SW in volume v and W in volume V,
Then, replacing the factor as obtained above we get:
w = W/40

Displacement = FWA x ( 4 x TPC)
But w = TPC x (FWA/10)
Hence W/40 = TPC (FWA/10) or FWA = W/(4 x TPC).
Where W = Loaded SW displacement in tonnes.
Dock Water Allowance (DWA)
As a ship sails the seas the SW density is assumed to be constant at 1.025 gms/cc, however
the density of the SW is never the same everywhere, especially in partially enclosed salt
water bodies, this does not make much difference since the depth of the water is very
substantial.
However when a ship enters a river from the sea the density of the water changes from SW
to FW, gradually. The density of the river may never attain pure FW conditions and may be in
between.
Thus the need to calculate this intermediate correction for the new density.
Docks (enclosed port areas containing jetties) have water that is intermediate between SW
and FW, the water is brackish and may have a density of 1.010 gms/ cc.
Thus Dock Water Allowance is similar to FWA and is the amount in millimetres by which the
ships mean draft changes when a vessel moves between a salt water and dock water.
Dock water is the water whose density is neither that of fresh water or salt water but in-
between the two. RD between 1.000 and 1.025.
To get the correction in millimetres the formula that may be used is:
(Please note however that the DWA allowed for should be for the minimum density that will
be encountered by the ship while proceeding to the dock this as a safety factor)
DWA = (FWA (1025 density of dock water)) / 25
Buoyancy

The Laws Of Buoyancy
Floating objects possess the property of buoyancy.
A floating body displaces a volume of water equal in weight to the weight of the body.
A body immersed (or floating) in water is buoyed up by a force equal to the weight of the
water displaced.
Centre of buoyancy
C of B can be defined as the geometrical centre of the underwater volume and the point
through which the total force of buoyancy may be considered to act vertically upwards with
a force equal to the weight of the water displaced by the body.
For the purposes of freeboard computation, ships are divided into type A and type B.
Type A ships
A type A ship is one which:
Is designed to carry only liquid cargoes in bulk;
Has a high integrity of the exposed deck with only small access openings to cargo
compartments, closed by watertight gasketed covers of steel or equivalent material; and
Has low permeability of loaded cargo compartments.
Type B ships
All ships, which do not come within the provisions regarding type A ships in above
paragraphs, are considered as type B ships.
Type B ships, which have hatchways fitted with hatch covers, are assigned freeboards
based upon the values given in the rules.
Conditions of equilibrium
The condition of equilibrium after flooding shall be regarded as satisfactory provided:
The final waterline after flooding, taking into account sinkage, heel and trim, is below the
lower edge of any opening through which progressive down flooding may take place.
Such openings shall include air pipes, ventilators and openings which are closed by means of
weather tight doors or hatch covers, and may exclude those openings closed by means of
manhole covers and flush scuttles, cargo hatch covers, remotely operated sliding watertight
doors, and sidescuttles of the non-opening type.
However, in the case of doors separating a main machinery space from a steering gear
compartment, watertight doors may be of a hinged, quick-acting type kept closed at sea,
whilst not in use, provided also that the lower sill of such doors is above the summer load
waterline.
If pipes, ducts or tunnels are situated within the assumed extent of damage penetration,
arrangements shall be made so that progressive flooding cannot thereby extend to
compartments other than those assumed to be floodable in the calculation for each case of
damage.
The angle of heel due to unsymmetrical flooding does not exceed 15deg. If no part of the
deck is immersed, an angle of heel of up to 17deg. may be accepted.
The metacentric height in the flooded condition is positive.
When any part of the deck outside the compartment assumed flooded in a particular case of
damage is immersed, or in any case where the margin of stability in the flooded condition
may be considered doubtful, the residual stability is to be investigated.
It may be regarded as sufficient if the righting lever curve has a minimum range of 20deg.
beyond the position of equilibrium with a maximum righting lever of at least 0.1 m within
this range. The area under the righting lever curve within this range shall be not less than
0.0175 m. rad.
The Administration shall give consideration to the potential hazard presented by protected
or unprotected openings, which may become temporarily immersed within the range of
residual stability.
The Administration is satisfied that the stability is sufficient during intermediate stages of
flooding.
EXAMPLE OF GRAVITY -VS- BUOYANCY


1 ton of steel 1 ton of steel
If the cube of steel is placed in water it sinks. There is not enough displaced volume for the
forces of buoyancy to act upon. If the ships hull is placed in the water it will float. The larger
volume of the ships hull allows the forces of buoyancy to support the hulls weight.
The ships hull will sink to a draft where the forces of buoyancy and the forces of gravity are
equal.
Displacement
The weight of the volume of water that is displaced by the underwater portion of the hull is
equal to the weight of the ship. This is known as a ships displacement.
The unit of measurement for displacement is the Metric Tonne.
Gravity
The force of gravity acts vertically downward through the ships center of gravity. The
magnitude of the force depends on the ships total weight.
Units Of Measure
Force: A push or pull that tends to produce motion or a change in motion. Units: Newton,
etc.
Parallel forces may be mathematically summed to produce one Net Force considered to
act through one point.
Weight: The force of gravity acting on a body. This force acts towards the center of the
earth. Units: kilograms, etc.
Moment: The tendency of a force to produce a rotation about a pivot point. This works like a
torque wrench acting on a bolt. Units: Newton meters, etc.
Moment = Weight x Lever Arm
Volume = Length x Breadth x Height
Volume: The number of cubic units in an object.
Units: cubic metres (cbm), etc. The volume of any compartment onboard a ship can be found
using the equation:
Salt Water = 1.025 gms/cc
Fresh Water = 1.00 gms/cc
Diesel Fuel = 0.92 gms/cc

Calculating The Weight Of Flooding Water
A compartment has the following dimensions:
Length = 20 M
Breadth = 20 M
Height = 8 M
The compartment is now flooded with salt water to a depth of 6 M
1. First, calculate the volume of water that has been added to the compartment.
Volume = Length x Breadth x Depth of Flooding Water
= 20 M x 20 M x 6 M
= 2400 cbm

2. Second, multiply the volume of water by its specific gravity.



Stability Reference Points

M - Metacentre
G - Center of Gravity
B - Center of Buoyancy
K - Keel

K - Keel: The base line reference point from which all other reference point measurements
are compared.
B - Center of Buoyancy: The geometric center of the ships underwater hull body. It is the
point at which all the forces of buoyancy may be considered to act in a vertically upward
direction.

The Center of Buoyancy will move as the shape of the underwater portion of the hull body
changes. When the ship rolls to starboard, B moves to starboard, and when the ship rolls
to port, B moves to port.


When the ships hull is made heavier, the drafts increase as the ship sits deeper in the water.
B will move up.

When the ships hull is lightened, the drafts decrease as the ship sits shallower in the water.
B will move down.
The Center of Buoyancy moves in the same direction as the ships waterline.



G - Center of Gravity: The point at which all forces of gravity acting on the ship can be
considered to act. G is the center of mass of the vessel. The position of G is dependent
upon the distribution of weights within the ship. As the distribution of weights is altered, the
position of G will react as follows:


1. G moves towards a weight addition
2. G moves away from a weight removal
3. G moves in the same direction as a weight shift

M - Metacenter: As the ship is inclined through small angles of heel, the lines of buoyant
force intersect at a point called the metacenter.
As the ship is inclined, the center of buoyancy moves in an arc as it continues to seek the
geometric center of the underwater hull body. This arc describes the metacentric radius.


As the ship continues to heel in excess of 7-10 degrees, the metacenter will move as shown.



The position of the metacenter is a function of the position of the center of buoyancy, thus a
function of the displacement of the ship.
The position of M moves as follows:
As the Center of Buoyancy moves up, the Metacenter moves down.
As the Center of Buoyancy moves down, the Metacenter moves up.
Fresh Water Allowance

Fresh Water Allowance (FWA)
In the basic principle of why a ship floats it is understood that the weight of the volume of
water displaced by a ship is equal to weight of the entire ship.
The volume of the displaced water is again equal to the volume of the underwater volume of
the ship.
Now when the weight of this displaced water is calculated we take the product of the
volume of the water and the density of the water.
So, if the density of the water changes, then the weight of the displaced water changes, the
weight of the ship remaining unchanged.
Thus to keep the ship floating something has to be adjusted and adjustment is in the
underwater volume of the ship.
So a ship floating in waters of different densities will do so at different levels.
Let us take the example of a ship with a weight of 10000 MT, let this ship float at a certain
level (assume the water level is at the mid level of the ship)
Then the underwater part of the ship would be displacing a volume of water that would be
equal to the volume of the underwater part of the ship.
Also the weight of this water would have to be equal to the entire weight of the ship.
So we have,
Displaced water = underwater part (volume) of the ship
Weight of this displaced water = entire weight of ship
We know,
Weight of this displaced water = volume of displaced water x specific gravity of the water
So now if the specific gravity of the water changes, then to keep the weight of the water
constant the volume of the displaced water has to change and this is the reason that the
ship either sinks lower or rises up when traversing from FW to SW and vice versa.
Thus to keep the ship floating something has to be adjusted and adjustment is in the
underwater volume of the ship.

So a ship floating in waters of different densities will do so at different levels.
So we can replace the word level by the nautical word draft
Thus we may now define Fresh Water Allowance as the amount in millimetres by which a
ships MEAN DRAFT changes when she moves between SALT WATER and FRESH WATER and
vice versa
As a ship moves from SW to FW, the weight of the displaced water reduces RD of SW at
1.025 and FW at 1.000, so additional volume of water is required to float the ship, this
means that the underwater volume of the ship has to increase so the ship sinks lower to
compensate the above. So the draft increases.
In the same way if a ship moves from FW to SW, the weight of the displaced water would be
more than the weight of the ship, so the weight of the water has to be reduced, this may be
reduced if the volume of the water is reduced, this again depends on the underwater
volume of the ship, so the underwater volume of the ship is reduced.
And so the ship rises a little and the draft of the ship reduces.
FWA (in mm) = Displacement/ 4x ( (water plane area x density of water) / 100)
Or FWA = Displacement / ( 4 x TPC)
Effect of draft on FWA
For box shaped vessel, FWA is the same at all drafts.
For ship shaped vessels, FWA increases with draft. As the draft increases, both the
displacement and the TPC increase, but the rate of change of displacement is higher than
that of the TPC.
Derivation of the FWA formula
Consider a ship floating in SW at load Summer draft at waterline WL.
Let volume of SW displaced at this draft be V.
Now let W
1
L
1
be the waterline for the ship when displacing the same mass of fresh water.
Let v be the extra volume of water displaced in FW.
Total volume of fresh water displaced will be V + v.
Mass = Volume x density
Mass of SW displaced = 1025V
Mass of fresh water displaced = 1000 (V + v)
But mass of FW displaced = Mass of SW displaced.
1000(V + v) = 1025V
v = V/40
Assume that w is the mass of SW in volume v and W in volume V,
Then, replacing the factor as obtained above we get:
w = W/40
But w is a factor that is a product of the FWA and the TPC
Now since the FWA is in mm and the TPC is in cm, they both have to be converted to metres
Thus:
W = (((FWA mm x 100) cm X TPC cm) / 100) metres
Simplifying we have:
w = (FWA x 100 x TPC) / 100 = W / 40
Or (FWA x TPC) = W / 40
But w = TPC x (FWA/10)
Hence W/40 = TPC (FWA/10) or FWA = W/(4 x TPC).
Where W = Loaded SW displacement in tonnes.
Dock Water Allowance (DWA)
As a ship sails the seas the SW density is assumed to be constant at 1.025 gms/cc, however
the density of the SW is never the same everywhere, especially in partially enclosed salt
water bodies, this does not make much difference since the depth of the water is very
substantial.
However when a ship enters a river from the sea the density of the water changes from SW
to FW, gradually. The density of the river may never attain pure FW conditions and may be in
between.
Thus the need to calculate this intermediate correction for the new density.
Docks (enclosed port areas containing jetties) have water that is intermediate between SW
and FW, the water is brackish and may have a density of 1.010 gms/ cc.
Thus Dock Water Allowance is similar to FWA and is the amount in millimetres by which the
ships mean draft changes when a vessel moves between a salt water and dock water.
Dock water is the water whose density is neither that of fresh water or salt water but in-
between the two. RD between 1.000 and 1.025.
To get the correction in millimetres the formula that may be used is:
(Please note however that the DWA allowed for should be for the minimum density that will
be encountered by the ship while proceeding to the dock this as a safety factor)
DWA = FWA (1025 density of dock water)
25


Movement of the Centre of Gravity

Centre of gravity
It is the point of a body at which all the mass of the body may be assumed to be
concentrated.
The force of gravity acts vertically downwards from this point with a force equal to the
weight of the body.
Basically the body would balance around this point.
The COG of a homogeneous body is at its geometrical centre.
Effect of removing or discharging mass

Consider a rectangular plank as shown. The effects of adding or removing weights would be
as shown:
Now cut the length of plank of mass w kg whose CG is d mtrs away from CG of the plank.
Note that a resultant moment of w x d kg m has been created in an anti-clockwise direction
about G.
The CG of the new plank shifts from G to G1.
The new mass (W-w) kg now creates a tilting moment of (W-w) x GG1 about G.
Since both are referring to the same moment,
(W-w) x GG1 = w x d
GG1 = (w x d)/(W-w)
CONCLUSION: When a weight is removed from a body, the CG shifts directly away from the
CG of the mass removed, and the distance it moves is given by:
GG1 = (w x d)/Final mass metres
Where, GG1 is the shift of CG
w is the mass removed
d is the distance between the CG of the mass removed and the CG of the body.
Effect of adding or loading mass
Equating the tilting moments created due to the added weight, which must again be equal:
(W + w) x GG1 = w x d
GG1 = (w x d)/(W + w)
GG1 = (w x d)/ (Final mass) metres
Application to ships
DISCHARGING WEIGHTS:
GG1 = (w x d) metres
(Final displacement)
LOADING WEIGHTS
GG1 = (w x d) metres
(Final displacement)
Shifting Weights
GG2 = (w x d) metres
(Displacement)
Vertical Weight Shifts
Shifting weight vertically, no matter where onboard it is, will always cause the ships center
of gravity to move in the same direction as the weight shift.

To calculate the height of the ships center of gravity after a vertical weight shift, the
following equation is used:
KG
1
= ((W
0
x KG
0
) +/- (w x kg)) /
F

KG
O
= The original height of the ships center of gravity (M)
o = The ships displacement prior to shifting weight (MT)
w = The amount of weight shifted (MT)
kg = The vertical distance the weight was shifted (M)

F
= The ships displacement after shifting the weight (MT)
(+) When the weight is shifted up use (+)
(-) When the weight is shifted down use (-)
Example Problem
10 MT of cargo is shifted up 3 M.
O
is 3500 MT and KG
o
is 6 M. What is the new height of
the ships center of gravity (KG
1
)?
KG
1
= ((o x KGo) +/- (w x kg)) /
F

KG
1
= ((3500 x 6) + (10 x 3)) / 3500
KG
1
= 6.009 M
Vertical Weight Additions/Removals
When weight is added or removed to/from a ship, the vertical shift in the center of gravity is
found using the same equation.

KG
1
= ((o x KGo) +/- (w x kg)) /
F

KG
O
= The original height of the ships center of gravity (M)

O
= Ships displacement prior to adding/removing weight (MT)
w = The amount of weight added or removed (MT)
kg = The height of the center of gravity of the added/removed weight above the keel (M)

F
= The ships displacement after adding/removing the weight
(+) When the weight is added use (+)
(-) When the weight is removed use (-)
Example Problem
A 30 MT crate is added 10 M above the keel. o is 3500 MT and KG
0
is 6 M. What is the new
height of the ships center of gravity (KG
1
)?
KG
1
= ((o x KGo) +/- (w x kg)) /
F
KG
1
= ((3500 x 6) + (30 x 10)) / 3530
KG
1
= 6.034 M
Horizontal Weight Shifts
Shifting weight horizontally, no matter where onboard it is, will always cause the ships
center of gravity to move in the same direction as the weight shift.
NOTE: A weight shift causing the ships center of gravity to move off centerline will always
reduce the stability of the ship.

To calculate the horizontal movement of the ships center of gravity, the following equation
is used:
GG
2
= (w x d) /
F

w

= The amount of weight shifted (MT)
d = The horizontal distance the weight is shifted (M)

F
= The ships displacement after the weight is shifted (MT)
Example Problem
A 50 MT weight is shifted 10 M to starboard.
O
is 32000 MT.
What is the change in the center of gravity (GG
2
)?
GG
2
= (w x d) /
F
GG
2
= (50 x 10) / 32000
GG
2
= 0.01562 M
Horizontal Weight Additions/Removals
When an off-center weight is added or removed to/from a ship, the ships center of gravity
will move off centerline, the ship will develop a list.

To calculate the horizontal movement of the ships center of gravity after adding/removing
an off-center weight, the same equation is used:
GG
2
= (w x d) /
F

w

= The amount of weight added/removed (MT)
d = The distance from the center of gravity of the weight to the ships centerline (M)

F
= the ships displacement after the weight is shifted (MT)
Example Problem
50 MT of cargo is loaded onto the Tween deck, 10 M from centerline.
O
is 48000 MT. What
is the change in the center of gravity (GG
2
)?
GG
2
= (w x d) /
F
GG
2
= (50 x 10) / 48000
GG
2
= 0.0104 M
Effect of suspended weights
The CG of a body is the point through which the force of gravity may be considered to act
vertically downwards.
For a suspended weight, whether the vessel is upright or inclined, the point through which
the force a gravity may be considered to act vertically downwards is g1, the POINT OF
SUSPENSION.


Conclusions
The CG of a body will move directly TOWARDS the CG of any weight ADDED.
The CG of a body will move directly AWAY from the CG of any weight DISCHARGED.
The CG of a body will move PARALLEL to the shift of the CG of any weight MOVED within the
body.
The shift of the CG of the body in each case is given by the following formula:
GG1 = w x d metres
W
where w = weight added, removed or shifted.
W = final mass of the body
d = distance between the CG if weight added or removed, or the distance by which
the weight is shifted.
When a weight is SUSPENDED, its CG is considered to be at the POINT OF SUSPENSION.

Angle of Loll

Angle of loll
Consider the following vessel in unstable equilibrium condition.

As the angle of heel increases, the CB moves out further until it is directly under G. The
capsizing moment disappears now and this angle of heel at which this condition occurs is
called the angle of loll.
w
l
G
B
w
K
B'
Z
(effect of weight)
(effect of buoyancy) b
w' l'
0
1
The ship now moves around the angle of loll, but if the CB does not move out far enough to
move directly under G, then the vessel will capsize.







If the heel increases beyond the angle of loll, the CB moves out further to the low side and
the ship now moves around this angle.

The angle of loll can be on either side depending upon the external inclining force, such as
the wind and the waves.
However, there is always the threat of the G rising above the M and this will create a
situation of unstable equilibrium, thereby capsizing the ship.
List Caused By Negative Gm
When a ships center of gravity moves vertically upwards and slightly above the Metacenter,
the ship will develop a list (or possibly capsize.) The vessel may also flop over, developing
the same list to the other side.
w
l
M
G
B
w
K
B'
0
Z
(effect of weight)
(effect of buoyancy) b
w' l'
b (effect of buoyancy)
(effect of weight) w
G
Z
Capsizing couple: b = w
w
l
G
B
w
K
B'
Z
(effect of weight)
(effect of buoyancy) b
w' l'
0
2
(effect of buoyancy) b
w (effect of weight)
G
Z

Possible Causes
1. Removal of low weight
2. Addition of high weight (ice)
3. Moving weight upward
4. Free Surface Effect
5. Free Flow Effect (if present)
How to Recognize
1. Vessel will not remain upright and will assume a list to either port or starboard.
2. Vessel flops to port or starboard.
3. Vessel will have a very long, slow roll period about the angle of list.
4. A small GM is known to exist plus any of the above.
Corrective Measures
1. Eliminate Free Surface and Free Flow Effects (if present)
2. Add low weight symmetrically about centerline.
3. Remove high weight symmetrically.
4. Shift weight down symmetrically.
List Caused By Off-Center Weight And Negative Gm

The vessels stability is reduced by both an increase in the height of the center of gravity and
movement from centerline. A negative GM condition exists, represented by the
uncorrected curve. An off-center weight, represented by the cosine curve, is added and a
larger list develops.
Possible Causes
1. A combination of the previous causes of list.
How to Recognize
1. Vessel will assume a permanent list either port or starboard (vessel will not flop).
2. Very slow roll period about this permanent list.
3. The known off-center weight isnt proportional to the ships list.
Corrective Measures
Correct Negative GM first.
a. Eliminate Free Surface and Free Flow Effects (if present)
b. Shift weight down, add weight low, or jettison weight high.

Correct for Gravity Off Centerline
a. Add weight to higher side
b. Remove weight from lower side
c. Shift weight to higher side
*** ALWAYS correct Negative GM prior to shifting weights transversely ***
List

Definitions
Roll: The action of a vessel involving a recurrent motion, usually caused by wave action.
Heel: Semi-permanent angle of inclination caused by external forces, such as high-speed
turns, beam winds, and seas.
List: Permanent angle of inclination, caused by:
1. Ships Center of Gravity transversely shifted from centerline.
2. Negative Metacentric Height (-GM)
3. Combination of Gravity off-centerline and GM
Moment To Heel 1
o
Equation
When a ship experiences an Inclining Moment (IM) the vessel will list or heel until the
Righting Moment (RM) is equal to the Inclining Moment (RM = IM). The Inclining Moment is
simply a force acting through some distance.
IM = w x d
This is only true when the ship has a negligible heel or list.

As the vessel inclines, the distance between the forces changes.

A relationship can be developed to solve for the distance between forces for all angles of
heel. Using an expanded drawing of the triangle from the above diagram:

Using the cosine equation to solve for the distance X:
X = d x cos
Therefore:
IM = w x d x cos
A Righting Moment is created by the ship to keep itself upright. In this case, the force is
equal to the ships displacement (W
F
) and the distance is the ships righting arm (GZ) at each
particular angle of heel.
RM = WF x GZ
The Righting Arm (GZ) changes with inclination of the ship. Using the relationship derived for
small angles of heel:
GZ = GM x sin
NOTE: This relationship holds true for angles less than 7-10
Therefore:
RM = GM x WF x sin
The initial premise was that RM = IM:
W x d x cos = GM x WF x sin
Transferring cosine to the right:
(sin / cos ) = tan
w x d = GM x WF x tan
Choosing a specific angle, the moment (w x d) required to create that list or heel can be
found. Using 1
o
:
tan 1
o
= 0.01746
Therefore:
MH 1 = GM x WF x 0.01746
This formula is valid for angles less than 10
o
due to movement of the metacenter. To check
this formula for all inclinations less than 10
o
, a comparison between the MH10
o
and 10 times
MH1
o
is made.
MH 10 = GM x WF x tan 10 -vs- 10 x (MH 1 = GM x WF x 0.01746)
MH 10 = GM x WF x (0.01746)
And
10 x (MH 1) = 10 x GM x WF x (0.01746)
There is a 0.0017 difference over the 10 range. This error is negligible. The list equation can
now be used.
LIST = (w x d) / MH 1

Example
Your ship has a 1.5
o
list to starboard. There are 50 MT of cargo placed on the starboard side.
The stevedores want to know how far to transfer the cargo to correct the list.

Step 1: Calculate MH1
o
:
MH 1 = GM x WF x (0.01746)
MH 1 = 0.8 M x 3500 MT x (0.01746)
MH 1 = 48.8 M
Step 2: Use the list equation to solve for distance:
List = (w x d) / MH 1
Or, 1.5 = (50 MT x d) / 48.8 M
d = (1.5 x 48.8) / 50 = 1.464 M

Example
Your ship has a 2 list to port. The CO wants it corrected. There are 15 cbm of fuel in the port
wing tank (sp.gr. 0.94). The starboard wing tank is empty. Correct the list using the fuel and a
set of 5 cargo pallets (8 MT each). The cargo pallets may only be moved 5 M to starboard
before hitting the bulkhead. How long will it take to correct the list? Pump capacity is 40 cbm
per hour.
W
O
= 12500 MT
KM = 7.1 M
KG = 6.02 M


Step 1: Calculate MH1:
MH 1 = GM x WF x (0.01746)
MH 1 = (7.1 6.02) x 12500 x (0.01746)
MH 1 = 235.7
Step 2: Calculate the amount of list corrected by shifting fuel:
Weight of fuel = 15 x 0.94 = 14.1 MT
List = (w x d) / MH 1
Or,
List = (14.1 x 11) / 235.7 = 0.66
Step 3: So far, we have corrected 0.66
o
of the 2
o
list. Using the pallets, we will correct for the
remaining 1.34
o
list.
List = (w x d) / MH 1 or
d = (1.34 x 235.7) / 40 = 7.9 M
Step 4: Finally, calculate how long it takes to transfer 15 cbm of fuel when the pump capacity
is 40cbm/ hour.
Time = (15 cbm / 40 cbm/h) = 0.375 hr x 60 = 22.5 minutes
Assuming it takes less than 22.5 minutes to move the 5 pallets, this is the time required to
correct the list.
Important:
1. When attempting problems on List, first find out the GM of the vessel (if the KG has
to be calculated then do so) if it has not been stated.
2. If there are more than one shifting/ loading/ discharging involved then tabulate the
moments and get the final moment (w x d) to either port or to starboard.
Example:
A ship of 8000 tonnes displacement has KM = 8.7 m, and KG = 7.6 m. The following weights
are then loaded and discharged:
a. Load 250 tonnes cargo KG 6.1m and centre of gravity 7.6m, to starboard of the
centre line.
b. Load 300 tonnes fuel oil KG 0.6m, and centre of gravity 6.1m, to port of the centre
line.
c. Discharge 50 tonnes of ballast KG 1.2m, and centre of gravity 4.6m, to port of the
centre line.
Find the final list.

Weight KG
Moment about Keel (V-
M)
Orig.
Disp. 8000 7.6 60800
Load 250 6.1 1525
Load 300 0.6 180
Total 8550

62505
Disch. -50 1.2 -60
Final
Disp. 8500

62445
Final KG = Final Moment / Final displacement = 62445 / 8500
KG = 7.34
KM = 8.7
Therefore, GM = 1.36
w d
Listing
moment


Port Stbd
250 7.6

1900
50 4.6

230
300 6.1 1830

From above we have Port: 1830 and Stbd: 2130
Therefore the final listing moment (w x d) = 300 to stbd.
Now, MH 1 = GM x WF x 0.01746 = 1.36 x 8500 x 0.01746 = 201.8376
List = (w x d) / MH 1 = 300 / 201.8376 = 1.49 to stbd.
Inclining Experiment
The inclining experiment is completed upon commissioning of the vessel.
It is performed to obtain accurately the vertical height of the ships center of gravity above
the keel (KG).
Procedures:
The shipyard at which the inclining experiment is to be performed will issue a memorandum
to the ship outlining the necessary work to be done by ships force and by the yard to
prepare the ship for inclining.
1. Liquid load will be in accordance with the memorandum.
2. Inventory of all consumables to be made by ships crew and inclining party.
3. Inclining weights are placed on centerline.
4. Freeboard is measured, and a photo of the drafts is taken.
5. Salinity of saltwater is measured.
8. Pendulums set up forward, midships, and aft.
9. Weights are moved off-centerline.
10.Inclination of the ship measured.

Measurements are taken for several weight movements both port and starboard. The Naval
Architect then uses the following equation:

Where:
w = Inclining Weights (LT)
d = Athwartships Distance Weights Were Moved (FT)
W
F
= Displacement of Ship (LT, with Inclining Weights)
tan = Movement of Pendulum Length of Pendulum
The inclining experiment measures GM accurately, and since the ships drafts are known, KM
can be found, KG is then found using KG = KM - GM.


Free Surface Effect
Liquid that only partially fills a compartment is said to have a free surface that tends to
remain horizontal (parallel to the waterline). When the ship is inclined, the liquid flows to
the lower side (in the direction of inclination), increasing the inclining moment.
Background:
If the tank contains a solid weight, and the ship is inclined, the center of buoyancy shifts in
the direction of the inclination and righting arms (GZ) are formed.

Replacing the solid with a liquid of the same weight, when the ship is inclined, the surface of
the liquid remains horizontal. This results in a transfer of a wedge of water, which is
equivalent to a horizontal shift of weight, causing gravity to shift from G
0
to G
2
.

The wedge of water transferred increases as the angle of inclination increases, therefore, the
center of gravity shifts a different amount for each inclination.

Due to the horizontal shift of the center of gravity, the righting arm is now G
2
Z
2
. To
determine the effect on stability, a vertical line is projected upward through G
2
(see below).
Where this line crosses the ships centerline is labeled G
3
. The righting arm G
3
Z
3
is the same
length as the righting arm G
2
Z
2
. Therefore, moving the ships center of gravity to position G
2

or G
3
yields the same effect on stability. Movement from G
0
to G
3
is referred to as a Virtual
Rise of the center gravity.

To calculate the virtual rise in the center of gravity due to the Free Surface Effect, use the
following equation:

B = The breadth (width) of the compartment
L = The length of the compartment
W
F
= The ships final displacement (after flooding water added)
Factors Effecting Free Surface Effect
Pocketing
Free Surface Effect can be reduced, to some extent, by creating pocketing. Pocketing occurs
when the surface of the liquid contacts the top or bottom of the tank, reducing the breadth
(B) of the free surface area.
Since the effects of pocketing can not be calculated, it is an indeterminate safety factor. The
Free Surface correction will therefore indicate less overall stability than actually exists.
Surface Permeability
Impermeable objects (engines, pumps, piping systems, etc) inside a flooded space project
through and above the liquid surface. These objects inhibit the moving water and the
shifting of the wedge may or may not be complete, thus reducing Free Surface Effect. The
impermeable objects also occupy volume, reducing the amount of flooding water (movable
weight) that can fill the space.


Swash Bulkheads (Baffle Plates)
In addition to some structural support, these bulkheads are designed to reduce Free Surface
Effect. They are longitudinal bulkheads that hinder, but do not prevent, the flow of liquid
from side to side as the ship rolls or heels. They are found in tanks, voids, double bottoms,
bilges, etc.

Sluice Valves
Free flow (Sluice) valves on tankers allow opposing tanks to be cross-connected. When large,
partially filled tanks are connected, Free Surface Effect increases, and the vessel becomes
less stable.
Conditions of Free Surface Effect
1. FSE increases with increased length and width of compartment
2. FSE increases when displacement decreases (de-ballasting)
3. FSE is independent of the depth of the liquid

Example Problem
The firemain ruptures, flooding a compartment with 0.91 metre of saltwater. Displacement
prior to flooding was 4485 MT. The dimensions of the space are: L=9.14m B=12.8m
Calculate the weight added by the flooding water:

2. Calculate the new displacement:

3. Calculate the virtual rise in G due to Free Surface Effect:

Free Flow Effect
Free Flow Effect occurs when the ships hull is ruptured, allowing sea water to flow in and
out as the ship rolls. This continuous weight addition and removal causes a horizontal shift in
the center of gravity, which then equates to another virtual rise in the center gravity.
Three conditions must exist for Free Flow Effect:
The compartment must be open to the sea.
The compartment must be partially flooded.
The compartment must be off centerline or asymmetrical about centerline.
When the vessel below is inclined, it experiences a horizontal weight shift due to the Free
Surface Effect. The center of gravity shifts from G
0
to G
2
. The center of gravity is shifted
further from centerline due to the flooding weight addition/removal as the ship rolls. This
reduces the righting arm from G
2
Z
2
to G
4
Z
4
. By extending the line of gravitational force up to
the centerline, position G
5
is found. This increase from G
3
to G
5
is the virtual rise of gravity
due to the Free Flow Effect.

The virtual rise in the center of gravity due to the Free Flow Effect (G
3
G
5
) is found using the
equation:

B = Breadth (width) of the compartment
L = Length of the compartment
Y = The distance from the center of gravity of the compartment to the Centerline of the ship
W
F
= The ships displacement following damage
The factors which minimize Free Surface Effect (pocketing, surface permeability, swash
bulkheads, etc) will also minimize Free Flow Effect. There is one additional factor associated
with Free Flow: the size of the hole in the ship.
How the size of the hole affects Free Flow is not something that can be calculated. The FCE
equation does not account for the hole. Basically, if the hole is small, less water will be
added/removed to/from the ship. The larger the hole, the closer Free Flow Effect is to its
calculated value.

Example Problem
A vessel has a hole in the starboard side of a compartment. Displacement prior to damage
was 3700 MT. Flooding depth is 1.52 m. Calculate the total virtual rise in the center of gravity
(FSE + FCE). Compartment length is 9.14 and the breadth is 8.23m. The compartment
extends from the Starboard shipside to a distance of 2.74 m beyond the centre line on the
port side.

1. Calculate the weight added due to flooding water:
2. Calculate the ships final displacement:

3. Calculate the virtual rise in G due to Free Surface Effect:

4. Determine the distance Y for calculating the Free Flow Effect:

The center of the compartment is 4.11 m from the inboard bulkhead, and the ships
centerline is 2.74 m from the inboard bulkhead.
5. Calculate the virtual rise in G due to Free Flow Effect:

6. Calculate the total virtual rise in the center of gravity:
GG (virtual) = FSE + FCE = 0.11 + 0.038 = 0.148 m

Trim

Trim
For a rectangular box shaped vessel, when a weight is added on to one side the vessel would
list to that side.
If however the weight is added either behind or ahead of the of the midship area but within
the centre line partition of the ship then the vessel would get tilted either forward or aft.
This tilting is known as TRIM
Thus trim is the longitudinal equivalent of list.
However there is a fundamental difference in the way the List and Trim are noted. List is as
we know expressed in degrees, trim may be measured also in degrees but the expression is
in Feet or Metres.
Thus Trim may be defined as the difference between the draft at the fore perpendicular and
the draft at the aft perpendicular.
Unlike list which is stated as Port or Starboard, Trim is stated as Positive or Negative more
usually as Trim meaning trimmed by stern, taken as positive. And Trim by head meaning
negative and that the draft ahead is more than the draft astern.
Moment to Change Trim 1 cm (MCTC)
Now we have seen that to change the Trim we need to move weights in the fore and aft line
of the ship.
This then brings about a moment, and the moment required to change the trim by 1 cm is
given by:
MCTC = (W x GMl) / 100 x L
Where W is the displacement of the vessel in tonnes
GMl is the longitudinal metacentric height (m)
L is the Length between perpendiculars (m)
Centre of Floatation
This is the imaginary point where the ship pivots. It is the centre of gravity of the water plane
area. The centre of Floatation is also referred to as the Tipping Centre
A box shaped vessel with a rectangular water plane area would have its centre of floatation
amidships, whereas on a ship shaped vessel the centre of floatation would be either slightly
forward or abaft of amidships.
Remember all trimming moments are taken about the centre of floatation, since it is around
this point that the vessel pivots.
Change of Trim
This is the difference between a earlier trim and the latest trim. For example the trim that
the vessel had on departure and the proposed trim that the vessel would have on arrival at
the destination port.
Longitudinal Metacentre (ML)
In the manner of the Metacentre, the Longitudinal Metacentre is the point of intersection
between the verticals passing through the centre of buoyancy when the vessel is on an even
keel and when the vessel is trimmed.

Longitudinal Metacentric Height (GML)
This is the vertical distance between the Centre of gravity of the vessel and the longitudinal
Metacentre
In the above figure we see that
GG1 = (w x d) / W
Or W x GG1 = w x d
Trimming moment = W x GG1 = w x d

The vessel trims until G and B come in the same vertical line again
Also take note that since the distance BG is very small as compared to BML, sometimes BML
may be substituted for GML in calculations, without any appreciable error

Tan = trim / LBP = t /L where, trim in cm and LBP is in metres
Tan = GG1/ GML = (w x d) (W x GML) because
GG1 = (w x d)/ W
T/ 100L = (w x d) / (W x GML)
T = (w x d) x 100L (W x GML)
T = (w x d) / MCTC = Trimming Moment / MCTC
Where Trim obtained will be in cm.




Trim = t / 100L
Where L = LBP
T trim in cms
To find the change of draft forward and aft due to change of trim
Change of trim = Trimming Moment / MCTC
Change of draft aft (cm) = (l x change of trim) / L
Where:
L is the distance of the centre of floatation from the aft perpendicular (m)
L is the LBP (m)
Change of draft forward (cm) = change of trim change of draft aft
Or
Change of draft aft (m) = (L-l) / L x Change of Trim
Effect of loading, discharging or shifting weights
Loading / discharging at the centre of floatation will produce no change of trim but the draft
will only change
Only if the weight is shifted to either forward d or aft will we get a trimming effect.
Shifting a weight will on the other hand give only a change of trim but not of draft
So, loading can be considered as loading at the centre of floatation and then shifting to the
desired place
Similarly discharging can be considered as shifting to centre of floatation first and then
taking the load off the ship
Effect of loading, discharging or shifting weights
So the two components to be calculated are:
a. Change of draft
b. Change of trim
Then we go on to calculate the draft forward and aft
Hence calculate these problems as follows:
Bodily sinkage = W / TPC
Then calculate the change of trim
Change of trim (cm) = Trimming Moment / MCTC
3. Then calculate the change of aft draft change of aft draft (cm) = l / L x COT
4. Then calculate the change of draft forward change of draft forward (cm) = COT change
of draft aft
OR
(L-l) / L x COT
Curves of Statical Stability

Load Line requirements for minimum stability conditions
The area under the GZ curve shall not be less than
0.55 m-rad up to an angle of 30
0.09 m-rad up to an angle of either 40 or the lesser angle at which the lower edges of any
openings which can not be closed weather-tight are immersed
0.03 m-rad between the angles of heel of 30 and 40 or such lesser angle as mentioned
above
The Righting Lever (GZ) shall be at least 0.20m at an angle of heel equal to or greater than
30
The maximum GZ shall occur at an angle of heel of not less than 30
Initial transverse metacentric height shall not be less than 0.15m. For ship carrying timber
deck cargo complying with (a), this may be reduced to not less than 0.05 metres.
Curve Of Statical Stability
Graph where GZ is plotted against the angle of heel.
Drawn for each voyage condition by the ships officer.
This curve is for a particular displacement and KG.
From this curve it is possible to ascertain the following:
Initial metacentric height point of intersection of the tangent drawn to the curve at the
initial point and a vertical through the angle of heel of 57.3 (1 radian).
Angle of contraflexure the angle of heel up to which the rate of increase of GZ with heel is
increasing. Though the GZ may increase further, the rate of increase of GZ begins to
decrease at this angle.
The range of stability where all GZ values are positive.
The maximum GZ lever & the angle at which it occurs.
The angle of vanishing stability beyond which the vessel will capsize.
The area of negative stability

The moment of statical stability at any given angle of heel (GZ x Displacement of the ship).
The moment of dynamical stability work done in heeling the ship to a particular angle.
Dynamical stability at = W x A (in t-m-rad)
W = Displacement (in tonnes)
A = area between the curve and the baseline up to the given angle of heel (in metre-
radians).

GZ Cross Curves of Stability
To draw the curve of statical stability, we need GZ values for various angles of heel.
For this we use the GZ cross curves of stability.
These curves are provided for an assumed KG, tabulating GZ values for various
displacements and angles of list.
Called cross curves because the various curves actually cross each other.
Since the curves are plotted for an assumed KG, if the actual KG differs from this a correction
(GG
1
Sine) needs to be applied.
This correction is positive if the actual KG is less than the assumed KG and vice-versa.
After obtaining the GZ values at various angles, the curve of statical stability is prepared.
KN Cross Curves of Stability
Same as the GZ cross curves and also used to get the GZ values for making the curve of
statical stability.
The only difference being that here the KG is assumed to be ZERO.
This solves the problem of a sometimes positive and sometimes negative correction, as now
the correction is always subtracted.
GZ = KN KG Sine