BIOLOGY

AS LEVEL REVISION BIOL1

BIOL 1 Specification
3.1.1 Disease may be caused by infectious pathogens or may reflect the effects of lifestyle.
Pathogens
Pathogens include bacteria, viruses and fungi.
Disease can result from pathogenic, microorganisms penetrating any of an organism's interfaces
with the environment. These interfaces include the digestive and gas-exchange systems.
Pathogens cause disease by damaging the cells of the host and by producing toxins.
Lifestyle
Lifestyle can affect human health.
Specific risk factors are associated with cancer and coronary heart disease.
Changes in lifestyle "may also be associated with a reduced risk of contracting these conditions.
Candidates should be able to:
analyse and interpret data associated with specific risk factors and the incidence of disease
recognise correlations and causal relationships.

3.1.2 The digestive system provides an interface with the environment Digestion involves enzymic
hydrolysis producing smaller molecules that can be absorbed and assimilated.
The digestive system
The gross structure of the human digestive system limited to oesophagus, stomach, small and large
intestines, and rectum. The glands associated with this system limited to the salivary glands and the
pancreas.
Digestion is the process in which large molecules are hydrolysed by enzymes to produce smaller
molecules that can be absorbed and assimilated.
Proteins
Proteins have a variety of functions within all living organisms. The general structure of an amino
acid as:

Condensation and the formation of peptide bonds Slicing together amino adds to form
potypeptides. The relationship between primary, secondary, tertiary and quaternary structure, and
protein function.
The biuret test for proteins.
Enzyme action
Enzymes as catalysts lowering activation energy through the formation of enzyme-substrate
complexes.
The lock and key and induced fit models of enzyme action.
Enzyme properties
The properties of enzymes relating to their tertiary structure. Description and explanation of the
effects of temperature, competitive and non-competitive inhibitors, pH and substrate concentration.
Candidates should be able to:
use the look and key model to explain the properties of enzymes. They should also recognise
its limitations and be able to explain why the induced fit model provides a better
explanation of specific enzyme properties.
Carbohydrate digestion
Within this unit, carbohydrates should be studied in the context of the following:
starch, the role of salivary and pancreatic amylases and of maltase located in the intestinal
epithelium
disaccharides, sucrase and lactase.
Biological molecules such as carbohydrates and proteins are often polymers and are based on a
small number of chemical elements.
Monosaccharides are the basic molecular units (monomers) of which carbohydrates are composed.
The structure of a-glucose as:

And the linking of a-glucose by glycoside; bonds formed by condensation to form maltose and
stanch.
Sucrose is a disaccharide formed by condensation of glucose and fructose.
Lactose is a disaccharide formed by condensation of glucose and galactose.
Lactose intolerance.
Biochemical tests using Benedicts reagent for reducing sugars and non-reducing sugars.
lodine/potassium iodide solution for starch.
3.1.3 Substances are exchanged between organisms and their environment by passive or active
transport across exchange surfaces. The structure of plasma membranes enables control of the
passage of substances across exchange surfaces.
Cells
The structure of an epithelial cell from the small intestine as seen with an optical microscope.
The appearance, ultrastructure and function of:
plasma membrane, including cell-surface membrane
microvili
nucleus
mitochondria
lysosomes
ribosomes
endoplasmic retioulum
Goigi apparatus.
Candidates should be able to:
apply their knowledge of these features in explaining adaptations of other eukaryotic cells.
The principles and limitations of transmission and scanning electron microscopes.
The difference between magnification and resolution.
Principles of cell fractionation and ultracentrifugation as used to separate cell components.
Plasma membranes
Glycerol and fatty acids combine by condensation to produce triglycerides.
The R-group of a fatty acid may be saturated or unsaturated. In phospholipids, one of the fatty acids
of a triglyceride is substituted by a phosphate group.
The emulsion test for lipids.
The arrangement of phospholipids, proteins and carbohydrates in the fluid-mosaic model of
membrane structure.
The role of the microvilli in increasing the surface area of cell-surface membranes.
Diffusion
Diffusion is the passive movement of substances down a concentration gradient. Surface area,
difference in concentration and the thickness of the exchange surface affect the rate of diffusion.
The role of carrier proteins and protein channels in facilitated diffusion.
Candidates should be able to:
use the fluid-mosaic model to explain appropriate properties of plasma membranes.
Osmosis
Osmosis is a special case of diffusion in which water moves from a solution of higher water potential
to a solution of lower water potential through a partially permeable membrane. Candidates will not
be expected to recall the terms hypotonic and hypertonic. Recall of isotonic will be expected.
Active transport
The role of carder proteins and the transfer of energy in the transport of substances against a
concentration gradient.
Absorption
Absorption of the products of carbohydrate digestion. The roles of diffusion, active transport and co-
transport involving sodium ions.
Cholera
The cholera bacterium as an example of a prokaryotic organism.
The structure of prokaryotic cells to include cell wall, cell-surface membrane, capsule, circular DNA,
flagella and plasmid.
Cholera bacteria produce toxins which increase secretion of chloride ions into the lumen of the
intestine. This results in severe diarrhoea.
The use of oral rehydration solutions (ORS) in the treatment of diarrhoeal diseases.
Candidates should be able to discuss:
the applications and implications of science in developing improved oral rehydration
solutions
ethical issues associated with trialling improved oral rehydration solutions on humans.

3.1.4 The lungs of a mammal act as an interface with the environment. Lung function may be
affected by pathogens and by factors relating to lifestyle.
Lung function
The gross structure of the human gas exchange system limited to the alveoli, bronchioles, bronchi,
trachea and lungs.
The essential features of the alveolar epithelium as a surface over which gas exchange takes place.
The exchange of gases in the lungs.
Pulmonary ventilation as the product of tidal volume and ventilation rate. The mechanism of
breathing.
The biological basis of lung disease
The course of infection, symptoms and transmission of pulmonary tuberculosis.
The effects of fibrosis, asthma and emphysema on lung function.
Candidates should be able to:
explain the symptoms of diseases and conditions affecting the lungs in terms of gas
exchange and respiration
interpret data relating to the effects of pollution and smoking on the incidence of lung
disease
analyse and interpret data associated with specific risk factors and the incidence of lung
disease
recognise correlations and causal relationships.

3.1.5 The functioning of the heart plays a central role in the circulation of blood and relates to the
level of activity of an individual. Heart disease may be linked to factors affecting lifestyle.
Heart structure and function
The gross structure of the human heart and its associated blood vessels in relation to function.
Pressure and volume changes and associated valve movements during the cardiac,
Myogenic stimulation of the heart and transmission of a subsequent wave of electrical activity
Roles of the sinoatrial node (SAN), atrioventrioular node (AV N) and bundle of His.
Cardiac output as the product of heart rate and stroke volume.
Candidates should be able to:
analyse and interpret data relating to pressure and volume 'changes during the cardiac cycle.
The biological basis of heart disease
Atheroma as the presence of fatty material within the walls Of arteries.
The link between atheroma and the increased risk of aneurysm and thrombosis. Myocardial
infarction and its cause in terms of an interruption to the blood flow to heed muscle.
Risk factors associated with coronary heart disease: diet, blood cholesterol, cigarette smoking and
high blood pressure.
Candidates should be able to:
describe and explain data relating to the relationship between specific risk factors and the
incidence of coronary heart disease.
3.1.6 Mammalian blood possesses a number of defensive functions.
Principles of immunology
Phagocytosis and the role of lysosomes and lysosomal enzymes in the subsequent destruction of
ingested pathogens.
Definition of antigen and antibody.
Antibody structure and the formation of an antigen-antibody complex.
The essential difference between humoral and cellular responses as shown by B cells and T cells.
The role of plasma cells and memory cells in producing a secondary response.
The effects of antigenic variabity in the influenza virus and other pathogens on immunity.
The use of vaccines to provide protection for individuals and populations against disease.
The use of monoclonal antibodies in enabling the targeting of specific substances and cells.
Candidates should be able to:
evaluate methodology, evidence and data relating to the use of vaccines and monoclonal
antibodies
discuss ethical issues associated with the use of vaccines and monoclonal antibodies
explain the role of the scientific community in validating new knowledge about vaccines and
monoclonal antibodies, thus ensuring integrity
discuss the ways in which society uses scientific knowledge retailing to vaccines and
monoclonal antibodies to inform decision-making.






Pathogens and Disease
A disease is a physiological/neurophysiological malfunction which has an adverse effect on health.
A disease can either be genetic or pathogenic.
Infectious diseases are caused by pathogens. Pathogens are micro-organisms which can cause
disease. Pathogens include bacteria, viruses, and fungi.
If a pathogen enters a host and colonises its tissues an infection occurs. When this leads to
symptoms we can say that the host has a disease.
Pathogens often have antigens which can stimulate an immune response in the human body.

Pathogens and the human body
Possible point of entry Bodily defence
Eyes
Tears wash out pathogens and contain enzyme lysozyme
which kills bacteria.
Ears
Earwax acts similarly to mucus, preventing dust and
larger microorganisms from entering body.
Mouth/nose respiratory system
Mucus in respiratory passage traps dust and
microorganisms.
Cilia brushes mucus containing trapped pathogens up
trachea and into digestive system.
Mouth digestive system
Digestive enzymes found throughout digestive system,
can kill bacteria.
Stomach acid kills the majority of pathogens entering the
digestive system by denaturing them due to very acidic
conditions.
Open wounds bloodstream
Platelets, fibrin used to form scabs over wounds,
preventing pathogen entry.
Phagocytes engulf and digest any pathogens in
bloodstream.
T & B cells produce antibodies and activate other white
blood cells to destroy pathogens.

How pathogens cause disease
Damaging host cells.
Could break down cell membrane.
Prevent synthesis of RNA/DNA/proteins.

Secreting toxins
Bacteria produce toxins (protein poisons).
Have an adverse effect on the body.
e.g. Cholera
Transmission of pathogens
Pathogens can be transferred to a human being in the following ways:
Direct Contact Indirect Contact

Human interaction pathogens can be transferred
when fluids are exchanged in acts such as sexual
intercourse, or sometimes through blood transfusion.
e.g. HIV

Insect bites Insects, especially those which ingest
human blood can cause disease when a person is
bitten, transferring any pathogens from the previous
bite victims into the new host.
e.g. Malaria

Animal-person contact Like insects, bites from
animals can transmit pathogens which cause disease.
Similarly being scratched or handling animal waste
dense with parasites could cause disease transmission.
e.g. Rabies


Airborne transmission Some pathogens can stay
suspended in the air, often coughed or sneezed out in the
form of droplets. When a person breathes them in, they
can colonise in tissues and cause an infection.
e.g. Measles









Contaminated food/water supplies Infectious diseases
can be spread in water, such as cholera, and cause
problems in the digestive system. Also improperly handled
food produce can contain bacteria which may cause an
infection in the body if not properly prepared before eating.
e.g. Cholera in water, Salmonella in food.











Contaminated objects Objects touched by a lot of people,
such as a doorknob, could have many pathogens on its
surface as the organisms can survive on the surface for
short periods of time. This could cause an infection if the
mouth or nose is touched before hands have been washed
following exposure.




The Digestive System

In digestion, large molecules are broken down into smaller ones which can be absorbed and
assimilated by the body.
This takes place by hydrolysis reactions, involving the use of enzymes.
Some enzymes involved in digestion are:
Enzyme Source
Salivary amylase Salivary glands
Pancreatic amylase Pancreas
Maltase Epithelium of small intestine
Protease Stomach/Pancreas
Lipase Pancreas

Proteins
Amino acids

Amino acids are the building blocks of proteins. There are 20 different amino acids, differentiated
by their R-groups.
Polypeptides
A polypeptide is a chain of amino acids joined together by peptide bonds.
Two amino acid monomers can join together to form a dipeptide. The process involves a
condensation reaction whereby a water molecule is removed.
The water is made by combining an OH from the carboxyl group on one amino acid with an
hydrogen from the amino group of another amino acid.
A new, peptide bond is formed which links the two.
This bond can be broken by hydrolysis (addition of a water molecule) to form two amino acids again.
Condensation reactions:







Protein formation

Primary structure
The sequence of the amino acids in the polypeptide chain.
There are 20 amino acids, and lengths of the chains vary, meaning a limitless number of
combinations of primary structures.
Secondary structure
Formed when the long chain polypeptides are twisted into a 3D shape.
Weak hydrogen bonds form between NH and C=O.
Tertiary structure
The -helices are twisted and folded to give complex 3D structures.
Structure maintained by bonds such as strong disulphide bonds, weaker ionic bonds and
many weak hydrogen bonds.
Quaternary structure
When a number of different tertiary polypeptide chains link.
There may also be non-protein groups associated with molecules.
e.g. Iron-containing haem group in haemoglobin.
When the sequence of amino acids changes, this means a different primary structure; this results in:
Different secondary structures as bonds form differently.
The resulting tertiary structure folds differently and forms bonds differently.
This means a different shape of the protein.











Enzyme Action
Enzymes are globular proteins with a specific tertiary structure.
They act as catalysts which speed up chemical reactions by lowering activation energy.
They are not used up or changed at the end of a reaction.
Enzymes are specific they catalyse reactions involving only one type of substrate. This is because
they have a cleft called an active site, which is complementary in shape to the substrate.
The substrate can thus bind to the active site, forming an enzyme-substrate complex.
Activation energy
Activation energy is the energy required for a reaction to start.
Enzymes lower activation energy by altering the shape of the substrate when an enzyme-substrate
complex forms. This provides an alternate reaction pathway, meaning the reaction can begin with
less energy input.
By lowering activation energy, biochemical reactions can happen much faster at lower
temperatures.











Enzyme reactions
There are three ways in which an enzyme alters substrates:
Breaking the substrate molecule into smaller parts, breaking the bonds in the structure as
the active site puts strain on them.
Combining molecules into a larger one by keeping molecules closer together to reduce
repulsion.
The enzyme can alter the shape of the substrate.
Enzyme-substrate complexes
There are two models demonstrating the way in which an enzyme and a substrate can form
complexes.
1) Lock and Key:
According to this model the enzymes active site has a specific complementary shape to a certain
substrate. Also the sites chemical properties are similar to the substrate.
Enzymes and substrate then collide with sufficient activation energy in order to allow temporary
bonds to form between the two, forming a complex.
The R-group of the enzymes active site then interacts with the substrate in order to change its
structure. Once altered the products are released from the enzyme.
2) Induced fit:
In this model, initially the shape of the active site is not quite complementary to that of the
substrate.
When the enzyme collides with the substrate with sufficient energy, the substrate begins to bind to
the active site, which changes shape and moulds itself around the substrate molecule.
Thus an enzyme-substrate complex form, and the substrate can be altered. The products can then
be released from the enzyme, which returns to its original shape.
Enzyme activity
An enzymes activity can be measured by finding the rate of the enzymes reaction with its
substrate.
A graph is plotted with the progression of the experiment against the product formed/
disappearance of the substrate.
A tangent is drawn to the curve at the initial slope of the graph. A convenient point on this line is
found, and the product formed is divided by the time taken to find the rate of reaction.





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Substrate concentration
Factors affecting enzyme activity
There are four key factors influencing the rate at which enzymes work.
1) Temperature
Molecules move around with more kinetic energy increasing the likelihood of collisions between
enzymes and substrates with energy exceeding activation energy. This means more enzyme-
substrate complexes will form, increasing the rate of reaction.
However particles within the enzyme will also have more kinetic energy and vibrate more. This puts
strain on the weak hydrogen/ionic bonds leading to a change in the tertiary structure and the
shape of the active site.
This means the rate of reaction will start to decrease, as the substrate fits in less easily, and
eventually cannot bind altogether. At this stage the enzyme has been denatured and no longer
functions.
2) pH
Each enzyme has an optimum pH at which its activity is at its maximum. Any change in pH can
reduce its effectiveness.
This is because it alters the sequence of amino acids in the primary structure of the enzyme, leading
to alterations in the ionic bonds holding the tertiary structure together.
This can alter the shape of the active site, meaning enzyme-substrate complexes can no longer form
and the enzyme is denatured.
3) Substrate concentration
As substrate concentration increases, the rate of reaction also increases.
At lower substrate concentration, many active sites are not occupied, and so the reaction rate is
lower.
At higher substrate concentration, almost all
active sites are occupied, and so the reaction
rate is close to its maximum. When all active
sites are occupied, addition of further substrate
molecules has no effect as the reaction is already
at its maximum rate. Substrate concentration is
no longer the limiting factor.



4) Enzyme concentration
As enzyme concentration increases, the rate of reaction also increases.
At lower enzyme concentration, many substrate molecules have not formed complexes, and so the
reaction rate is lower.
At higher enzyme concentration, almost all
substrate molecules have formed complexes, and
so the reaction rate is close to its maximum. When
all substrate molecules have formed complexes,
addition of further substrate molecules has no
effect as the reaction is already at its maximum
rate. Enzyme concentration is no longer the
limiting factor.

Enzyme inhibition
Enzyme inhibitors directly or indirectly interfere
with the functioning of the active site of an
enzyme, and so reduce its activity.

Competitive inhibition:
Competitive inhibitors with a similar shape to a certain substrate occupy the active sites of its
enzyme.
This means they compete with the substrate, which can no longer bind to the now occupied site.
This prevents ES-complexes forming, reducing the rate of reaction.

Non-competitive inhibition:
Non-competitive inhibitors bind to an enzyme at the allosteric site, any site other than the active
site.
It affects the bonding of the tertiary structure of the enzyme. This leads to the shape of the active
site changing. This means that the substrate can no longer bind to the active site.





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Enzyme concentration
Carbohydrates
Carbohydrate monomers are called saccharides.
A single monomer of carbohydrate is called a monosaccharide, a pair is called a disaccharide, and a
long chain carbohydrate is a polysaccharide.
Structure of a-glucose, a monosaccharide:

Disaccharides form when two monosaccharides join. This is called a condensation reaction, forming
a glycosidic bond and releasing a molecule of water.


When the water is added to a disaccharide, however, it will break the glycosidic bond and release
the monosaccharides via a hydrolysis reaction.

Polysaccharides, unlike their smaller counterparts, are insoluble. This makes them suitable for
storage (e.g. in starch) or as support for plants (e.g. in cellulose). Starch is formed by linking between
200-100,000 glucose molecules.

Food tests
Reducing sugars:
Add Benedicts solution to the sample.
Shake and heat the mixture in a water bath for 5 minutes.
If reducing sugars are present the solution should go from blue to forming a brick red precipitate.
Non-reducing sugars:
Add hydrochloric acid to the sample and place in a water bath for 5 minutes.
Neutralise the solution with sodium hydrogencarbonate.
Add Benedicts solution to the sample.
Shake and heat the mixture in a water bath for 5 minutes.
If non-reducing sugars are present the solution should go from blue to orange brown.

Glucose Fructose Sucrose
Starch:
Add a solution of iodine to the sample.
The solution goes blue-black in the presence of iodine.
Lipids:
Add ethanol and shake vigorously. Add an equal amount of cold water.
In the presence of a lipid a cloudy white emulsion should form.
Proteins:
Add Biuret solution and mix.
In the presence of protein a mauve or purple colour should develop.
Carbohydrate digestion
Products of enzyme digestion:
Starch Maltose

Maltose Glucose

Lactose Galactose + Glucose

Sucrose Fructose + Glucose

Lactose intolerance:
Gases that build up from bacteria breaking down lactose in gut dissolve in water.
This lowers water potential in the ileums lumen.
Less water is reabsorbed by osmosis, leading to diarrhoea.






Maltase
Amylase
Lactase
Sucrase
Cell Structure
Ultrastructure of animal cells













Ultrastructure of plant cells











Function of Organelles:
Nucleus
Largest organelle 10-20m
Normally spherical shape
Bound by nuclear membrane
Contains nucleoplasm
Contains densely stained region called
nucleolus which is the site of ribosome
synthesis.
The main function is to control all cell activities by regulating the synthesis of enzymes and proteins.
It also contains genetic material, called chromatin.
Chromatin = DNA + Proteins (histones)
Nuclear pores in the nuclear membrane allow materials to pass from nucleus cytoplasm e.g.
mRNA, nucleotides, ribosomal subunits.
Ribosomes
Ribosomes are the site of protein synthesis.
Smallest organelle 20nm in diameter
Present in both eukaryotic and prokaryotic cells
Two types:
70s smaller, found in prokaryotic cells
80s larger, found in eukaryotic cells
Ribosomes are composed of small and large subunits.
Ribosomes are often attached to endoplasmic reticulum to form rough endoplasmic reticulum.
These ribosomes make proteins which the cell exports by exocytosis.
Ribosomes that are found free in cytoplasm make proteins for use within the cell such as enzymes
for respiration.
Groups of ribosomes are polyribosomes.
Mitochondria
Mitochondria are found in all eukaryotic cells.
They are the site of aerobic respiration, where ATP is
produced.
Cells requiring large amounts of energy will be densely packed with mitochondria, such as muscle
cells, nerve cells, sperm cells, and liver cells.
Endoplasmic reticulum
Endoplasmic reticulum (ER) are an elaborate system of membranes which transverse cytoplasm.
The membranes are flattened sacs called cisternae and filled with a fluid. ER acts as a transport
system between nucleus and the cell surface membrane.
Endoplasmic reticulum:
Provides a pathway across cell for transport of
materials.
Has a large surface area for chemical reactions
e.g. protein synthesis.
Collects and stores materials made by cells.
Muscle cells have specialised ER called sarcoplasmic
reticulum.
Rough ER
These membranes have 80s ribosomes attached ribosomes are the site of protein synthesis.
Cells producing lots of proteins are rich in RER, for example secretory cells producing enzymes
e.g. pepsinogen or hormones e.g. insulin.
Smooth ER
Lacks ribosomes, and is involved in lipid synthesis and transport, and involved in steroid production.
e.g. Testosterone produced by cells in testes.
Golgi apparatus
A series of flattened sacs stacked together and full of fluid.
Their function is to package and modify proteins made on RER as they pass through the GA.







Lysosomes
Lysosomes are membrane-bound, small organelles containing hydrolytic enzymes, which breaks
down larger molecules, e.g. carbohydrase.
Lysosomes are formed by the Golgi apparatus.
Their function is to:
Fuse with white blood cells in phagocytosis to break down the bacteria into chemicals.
Products of digestion are absorbed into cytoplasm.
Lysosomes can fuse with old organelles and destroy them using enzymes. This is autophagy.
Lysosomes can burst, releasing their enzymes which digest and kill a cell. This is autolysis.
Microvilli
Microvilli are found on specialised animal cells, e.g. columnar epithelial cells. They are finger-like
projections of cell surface membranes.
They increase surface area for absorption or the presence of enzymes/receptors on the surface
membrane.
















Plasma Membranes
The structure of the cell surface membrane can be shown using the fluid mosaic model.
It is composed of a phospholipid bilayer which has proteins embedded in it.
The phospholipid bilayer acts as a barrier to water soluble/polar molecules and ions.
Lipid soluble (non-polar) molecules, e.g. esters, alcohols, and steroids can easily pass
through the phospholipid bilayer.
Also very small and uncharged molecules e.g. O
2
, steroid hormones, can pass through.
The glycerol heads are hydrophilic and point outwards.
The fatty acids are hydrophobic and face inwards towards the interior of the membrane.
The phospholipids provide fluidity/flexibility to the membrane and allow it to break/stretch and
reform e.g. during phagocytosis/exocytosis.








The proteins present serve a number of functions:
Extrinsic proteins are located on ones side of membrane only. Examples include:
Hormone recognition sites, e.g. glycoproteins, which are highly specific in shape, to which a
complementary hormone can fit.
Intrinsic proteins span across entire membrane. Examples include:
Channel proteins, enabling facilitated diffusion (passive transport).
Carrier proteins (pumps), enabling facilitated diffusion and active transport.




Lipids
Triglycerides are an example of a lipid, which have one molecule of glycerol with three fatty acids
attached to it.
Fatty acids have the same general structure COOH-R, but the R-group hydrocarbon tail varies. They
can be saturated or unsaturated, where unsaturated fatty acid have C=C double bonds.
They are formed by condensation reactions in which an ester bond is formed and a molecule of
water is released when the two OH groups meet.

Phospholipids are similar to triglycerides, except instead they have two fatty acids and a phosphate
group. The phosphate group is hydrophilic and the tails are hydrophobic.

Emulsion test for lipids
This is the test for lipids in a particular food:
Shake the substance with ethanol for a
minute.
Pour the solution into water.
Any lipid will show up as a milky emulsion.







ESTER BOND
Magnification
Magnification is the enlargement of an image of a specimen.
Magnification is often used in biological illustrations, and it can be represented in the following
formula:
Image size
Actual size
Magnification differs from resolution, which is the detail on an image, or, more specifically, how
well a microscope distinguishes between two points which are close together.
Units
Units are relevant in magnification.
1mm = 10
-3
m
1m = 10
-6
m
1nm = 10
-9
m
1pm = 10
-12
m

Light microscopes
Advantages over electron microscopes:
Live specimens can be seen movement of organisms
Less training needed to use
Natural colours can be seen
Cheaper, more portable
Disadvantages compared to electron microscopes:
Lower resolution
Less magnification possible
Electron microscopes
Advantages over light microscopes:
Greater magnification possible
Greater resolution images as the wavelength of the beam of electrons is much shorter than
visible light.

Larger




Smaller
Magnification =
Disadvantages compared to light microscopes:
Only dead specimens can be used
Natural colours cannot be seen
More expensive and more training required
Electron microscopes can be transmission electron microscopes (TEM) or scanning electron
microscopes (SEM).
SEMs are advantageous as they can reveal 3D images.
TEMs are advantageous over SEMs as they produce greater resolution images.
Cell Fractionation
To investigate the function of different organelles, they must be isolated using a technique called
differential centrifugation.
First step:
The tissue is suspended in a liquid medium with a buffer to maintain pH for enzyme function
and it is isotonic to prevent osmotic damage to cells/organelles. This medium is cold to
reduce enzyme activity
The cells are broken open using a homogeniser
The solution is filtered to remove debris and unopened cells
Separation of organelles by differential centrifugation:
Homogenate is centrifuged, i.e. spun at high speeds
A solid pellet is formed, along with a liquid supernatant
This supernatant is centrifuged again, and this process continues
Organelles are isolated in order of size; e.g. the order of pellet formation for plant cells after each
successive centrifugation would be:
Nuclei
Chloroplasts
Mitochondria
Ribosomes
The last pellet, or the microsomal fraction, contains ribosomes.





Diffusion
Diffusion is the net movement of molecules from a region of high concentration to low
concentration down a concentration gradient.
Particles move randomly due to their kinetic energy and are constantly colliding.
Diffusion takes place across partially permeable membranes, such as those found in the
alveolar/epithelial wall.
Factors affecting rate of diffusion
Concentration gradient the greater the gradient, the faster the diffusion
Length of diffusion pathway the thicker the exchange surface, the faster the diffusion
Temperature as temperature increases, the faster the diffusion as particles gain KE
Size of molecule smaller molecules diffuse faster
Ficks Law uses these factors to calculate the rate of diffusion:
Surface area x Concentration gradient
Thickness of exchange surface

Facilitated diffusion
This is a form of diffusion which is specific to certain molecules. It involves the use of channel
proteins or carrier proteins found in cell membranes.

Like diffusion, it is a passive process so requires no energy from respiration.

Key points:

Channels are selective only open for one particular molecule.
Water filled channels so only transport things that are water-soluble. This enables water
molecules to bypass cell membranes they cannot simply diffuse due to the hydrophobic
nature of the fatty acid tails.
The rate of this is affected by the same factors as diffusion but also affected by the number
of channels available to a particular substance.






Rate of diffusion =
Osmosis
Osmosis is the net movement of water molecules from a region of high water potential to a region
of lower water potential, across a partially permeable membrane as a result of random movement.
Water potential
Water potential is the tendency for water molecules to move out of a solution. The unit is kPa.
= Water potential symbol
Pure water has the highest water potential, 0.
As water potential decreases, its value becomes more negative in value. Water potential decreases
as more solute is added as water molecules surround them leaving fewer molecules free to move.
When two solutions have the same water
potential they are called isotonic.
Hypotonic solution - The total concentration
of dissolved solutions is less outside the cell
than inside the cell.
The water potential is therefore lower
in the cell than outside the cell.
There will be net movement of water
into the cell.
Hypertonic solution - The total concentration
of dissolved solutions are greater outside the cell than inside the cell.
The water potential is therefore higher in the cell than outside the cell.
There will be net movement of water out of the cell.

Osmosis can be shown in an experiment with potato chips:

Five potato chips are measured and put into test tubes of water and sucrose. Each test tube
has a different amount of sucrose in it.
The potato chips are weighed before and after the experiment. This shows how much water
has entered or left the chip. A graph is then drawn to show where the isotonic point is.










Osmosis in plant and animal cells


Animal cells Plant cells
Hypotonic
solution
Water enters the cells via osmosis

The cell becomes swollen and can
eventually burst (lysis). They burst
because unlike a plant cell they dont
have a cell wall.

Water enters the cells via osmosis

The vacuole and cytoplasm increase in
volume.

The cell membrane is pushed harder
against the cell wall causing it to stretch
a little.

The plant cell becomes stiffer (turgid) - it
doesnt burst because it has a cell wall.

Hypertonic
solution
Water leaves the cells via osmosis.

The cell becomes shrunken or crenate.

Water leaves the cells via osmosis.

The vacuole and cytoplasm decrease in
volume.

The stoma closes so not to let out any
water.

The plant tissues become flaccid, it has
shrunk slightly.

May go on to become plasmolysed if
there is a large difference in water
potential. In plasmolysis the cell
membrane pulls away from the cell wall.


Turgor is the pressure of the swollen cell contents against the cell wall. Turgor is important in it
supports the non-woody parts of the plant. Without turgor the plant will wilt. The stoma in the plant
opens when the plant is turgid so to let out excess water.







Active Transport
Active transport is the movement of molecules or ions against a concentration gradient using ATP
and through carrier proteins.
Uniport
This is when single molecules are directly transported across a membrane.
The molecule will bind to the receptors on a carrier protein in the cell membrane.
An ATP molecule inside the cell will bind to the protein. This causes it to split into ADP
and a phosphate molecule.
As a result the carrier protein changes shape and releases the molecule on the other
side of the membrane.
The phosphate molecule is also released from the protein and recombines with the ADP
to form ATP.
The carrier protein returns to its original shape.


















1 2
3 4
Co-transport:
Sometimes more than one molecule or ion can be moved in the same direction; this is symport.
Also one molecule can be made to move into a cell as another is being moved out; this is antiport.













Absorption in the Small Intestine
Once carbohydrates have been digested into soluble products, e.g. glucose, they must be absorbed.
This absorption takes place through the walls of the small intestine.
Initially glucose can pass into the epithelial cells lining the small intestine by diffusion, passing down
a concentration gradient until dynamic equilibrium is reached.
After this, all of the remaining glucose is reabsorbed by active transport.

Mechanism of glucose absorption
Carrier protein enabling the antiport of potassium ions and sodium ions causes sodium ions
to be actively transported from the intestinal epithelial cells into the bloodstream.
This means a lower concentration of sodium ions in the epithelial cells than in the lumen.
Sodium ions can now passively transport into the epithelial cells by facilitated diffusion
down a concentration gradient. This transport occurs through a glucose-sodium ion
co-transporting carrier protein, and so glucose enters the epithelial cells alongside the
sodium ions in symport.
Glucose can then enter the bloodstream by facilitated diffusion.












The transport of glucose of glucose is known as indirect active transport as it uses the diffusion of
sodium ions to power its movement, and does not require ATP, however the diffusion is due to a
concentration gradient established by the active transport of Na
+
and K
+

originally which required
ATP, hence active transport.
Adaptations of the small intestine
The wall of the small intestine has the following adaptations:
1) Many villi, which in turn have many microvilli.
This gives cells a greater surface area to volume ratio for faster absorption.

2) Many mitochondria.
These produce a lot of ATP by respiration which enables the active transport of glucose.

3) Carrier proteins and channel proteins
Carrier proteins enable active transport, enabling the co-transport of Na
+
and glucose.
Channel proteins and carrier proteins enable facilitated diffusion of glucose.

4) A rich blood supply from the network of capillaries.
This maintains a steep concentration gradient for diffusion by bringing molecules to
cells quickly.

5) Lining of the walls of the intestine are one cell thick.
This creates a shorter diffusion pathway enabling faster transport of molecules.

6) Walls are muscular.
This enables the easy movement of food through the gut by peristalsis.












Cholera
Cholera is a water-borne disease which kills hundreds of thousands of people every year.
It is caused by the bacterium Vibrio Cholerae, and the most common symptoms are diarrhoea and
dehydration.
As a bacterium, it is an example of a prokaryotic organism.
Differences between eukaryotic and prokaryotic organisms

Cholera is transmitted by faeces found in:
Drinking water
Contaminated food, e.g. fish which have fed on sewage
How Vibrio Cholerae causes disease
Bacteria are ingested; some survive the stomach acids and reach the intestine.
They move with their flagella towards the intestinal wall.
They secrete an exotoxin which:
Binds to the receptors on intestinal epithelial cells due to its specific,
complementary shape.
The toxic part of the toxin enters the cell and binds to chloride ion channels.
This forces these channels to open, causing a flood of Cl
-
ions into the lumen of the
small intestine.
How this causes diarrhoea
Flood of Cl
-
ions entering the lumen from the intestinal epithelial cells causes a low ion
concentration in the intestinal cells.
Other ions enter the intestinal cells by diffusion down a concentration gradient from the
blood.
Feature
Prokaryotic cells
(bacteria)
Eukaryotic Cells
(animals and plants)
Nucleus No Yes
Nucleolus No Yes
Membrane bound organelles No Yes
Ribosomes Yes 70S Yes 80S
Flagella Yes No
Peptidoglycan cell wall Yes No (cellulose cell wall in plants)
Capsule Yes No
Cell membrane Yes Yes
This reduces the water potential of the intestinal cells, causing water enter them from the
blood by osmosis down a water potential gradient.
This establishes a water potential gradient between the intestinal cells and the lumen, with
a higher water potential being in the intestinal cells.
Water enters the lumen by osmosis from the intestinal cells, leading to diarrhoea and also
dehydration of intestinal cells.







Oral rehydration therapy
Oral rehydration solution contains glucose, sodium, and water, and it is used to treat cholera.
The sodium and glucose in the solution are absorbed from the lumen into the intestinal
cells.
This lowers the water potential in the intestinal cells.
Water enters the intestinal cells from the lumen by osmosis, down a water potential
gradient.
Epithelial cells are rehydrated, and less water remains in stools.
The sodium and glucose stimulate the co-transporter proteins and enhance their activity.
They also replace any lost sodium ions and the glucose helps produce more ATP via respiration for
active transport.
The water helps replace lost water and rehydrates cells.
Management of a cholera outbreak
Effective sewage treatment
Prevention of water contamination
Improvement of hygiene
Quarantining affected areas
Oral rehydration therapy
Vaccinations

Intestinal
Cells
Lumen
Blood
Intestinal
Cells
Lumen
Blood
Other ions
Chloride ions
Water molecules
KEY
Lung Structure and Function
The lungs are specialised organs found in land animals for gaseous exchange.
They are located in the chest, and are
surrounded by a ribcage. They are
separated from the abdomen by a large
muscular diaphragm.
Lungs are needed in order to get oxygen
into the bloodstream so that cells can
respire, and also to exhale carbon dioxide,
which is toxic when built-up in the body.
Humans require high volumes of oxygen to
maintain the high metabolic rate due to
the large volume of living cells.
Respiratory system
Trachea: A tube held open by C shaped rings of cartilage. The tube is lined with cilia to trap and
remove the phlegm back to the throat for swallowing (pharynx).
These C shaped hoops of cartilage in the trachea are open facing the oesophagus so to
allow it to bulge slightly during swallowing.
This cartilage makes the wall of the trachea rigid and so it remains open and does not
collapse as air pressure drops during inhalation.
Bronchi and bronchioles: The trachea branches to form many smaller and smaller tubes, allowing air
to enter the lungs.
Ciliated epithelium: The trachea, bronchi and larger bronchioles are lined with ciliated epithelium.
Cilia move mucus from the lungs and trachea to the pharynx (behind the mouth and nasal
cavity) where it is swallowed.
Mucus is produced by goblet cells this is sticky to help trap dirt and pathogens.
Alveoli: Millions of tiny air sacs which have a large surface area to volume ratio. They maintain this
concentration gradient by:
- Having a moist lining to dissolve gases.
- One cell thick walls to increase the rate of diffusion by reducing diffusion pathway.
(In alveolar wall and capillary wall).
- Rich blood supply.
- Inhaling and exhaling.


Ventilation
Breathing is the process that moves air in and out of the lungs; it is also known as ventilation.
During inhalation:
Diaphragm contracts and flattens in shape.
External intercostal muscles contract and the ribs move upwards and outwards.
Volume of the thorax increases causing air pressure inside the thorax to decrease.
Causing air to enter the lungs.
During exhalation:
Diagram relaxes and returns to domed shape.
External intercostal muscles relax allowing ribs back down and if breathing hard internal
intercostal muscles contract helping the ribs move down.
Volume of the thorax decreases causing air pressure inside the thorax to increase.
Causing air to leave the lungs.
Therefore exhalation is a largely passive process, except during exercise when more oxygen (and
more expiration of carbon dioxide) is needed, making contraction of muscles necessary.
Pulmonary ventilation
This is a measure of how much air is taken in and out of the lungs in a given time period.
Pulmonary ventilation = Tidal volume x Breathing rate
(dm
3
min
-1
) (dm
3
) (min
-1
)
Note: Tidal volume is the volume of air taken in one breath when resting.
A spirometer can be used to measure pulmonary ventilation:










Finding pulmonary ventilation from a graph













The tidal volume is the average change in the height of each peak. In this example it is 0.45dm
3
.
The ventilation rate is the number of breaths in a minute. In this example there are 7 breaths in 20
seconds, therefore the rate is 21min
-1
.
Thus pulmonary ventilation is 0.45x21 = 9.45dm
3
min
-1
.
Ficks Law:
Surface area x Difference in concentration
Length of diffusion pathway
Gaseous exchange occurs by diffusion in the alveoli, moving from a region of higher to lower
concentration.
In human gaseous exchange, oxygen diffuses into the blood from the alveoli, and binds to
haemoglobin in the blood = oxyhaemoglobin. It is then transported to respiring tissue. Carbon
dioxide is a toxic waste product of respiration, and diffuses into the alveoli from where it is exhaled.
Gas Atmospheric air (%) Exhaled air (%)
Nitrogen 78 79
Oxygen 21 16
Carbon Dioxide 0.04 4
Water vapour Little Increased

V
o
l
u
m
e

o
f

t
h
e

l
u
n
g
s

(
m
l
)

Diffusion =
These differences in inhaled and exhaled air can be described and explained:
There is more oxygen in inhaled air.
This is because oxygen has entered the blood from the alveoli by diffusion for respiration.
There is more carbon dioxide in exhaled air.
This is because the carbon dioxide (produced in respiration) enters the alveoli from the
bloodstream by diffusion.
More water vapour in exhaled air.
Water diffuses from the moist surface of the alveoli.
Volume of nitrogen unchanged, although proportion % may have altered.
How alveoli assist in gaseous exchange
Many alveoli to increase the surface area to volume ratio.
According to Ficks law, surface area is proportional to rate of diffusion.
Therefore increased surface area = increased rate of diffusion.
Alveolar walls are made up flattened epithelial cells and layer is one cell thick.
Diffusion pathway is inversely proportional to rate of diffusion.
Therefore shorter diffusion pathway = increased rate of diffusion
Good blood supply from capillaries, bringing oxygen and carrying away CO
2
.
Concentration gradient proportional to rate of diffusion.
Therefore, as this maintains a concentration gradient = increased rate of diffusion.
Moist lining on alveoli.
Makes it easier for dissolved gases to diffuse, increasing the rate of diffusion.
Ventilation (breathing).
Concentration gradient proportional to rate of diffusion.
Therefore, as this maintains a concentration gradient = increased rate of diffusion.











Lung Diseases
Tuberculosis
Tuberculosis (TB) is an infectious disease, usually affecting the lungs. It is caused by mycobacterium
tuberculosis.
These bacteria are breathed into the lungs in droplets
of moisture.
They are engulfed by phagocytes and are encased in
nodules called tubercles.
They are dormant here until the immune system is
weakened or suppressed.
They then replicate.
They destroy alveoli and other tissues in the lung.
This leads to fibrosis/scarring.

Asthma
Asthma is an allergic reaction triggered by certain allergens, e.g. pollen.
These trigger white blood cells to release histamine, which causes:
Inflammation of the lining of the lungs.
More secretion of mucus.
Entry of fluid into the airways from the epithelial cells.
Contraction of the muscles around bronchioles, causing them to constrict.
A common symptom is coughing, which is caused by the reflex action of the body to try and clear
the constricted bronchioles. It also leads to difficulty when breathing.
Pulmonary Fibrosis
This is the thickening of the epithelium in the lungs due to scar tissue, which also causes a reduction
in elasticity.
This causes difficulty breathing and shortness of breath as:
Large volume of lungs taken up by fibrous tissue.
Less air/oxygen can enter lungs with each breath due to the reduced elasticity of the
alveolar epithelium, and less carbon dioxide can be expelled.
This means that there is a less steep concentration gradient, reducing the rate of diffusion.
There is a thicker alveolar epithelium = larger diffusion pathway.
This reduces the rate of diffusion.
The fibrous tissue also blocks airways, leading to chronic coughing.
The reduced intake of oxygen into the bloodstream means that less respiration can occur, so less
energy is released, causing weakness and fatigue.
Emphysema
This is the damage to the elastic tissue of the alveolar epithelium, so that the alveoli are
permanently stretched and can no longer force out air. They sometimes also burst or fuse together,
reducing the surface area to volume ratio. The walls of the alveoli are also thickened.
This disease is commonly caused by smoking.
This causes shortness of breath as:
Reduced elasticity means that alveoli will not deflate fully.
Breathing out is more difficult it is no longer passive.
Concentration gradient of oxygen and carbon dioxide is reduced.
Surface area to volume ratio reduced from fused alveoli.
Thicker walls mean an increased diffusion pathway.
All this means that more rapid breathing is necessary to make up for the reduced oxygen
reaching the blood.
This leads to symptoms such as bluish skin discolouration, caused by oxygen deprivation.
Also this leads to weakness and fatigue as less oxygen intake into the blood means less respiration
and release of energy can occur.
Lung diseases to do with smoking:
Lung cancer:
Tar in cigarette smoke contains carcinogens. This causes the DNA in cells to mutate. This leads to
uncontrolled cell mitosis and the formation of tumours.
Carbon monoxide poisoning:
Carbon monoxide from cigarette smoke bind more strongly to haemoglobin in red blood cells than
oxygen. This means less oxygen is taken round the body and more carbon monoxide is taken round
the body which can be dangerous to unborn babies as lack of oxygen can lead to effects on growth
and development.
Note: If given data concerning a risk factor, bear in mind correlation does not mean causation.
Proving casual relationships
Establish a hypothesis to explain the correlation.
Design and perform experiments to give evidence of causation.
Use a control group (to allow comparison).






















Heart Structure and Function
The human heart is part of a double circulatory system. One half transports blood to the lungs to be
oxygenated, and the other pumps blood to the rest of the body tissues.
Two pumps are needed as the pressure is too low after having passed through the lungs to travel to
the rest of the body. Therefore it needs to return to the heart to have its pressure increased again.












Blood on the right side of the heart is deoxygenated.
Blood on the left side of the heart is oxygenated.
There are two main types of valves:
Atrioventricular valves between the atria and ventricles prevent the backflow of blood into
atria.
Semi-lunar valves prevent the backflow of blood from arteries to the ventricles when the
elastic walls of the arteries create a large pressure.
Valves have tendons attached to them which stop them inverting due to the pressure.
Arteries carry blood away from the heart.
Veins carry blood back to the heart.
The coronary artery supplies oxygenated blood to the heart.
Why is the left ventricle wall thicker than the right ventricle wall?
This is because the left ventricle has to pump blood to the whole body as opposed to just the lungs;
therefore it needs to exert a greater pressure when contracting.
The pressure in the lungs has to be lower due to the extensive capillary network which would be
damaged by high pressure.
The cardiac cycle
Step 1: Diastole
Blood flows into the atria from veins.
Both muscular walls are relaxed.
Pressure in the atria increases.
Ventricle pressure is low.
Lower pressure in ventricles than arteries forces semi-lunar valves to close.
Step 2: Atrial systole
Atrial walls contract.
Forces atrioventricular valves open.
Blood enters ventricles.
Ventricle walls remain relaxed.
Step 3: Ventricular systole
Short delay to allow ventricles to fill (see AVN).
Ventricular walls contract.
Increased blood pressure in ventricles closes atrioventricular valves.
Pressure forces open semi-lunar valves.
Blood enters the arteries.
Control of cardiac cycle
Cardiac muscle is myogenic the contraction is initiated from within the muscle tissue itself.
The sinoatrial node (SAN) acts as a pacemaker, initiating an electrical impulse across
both atria.
This causes both atria to contract.
The layer of non-conductive tissue between the atria and ventricles
means that the impulse does not reach the ventricles.
Instead it stimulates the atrioventricular node (AVN).
The AVN causes a slight delay to allow the ventricles to fill before
contracting.
The impulse travels down the septum down the Bundle of His fibres.
It reaches the Purkinje fibres at the base of the ventricles.
The impulse is released, and the ventricular wall contracts from the
apex up.
Pressure graphs

Cardiac output
Cardiac output is the volume of blood pumped by one ventricle in one minute.
Cardiac output = Heart rate x Stroke volume
(dm
3
min
-1
) (min
-1
) (dm
3
)
Note: Stroke volume is the volume of blood pumped out at each beat from the ventricle.
Athletes have larger stroke volumes as their hearts pump more strongly.







One cardiac cycle
Heart Disease
Coronary heart disease (CHD) is caused when the heart receives an inadequate amount of blood or
oxygen via the coronary arteries.
This oxygen is needed for the cardiac muscle to respire and generate sufficient energy for its
contractions. A lack of oxygen can lead to myocardial infarction, i.e. a heart attack.
The following problems can lead to CHD:
Atheroma
An atheroma is a fatty deposit in arteries. It forms within the
endothelium of the arteries as streaks.
It is caused by damage to the endothelial lining of an artery.
An inflammatory response causes the aggregation of white
blood cells which take in LDLs/cholesterol and form the
streaks.
An enlarged streak is known as an atheromatous plaque,
which also contains cholesterol, fibres and dead muscle cells.
An atheroma is dangerous as it bulges into the lumen of an
artery, narrowing it and reducing blood-flow.
Someone suffering from these plaques is said to have atherosclerosis.
Thrombosis
If an atheroma breaks through the epithelium of a cell it
is known as a thrombus.
Thrombosis is dangerous as it causes platelets to
aggregate and form a blood clot. This could block the
vessel and increase the likelihood of myocardial
infarction.
Atherosclerosis increases the likelihood of thrombosis
as the plaques stiffen and make the epithelium prone to
damage.
Aneurysm
An atheroma can weaken the artery wall, causing it to swell. It can then burst, leading to
haemorrhage (bleeding).
Aneurysms in the brain cause strokes.

Risk factors for CHD
Inheritance Some people are genetically predisposed to some diseases.
Diet
A diet high in saturated fat, salt and alcohol can increase the risk by
causing hypertension.
Cholesterol levels
LDLs can cause CHD as they can infiltrate the endothelial lining
of the arteries and cause an atheroma.
HDLs remove cholesterol from tissues and organs and transport
it to the liver to be excreted; they thus protect the arteries from
disease.
Age Those most at risk are over the age of 40.
Gender Men are more likely to suffer than women.
High Blood Pressure
Hypertension can be caused by stress, smoking, diet, inactivity.

It causes CHD as heart has to work harder pumping blood into
arteries with high pressure.
High blood pressure in arteries means that aneurysms are more
likely to form, which can burst and cause haemorrhaging.
Artery walls can become thickened and hardened to resist
higher pressure, restricting the flow of blood.
Smoking
Chemicals in tobacco smoke can increase the risk.

Nicotine acts as a stimulant; it causes production of adrenaline,
which increases heart rate and causes hypertension, increasing
the likelihood of stroke. It also makes platelets in the blood
stickier, increasing the likelihood of thrombosis.
Carbon monoxide from cigarette smoke binds more strongly to
haemoglobin in red blood cells than oxygen to form
carboxyhaemoglobin. This means less oxygen is taken around
the body, and the heart has to work harder to supply tissues
with oxygen, increasing blood pressure. It can also cause oxygen
deprivation to cardiac muscle during exercise, causing angina.
Physical Inactivity
Exercise can help decrease the risk, as the stroke volume of the
heart is greater, meaning it does not have to work as hard.







Immunology
White blood cells
There are two main groups of white blood cells, which together form the bodys defence from
infectious diseases.
1) Phagocytes:
Non-specific immune response.
Ingest and destroy pathogens by phagocytosis.

2) Lymphocytes:
Specific immune response.
Produce antibodies.
Involved in immunity.

Phagocytes
The role of phagocytes is to engulf and destroy pathogens in a process called phagocytosis:

After phagocytosis, the pathogens antigens are placed onto the phagocytes cell-membrane, and
are presented in order to stimulate a response from the lymphocytes.

Antigens
Antigens are foreign proteins found on a pathogen, usually on its cell surface membrane.
Each pathogen has a specific shaped antigen, and members of the same virus often do not all always
display the exact same antigen.
The influenza virus is a key example of this; each influenza virus which displays a different antigen is
called a strain.
Antigens stimulate an immune response when inside the human body.
Lymphocytes
There are two key types of lymphocyte: T cells and B cells, which work together to provide an
immune response to prevent infectious disease. T cells are matured in the thyroid gland, whereas B
cells are matured in the bone marrow.
Antibodies
Antibodies are proteins synthesized by B lymphocytes, and are a crucial part of the specific immune
response.
Each antibody has a complementary shape which allows it to bind specifically to one type of
antigen.
They are made up of four polypeptide chains two long chains, called heavy chains, and a pair of
shorter chains called light chains.

The variable region is different on each antibody it has a specific tertiary structure in order to be
complementary in shape to a one type of antigen.
The constant portion is the same in every antibody.
Its binding site fits with an antigen to form an antigen-antibody complex.
The structure of the binding site is determined by:
The sequence of amino acids (primary structure).
This determines the bonding and folding.
This determines the specific tertiary structure, and the specific shape of the binding site.
The hinge allows the antibody to change shape to more easily bind to a complementary antigen.
Cell-mediated response
Helper T cells have specific receptors which are complementary in shape to the antigens presented
on the cell membranes of phagocytes which have ingested a pathogen.
The T cells bind to these antigens, which causes other T cells to divide rapidly and form clones.
These cloned T cells either:
Kill the cells infected by the pathogen by making holes in its cell membrane.
Stimulate B cells to divide.
Stimulate phagocytes to engulf the pathogens.
Develop memory T cells.

Humoral Response

The T cells stimulation of the B cells causes them to produce specific antibodies in response to a
specific antigen with a complementary shape.
When B cells divide, they either form:
1) Plasma cells:
These secrete antibodies directly and destroy the pathogen or its toxins. These cells are involved in
the primary immune response.


2) Memory cells:
These cells live much longer and circulate in the blood. When they come across the same antigen
(often years later) they divide and rapidly produce the antibodies needed to destroy the pathogen.
This is the secondary immune response.








Monoclonal antibodies
Generally polyclonal antibodies are made in the body as a pathogen has hundreds of different
antigens on its surface.
Each antigen causes a different B cell to divide and clone, and each clone produces a different
antibody.
Monoclonal antibodies are formed when a single type of antibody is isolated and cloned.

Lysosome contains digestive
enzymes which hydrolyse the
pathogen in the phagolysosome.
Uses of monoclonal antibodies:

Advantages Disadvantages
Immunoassay
Can be used to test for substances e.g. in
pregnancy tests, testing for AIDs and testing for
banned substances in athletes
Use of mice
Ethical considerations about deliberately
causing mice to have cancer.
Cancer treatment
Can attached to cancer cells or to activate a
cytotoxic drug specific to cancer cells.
Transgenic mice used
Ethics of genetic engineering is it right to
insert a human gene into the genome of a
mouse?
Transplant surgery
Used to eliminate action of T cells that might
cause the organ to be rejected
Safety
They have been some cases where patients
have died as a result of using monoclonal
antibodies
Successful treatments
Monoclonal antibodies have successfully been
used to treat cancer and diabetes
Testing new drugs
Volunteers are in danger when testing new
drugs (e.g. organ failure)

Immunity
Types of immunity:
Passive immunity This is produced when antibodies are introduced to the person by an outside
host.
No memory cells are produced.
It is therefore short-term/not life-long.
An example is the antibodies donated by mother across placenta / in milk.
Active immunity This is when the individuals own immune system produces the antibodies.
Active immunity produces memory cells.
Memory cells remain in the bloodstream long after the primary response.
Allows the body to recognise the pathogen and then produce more of the specific
antibodies to beat these antigens rapidly.
These can be further classified into natural and artificial immunity.
Vaccination
Vaccination is deliberate exposure to antigenic material in order to build passive immunity.
A vaccine is therefore:
A weakened (attenuated) form of the disease.
Or a dead form of the disease.
These both contain the same antigens on the non-virulent form as on the virulent form of the
disease.
How vaccines prevent disease:
A dead or weakened form of the disease is injected into the body.
These contain antigens.
The T lymphocytes recognise the antigen.
They attach to the antigen and destroy them.
B lymphocytes are activated to clone and form and plasma cells.
These produce antibodies (kill microbe).
They also make memory cells.
Upon second exposure the memory cells are activated and rapidly produce more antibodies.
Antibodies destroy pathogens (so no symptoms).
Fewer people pass on the disease (herd effect).
Vaccinations may not be effective for the following reasons:
Mutations antigenic variability means that the memory cells produced by vaccinations
may no longer recognise the antigens on a strain of a pathogen.
Increased number of elderly, or HIV sufferers, who have weaker immune systems and are
more susceptible to disease.
Time infection may occur before the vaccination comes into effect producing memory
cells.
Some people may object to vaccinations for the following reasons:
They may be worried about side-effects.
They might consider natural immunity to be more effective.
They may object on religious/moral grounds, e.g. on the use of foetal tissue.
They might depend upon the herd effect where the majority are immune, and so low risk of
catching the disease.