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Marissa McGrimmon
Sustainability 125a
Professor Perkins
February 18, 2014
Ensuring Biodiversity in Botswanas Okavango Delta
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Botswana, Africa is a beautiful place located in southern Africa. Botswana is home to the
rare Okavango Delta which attracts a large amount of wildlife and tourism. The Okavango Delta
passes through other African territories but fans out into a 20,000 kilometer reservoir in the
northern region of Botswana (Hassler, 2002, p.3). The Delta is home to 1,300 different species of
plants, 33 amphibians, 71 fish, 64 reptiles, 444 birds, and 122 mammals (Ramberg et. al, 2006.
p.1). According to Ramberg (2006), The local occurrence of different species of these
taxonomic groups in the Okavango Delta is
mainly due to a hydrological gradient from
permanent streams and swamps to seasonal
floodplains, riparian woodlands, and dry
woodlands(p.1). Because of the vast
prevalence of wildlife 17 percent of the
countrys surface is either part of a game
reserve or national park (Mbaiwa, 2005, p.
144). In addition, there is another 22 percent
of the land under wildlife restrictions
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(Mbaiwa, 2005, p. 144). Continued
conservation is key in area so prevalent to wildlife, which contributes to Botswanas tourism
industry and economy. Therefore, stronger investment in anti-poaching efforts and continued
community-based programs are needed to ensure wildlife biodiversity near Botswanas
Okavango Delta .
There are many different threats to the vast wildlife in Botswana. One major threat

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(Map of Botswana and South Africa.) Retrieved February 2, 2014.
From:http://geology.com/world/botswana-satellite-image.shtml
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is poaching, for reasons other than just black market trade. In a generality poaching has increased
due to human survival needs and will continue to do so (Emmanuel, 1974, pg. 32). According to
Emmanuel (1974), despite increases in producing livestock, people are still going hungry and
still are in need of more protein. They resort to getting it from anywhere, even endangered
species (p, 32). Emmanuel states (1974),
The exploration of wild animals, coupled with increasing pressure on the habitat of the
animals, is exterminating most of the wild animal species involved (p.32).
This means that species are dying on based on peoples biological need for food, which Africa is
in shortage of.
Also, specific species are declining quickly. The endangered wild african dog, Lycaon
Pictus, for example (Gusset, Swarner, Mponwane, Keletile, McNutt, 2009, p.67). Gusset et. al
(2009), stated that their study showed these dogs were being killed off due to the thought that
they posed a threat to the communities livestock (p. 67). However, this thought is a
misconception because the data shows Lycaon Pictus were at fault for only two percent of
livestock deaths, and survive more by hunting wild prey (Gusset et. al, 2009, p.67). Despite
government efforts to compensate for deaths of livestock, the dogs are still being poached
(Gusset et. al, 2009, p.67).
Another species at risk is the African elephant. Despite the international trade of elephant
products being banned, and that leading to decline of poaching elephants for black market trade,
it also lead decline of the elephants value (Barnes, 1996, p.215). Without any economic value,
many of the elephants are going to be pushed off land or killed to allow more room for livestock
(Barnes, 1996, p.215). The elephants troublesome behavior is causing problems for the human
population, but they are still an important part to their own ecosystem.
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In the case of poaching for trading purposes the BDF (Botswana Defense Force) was
created (Henk, 2005, p. 172). It is a small military force that patrols along the east and southwest
borders, and more specifically focuses on protecting national parks and safari concessions.
Overall, it has been a large success story and widely supported, however other countries in
Africa have not adopted the same approach, of using military force for conservation (Henk,
2005, p.172).
Despite the BDF efforts and success there are still a few flaws. Rhino poaching has
increased immensely in Botswana. According to an NPR news piece, A decade ago, fewer than
100 rhinos were killed in a year. Last year, it was more than 1,000, says Dan Ashe, director of
the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service (Shapiro, 2014). According to Shapiro, (2014) there has been
a huge increase in the value of the rhino horn and the profit made off of the horn, which is
allowing poaching gangs to buy more high tech equipment. Botswana is clearly making good
efforts with their BDF, but patrolling could increase to fight off these new high tech poaching
gangs.
There are also many threats to Botswanas wildlife biodiversity surrounding water.
According to Ramberg et. al,
Upstream of the Okavango Delta, Namibia have fairly large plans to pump water from
the river for irrigation, and in Angola there are a number of (old) plans for the
construction of as many as 16 hydro-electrical power plants. If implemented these
schemes are likely to have severe negative impacts on the biodiversity of the Delta since
they will reduce both the total inflow and peak flows thus the extent of flooded areas
(p.18).
This is expected because the water and flooding is what creates habitats and attraction for the
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majority of species in Botswana. There have been other plans such as, the Southern Okavango
Delta Integrated Water Development Project, already cancelled causing loss million dollars
(Ramberg et. al, 2006 p.18). Pulling out the water needed to flood the reservoir could potentially
ruin Botswana's ecosystem, causing a domino effect by ruining their tourism and economy.

(Map of Okavango Delta) Retrieved February 2, 2017 From:
http://www.rhinoafrica.com/botswana/okavango-delta/map

With the immense need to conserve wildlife Botswana has changed their regulations from
being state regulated to community regulated (CBNRM). Phuthego and Chanda (2004) stated,
The protectionist approach to wildlife conservation, where the state owns and protects
wildlife, has proved inadequate to save from poaching and other threats of rural areas.
This approach tends to marginalise the local communities close to wildlife areas (p.58).
It strategy of providing community based conservation is supposed to help discourage poaching
and other threats often found in the more rural areas of Botswana. According to Phuthego and
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Chanda (2004), the goals of Botswana's CBNRM are to provide a more local approach giving
communities the opportunity to participate in conservation and provide economic and ecological
development in rural areas (p.58).
The CBNRM was also created to cool wildlife conflicts between Khawli residents and
wildlife management by letting them have a way to participate in wildlife conservation (Mbaiwa,
2005, p.144). When the Moremi Game Reserve was created it pushed Khawli citizens off their
land and ruined their hunting practice. When the MGR began to gain revenue from tourism and
the Khawli citizens received nothing, they were more outraged (Mbaiwa, 2005, p.144). The
CBNRM offered the Khawlis income generation and job opportunities and has begun to subside
this conflict.
With all of wildlife located in Botswana it is important to conserve it. The wildlife is
ecologically beneficial and has become a main support to their economy. There are many threats
already. Botswana needs to be mindful and protective with their delta and must continue its
efforts against poaching to sustain itself. Increases in community based programs, and a larger
BDF would only be benifical.






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References

Barnes, J. I. , (1996). Changes in the Economic Value of the Elephant in Botswana : the
Effect of the International Trade Prohibition. Ecological Economics. Volume 18 (issue 3).
215-230.

Chanda, R. , Phuthego, T.C, (2004). Traditional Ecological Knowledge and Community
Based Natural Resource Management. Applied Geography Volume 24 (issue 1)
57-76.

Emmanuel, O.A Aisbey, (1974). Wildlife as a Source Of Protein in Africa South of the
Sahara. Biological Conservation, Volume 6 (issue 1). P. 32-39.


Gusset, M. , Swarner, M. J. , Mponwane, L. , Keletile, K. , McNutt J.W, (2009). Human-Wildlife
Conflict in Northern Botswana: livestock predation by Endangered African Dog Lycaon
Pictus and Other Carnivores. Oryz. Volume 43 (issue 1). 67-72


Hasler, R. (2002). Political ecologies of scale and the Okavango delta: Hydro-politics,
property rights and community based wildlife management. International Association for
the Study of Common Property (IASCP) Meeting, Victoria Falls, Zimbabwe. (p. 1-17)

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Henk, D. , (2005). The Botswana Defence Force and the War Against Poachers in South
Africa. Small Wars and Insurgencies. Volume 16 (issue 2). 170-191.

King, A., Cole, B., (2008). Map of Botswana (photograph) Retrieved February 2, 2014 From:
http://geology.com/world/botswana-satellite-image.shtml

Mbaiwa, J. E., (2005). Wildlife Resource Utilisation at Moremi Game Reserve and Khwai
Community Area in the Okavango Delta in Botswana, Africa. Journal of Environmental
Management. Volume 77 (issue 2). 144-156.

Ramberg, L., Hancock, P. , Lindholm, M. , Meyor, T. , Ringorse, S., Silvia, J., As, J. V. , Post,
C. V. , (2006). Species Diversity of the Okavango Delta. Aquatic Sciences, Volume 68
(issue 3.) p. 1-18

Rhino Africa Safaris (2004). Map of Okavango Delta (photograph) Retrieved February 2, 2014.
From: http://www.rhinoafrica.com/about-us/the-small-print

Shapiro, A. (2014, February 12). For Elephants And Rhinos, Poaching Trends Point In Wrong
Direction. Retrieved from NPR
http://www.npr.org/blogs/parallels/2014/02/11/275373491/for-elephants-and-rhinos-
poaching-trends-point-in-wrong-direction


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