Heavy metal

content of
newspapers
47
Environmental Management
and Health, Vol. 11 No. 1, 2000,
pp. 47-66. # MCB University Press,
0956-6163
Received September
1998
Revised January 1999
Heavy metal content of
newspapers: longitudinal
trends
P. Tucker, P. Douglas, A. Durrant and A.S. Hursthouse
Department of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering,
University of Paisley, Paisley, Scotland, UK
Keywords Newspaper, Heavy metals, Copper, Ink, Colour
Abstract Examines whether there are any environmental or health implications associated with
the increased use of colour in newspapers, if the newspapers are reused or recycled. New heavy
metal analyses of UK daily newspapers from 1992, 1996 and 1998 are reported. Lead, mercury
and cadmium were found to be below their measurement detection limits (4ppm, 5ppm and 1ppm
respectively) in nearly all samples. Barium and total chromium levels were highest in supplements
printed on ``glossy'' paper. Copper was present at levels around 20-30ppm in the standard
newsprint sections and at levels of 80ppm or more in the supplements. Copper concentrations
increased by 33-40 per cent between 1992 and 1998 which correlated well with the increased
colour content. A scientific appraisal and review showed that the heavy metal contents of
newspapers are highly unlikely to pose any environmental risk or to have any health implications.
Introduction
Old newspapers are a major target of strategies for recycling or reusing greater
percentages of the domestic waste stream. Its uses in applications such as
animal bedding and home composting are being explored increasingly, and
increased recovery for recycling into new paper is being advocated. Recycling
printed paper, however, generates a de-inking sludge as a waste or by-product.
One of the options for disposal of the by-product is through land-spreading. In
considering all these applications, it is important to ascertain whether there are
any potential health or environmental implications associated with returning
old newspapers (or their residues) back into the environment. In the past,
concern was expressed about the levels of heavy metals in printers' inks,
though nowadays both industry and environmental organisations agree that
these may no longer be a problem (e.g. Caractere, 1991; Endriss, 1993; Grund,
1994; Friends of the Earth, 1997).
There are, however, relatively few published scientific analyses of the heavy
metal contents of actual newspaper which can be cited to fully substantiate
these claims. Major analyses of the newspaper components of the domestic
waste stream were undertaken in the UK in 1992 and 1993, though as far as the
authors are aware, these have not been repeated in the UK since. The period
The research register for this journal is available at
http://www.mcbup.com/research_registers/emh.asp
The current issue and full text archive of this journal is available at
http://www.emerald-library.com
The research forms part of the Newspaper Industry Environmental Technology Initiative being
undertaken at the University of Paisley. The Newspaper Industry Environmental Technology
Initiative is jointly funded by Bridgewater Paper Co. Ltd., Daishowa Forest Products Ltd.,
Donohue Inc., Enso Publication Papers, Holmen Paper AB., Manders Oil Inks Ltd., Norske Skog,
Stora, Sun Chemical Inks and UPM-Kymmene.
EMH
11,1
48
1992 to 1998, however, has seen significant increases in the amount of coloured
inks used in newspaper publishing. The environmental and health implications
of this change have not yet been addressed in the UKand it is important, if only
for reassurance, to consider any possible issues that may be raised. This paper
reports a recent scientific study of the heavy metal contents of UK newspapers
undertaken from 1992, 1996 and 1998 and examines the longitudinal trends in
these data, and the implications resulting fromthe increasing use of colour.
Heavy metal concentrations and possible sources
Previously published analyses of the heavy metals content of newspapers and
magazines are summarised in Table I. These data were measured variously
between 1977 and 1995 (see Table I footnote for reference list). Because of the
different sample bases, the data are not directly comparable, but nevertheless
provide indications of the most significant metal species present in the printed
papers. Lead and chromium levels above 20ppm have not been detected since
1992. This results from the now almost universal replacement of lead and
chromium pigments from news and magazine inks. Mercury and cadmium
levels have remained very low throughout, rarely exceeding 1ppm. Zinc
concentrations show much wider variations with no obvious trend or degree of
consistency between analyses. Copper concentrations also show significant
concentration ranges amongst the analyses, ranging from around 2ppm (for
black and white sections of newspaper) to over 140ppm (for ``blue'' printed
extracts). Whole newspapers, unsorted by colour, variously returned copper
concentrations between 14 and 50ppm.
New analyses were made by the authors during 1996. The analytical
methodology is detailed in the next section. Results are given in Table II. They
are reported on a dry weight basis. The analyses included two comparative
studies between printed newspapers and magazines and the papers upon
which they were printed, plus three stand-alone investigations for newspapers,
consumer periodicals and junk mail respectively. The results were broadly
consistent with the previously reported studies. Lead, mercury levels and
cadmium levels were below their detection limits (4ppm, 5ppm and 1ppm
respectively). Chromium concentrations were very low (< 3ppm) in both
newspapers and unprinted newsprint, though higher in the magazines and
junk mail (10-16ppm). Concentrations of all detectable metals, and notably
copper and zinc, varied widely amongst individual newspaper titles and even
more so amongst individual magazine titles, possibly because of the
variabilities in ink loadings, fillers and coatings. The comparisons between
printed titles and the unprinted paper showed significantly higher levels of
copper and slightly elevated levels of zinc in the printed material for both
magazines and newspapers. On average, only 9 per cent of the copper and 64
per cent of the zinc in the finished magazines was present in the unprinted
magazine paper, and, on average, only 6 per cent of the copper and 43 per cent
of the zinc in the finished newspapers was present in the unprinted newsprint.
Heavy metal
content of
newspapers
49
Table I.
Published metal
contents of
newspapers and
magazines
(1977-1995)
C
o
n
c
e
n
t
r
a
t
i
o
n
s
(
p
p
m
)
R
e
f
.
M
a
t
e
r
i
a
l
F
r
a
c
t
i
o
n
C
o
u
n
t
r
y
Y
e
a
r
A
g
B
a
C
d
C
r
C
u
H
g
M
n
N
i
P
b
S
n
Z
n
1
N
e
w
s
p
a
p
e
r
a
n
d
m
a
g
s
C
o
l
o
u
r
e
d
U
S
1
9
7
7
3
3
3
0
.
0
5
9
4
2
0
7
.
8
3
.
0
5
1
4
2
4
0
1
0
0
2
N
e
w
s
p
r
i
n
t

C
a
n
a
d
a
1
9
8
2
0
.
1
8
1
4
0
.
0
1
5
0
.
6
5
3
7
3
N
e
w
s
p
r
i
n
t

G
e
r
m
a
n
y
1
9
8
8
1
5
2
4
M
a
g
a
z
i
n
e
s

3
7
6
9
4
D
a
i
l
y
n
e
w
s
p
a
p
e
r
C
o
l
o
u
r
h
e
a
d
l
i
n
e
s
U
S
1
9
8
9
-
9
1
0
.
1
0
1
0
1
0
1
4
1
B
l
a
c
k
a
n
d
w
h
i
t
e
0
0
2
0
1
4
0
5
C
e
n
t
r
e
D
a
i
l
y
T
i
m
e
s
G
l
o
s
s
y
a
d
(
m
i
x
e
d
)
0
.
1
1
1
1
4
0
5
1
0
1
4
G
l
o
s
s
y
a
d
(
b
l
u
e
)
0
.
2
1
1
4
1
0
7
1
0
1
4
C
e
n
t
r
e
D
a
i
l
y
T
i
m
e
s
B
l
u
e
h
e
a
d
l
i
n
e
s
0
.
1
0
1
0
1
0
1
4
1
B
l
a
c
k
a
n
d
w
h
i
t
e
0
.
0
0
2
0
1
4
0
C
o
l
l
e
g
i
a
n
B
l
a
c
k
p
i
c
t
u
r
e
s
0
.
2
1
3
0
2
5
3
B
l
a
c
k
a
n
d
w
h
i
t
e
0
.
1
1
2
0
1
4
8
U
S
A
T
o
d
a
y
M
i
x
e
d
c
o
l
o
u
r
s
0
.
3
1
5
3
0
1
3
9
B
l
u
e
0
.
4
1
1
3
2
0
2
2
1
2
B
l
a
c
k
a
n
d
w
h
i
t
e
0
.
4
1
2
0
1
.
5
3
1
9
6
D
e
t
r
o
i
t
N
e
w
s

U
S
1
9
9
1
5
4
3
3
.
6
1
8
3
7
N
e
w
s
p
a
p
e
r
P
r
i
m
a
r
i
l
y
b
l
a
c
k
a
n
d
w
h
i
t
e
U
S
1
9
9
2
0
.
6
8
1
7
.
2
N
D
2
.
1
8
N
e
w
s
p
r
i
n
t
G
l
u
e
d
C
a
n
a
d
a
1
9
9
2
?
9
.
3
0
.
1
1
.
3
1
0
0
.
3
1
9
.
5
4
.
3
2
.
4
1
8
8
B
l
a
c
k
a
n
d
w
h
i
t
e
1
8
.
4
0
.
1
3
.
8
1
3
2
.
9
4
5
.
0
6
.
2
7
.
2
2
4
1
9
C
o
l
o
u
r
2
3
.
2
0
.
1
2
1
5
3
6
0
.
3
8
1
.
9
1
0
6
5
.
7
2
5
2
9
M
a
g
a
z
i
n
e
s
G
l
u
e
d
2
4
.
2
0
.
0
0
1
1
6
.
6
2
6
0
.
3
5
0
.
9
1
7
.
6
0
.
4
3
6
3
6
N
o
t
g
l
u
e
d
3
6
.
9
0
.
3
5
.
8
3
7
0
.
3
5
0
.
9
8
.
2
5
.
9
3
1
1
8
1
0
N
e
w
s
p
a
p
e
r

#
1
U
K
1
9
9
2
3
.
7
9
0
.
3
2
5
.
6
1
7
.
2
5
0
.
0
3
4
0
.
9
1
0
.
9
8
9
.
4
2
3
.
1
M
a
g
a
z
i
n
e
s

#
2
2
.
3
0
.
3
9
3
0
.
3
5
5
.
8
0
.
0
2
3
7
.
2
2
2
.
6
1
5
.
6
7
4
.
4
N
e
w
s
p
a
p
e
r

#
3
1
9
9
3
0
.
1
5
0
.
3
3
4
.
1
2
1
7
.
7
0
.
0
5
5
5
.
5
2
.
1
3
7
.
8
8
1
8
.
2
M
a
g
a
z
i
n
e
s

#
4
0
.
3
8
1
.
8
3
2
1
.
5
5
6
.
7
0
.
0
6
3
5
.
3
1
1
.
5
1
1
.
7
6
6
.
0
9
N
a
t
i
o
n
a
l
n
e
w
s
p
a
p
e
r
s

E
i
r
e
1
9
9
5
N
D
1
.
3
5
1
.
9
5
4
N
D
1
.
3
5
0
.
4
8
1
1
.
9
N
o
t
e
s
:
N
D
=
N
o
t
d
e
t
e
c
t
e
d
;
#
`
`
a
s
r
e
c
e
i
v
e
d
'
'
m
o
i
s
t
u
r
e
c
o
n
t
e
n
t
s
=
2
5
.
6
7
p
e
r
c
e
n
t
(
1
)
,
1
2
.
7
6
p
e
r
c
e
n
t
(
2
)
,
2
5
.
4
6
p
e
r
c
e
n
t
(
3
)
,
9
.
9
3
p
e
r
c
e
n
t
(
4
)
;
o
t
h
e
r
r
e
s
u
l
t
s
r
e
f
e
r
t
o
d
r
y
w
e
i
g
h
t
o
r
m
o
i
s
t
u
r
e
c
o
n
t
e
n
t
n
o
t
s
t
a
t
e
d
R
e
f
e
r
e
n
c
e
s
:
1
.
H
e
f
f
r
o
n
e
t
a
l
.
(
1
9
7
7
)
;
2
.
G
r
i
e
v
e
e
t
a
l
.
(
1
9
8
2
)
;
3
.
G
r
u
n
e
w
a
l
d
e
t
a
l
.
(
1
9
8
8
)
;
4
.
C
o
m
e
r
f
o
r
d
a
n
d
S
p
e
n
c
e
r
(
1
9
9
3
)
;
5
.
T
e
m
p
l
e
(
1
9
9
0
)
;
6
.
F
i
t
z
g
e
r
a
l
d
(
1
9
9
2
)
;
7
.
C
o
m
e
r
f
o
r
d
(
1
9
9
2
)
;
8
.
C
i
t
e
d
i
n
E
P
A
(
1
9
9
5
)
;
9
.
O
'
C
o
n
n
e
l
l
a
n
d
M
e
a
n
e
y
(
1
9
9
7
)
;
1
0
.
D
o
E
(
1
9
9
5
)
EMH
11,1
50
Table II.
Metal contents of
newspapers and
magazines (1996)
C
o
n
c
e
n
t
r
a
t
i
o
n
s
(
p
p
m
)
M
a
t
e
r
i
a
l
F
r
a
c
t
i
o
n
C
o
u
n
t
r
y
Y
e
a
r
A
g
B
a
C
d
C
r
C
u
H
g
M
n
N
i
P
b
S
n
Z
n
U
n
p
r
i
n
t
e
d
n
e
w
s
p
r
i
n
t
(
5
s
a
m
p
l
e
s
)

V
a
r
i
o
u
s
1
9
9
6
<
0
.
2
2
4
.
9
<
0
.
2
1
.
4
1
.
3
<
5
4
7
.
2
<
0
.
7
<
4
<
3
8
.
3
5
6
n
a
t
i
o
n
a
l
n
e
w
s
p
a
p
e
r
s
(
p
r
i
n
t
e
d
o
n
s
a
m
e
p
a
p
e
r
)
S
t
a
n
d
a
r
d
n
e
w
s
p
r
i
n
t
f
r
a
c
t
i
o
n
o
n
l
y
U
K
1
9
9
5
-
9
6
<
0
.
2
1
4
.
8
<
0
.
2
2
.
3
2
1
.
3
<
5
5
9
.
1
1
.
5
<
4
<
3
1
9
.
5
U
n
p
r
i
n
t
e
d
m
a
g
a
z
i
n
e
p
a
p
e
r
(
9
s
a
m
p
l
e
s
)

V
a
r
i
o
u
s
1
9
9
6
1
.
2
3
5
.
0
<
0
.
2
1
1
.
7
3
.
4
<
5
1
1
.
2
2
.
5
<
4
5
.
7
1
0
.
5
9
6
p
e
r
i
o
d
i
c
a
l
s
(
p
r
i
n
t
e
d
o
n
s
a
m
e
p
a
p
e
r
)

U
K
1
9
9
5
-
9
6
1
.
0
3
3
.
7
<
0
.
2
1
0
.
9
3
6
.
6
<
5
1
0
.
5
2
.
5
<
4
5
.
0
1
6
.
0
2
7
6
p
e
r
i
o
d
i
c
a
l
s

U
K
1
9
9
6
0
.
7
5
9
.
2
<
0
.
2
1
6
.
2
4
6
.
3
<
5
2
3
.
5
5
.
9
<
4
7
.
4
4
4
.
8
1
5
6
n
a
t
i
o
n
a
l
n
e
w
s
p
a
p
e
r
s
(
1
w
e
e
k
a
v
e
r
a
g
e
)
I
n
c
l
u
d
i
n
g
c
o
l
o
u
r
s
u
p
p
s
U
K
1
9
9
6
<
0
.
2
1
0
.
3
<
0
.
2
1
.
2
4
0
.
3
<
5
4
4
.
6
3
.
3
<
4
<
3
2
1
.
8
J
u
n
k
m
a
i
l
(
3
m
o
n
t
h
s
d
e
l
i
v
e
r
y
)

U
K
1
9
9
6
<
0
.
2
4
4
.
4
<
0
.
2
1
0
.
7
3
2
.
2
<
5
2
6
.
6
1
.
8
5
.
6
1
0
.
7
4
4
.
3
Heavy metal
content of
newspapers
51
Other metals showed very much less pronounced trends and, in some cases,
marginally higher levels in the unprinted paper. Such anomalies are thought to
be due to natural sample variability.
Attempts have been made to trace the sources of heavy metals in
newspapers back to the individual material components. Copper is well known
to be a design component of the blue pigments used in news inks. The levels
of other heavy metals in inks are very lowin comparison; however, it is difficult
to determine these levels accurately. Analyses of Pb, Hg, Cd, Cr(VI) in printing
inks by some commercial laboratories have proved to be very inaccurate
(DaRocha et al., 1995). Primary sources of the heavy metals are thought likely
to be from additives to paper making (Simon et al., 1997; Hamm et al., 1986),
impurities in pigments from some manufacturers (Grund, 1994), from the wood
(Nye, 1992) or from corrosion in the paper mill (McCrady, 1996). Hamm et
al. (1986) found levels of copper, chromium, lead and cadmium to be typically
less than 1ppm in spruce wood, with comparable levels in both mechanical
and chemical pulps. Jokinen and Siren (1995) attribute trace chromium
levels to coatings and filler material and lead to the fillers. Hamm et al.
(1986) also considered fillers to be a major source of lead and chromium and
have recorded levels from 27ppm to 332ppm lead and 5.6 to 1993ppm
chromium in samples of kaolin. Other authors (e.g. Caractere, 1991) confirm
that low levels of heavy metal impurities can be found in the primary materials
used as extenders in inks; illustrative values being 30ppm barium in silica,
< 20ppm barium in calcium carbonate; 5ppm lead in silica and < 5ppm lead in
calcium carbonate; 3ppm chromium in calcium carbonate and 2ppm cadmium
in silica.
From the above results, it appears that copper is now the only principal
metal which is attributable to the inks. Copper is known to be present within
the blue (and green) inks based on the copper phthalocyanine pigment. Zinc is
not a design component of any ink currently used in the news industry. The
link between blue printing and high copper concentrations is readily
hypothesised, though it has not yet been quantified. It is conjectured that, with
the escalating use of colour over recent years (and with possible further
increases in the future), copper concentrations of newspapers are rising and are
likely to rise further. To judge if the resulting environmental impact could
become significant, projections of the likely scale of such rises need to be made.
To make these projections, it is necessary to quantify the relationship between
copper levels and colour usage more fully, and to examine the current trends in
these parameters in detail. Quantified trends cannot be elicited from the data
presented above as ``like with like'' comparisons cannot be made. Details of
studies to quantify the trends are nowgiven.
Longitudinal study methodology
Elemental analyses
The longitudinal study was designed to provide comparable data at two time
horizons (1998 and 1992). The aim was to quantify any differences in elemental
EMH
11,1
52
concentrations between the horizons and to correlate identified differences with
colour content. In designing the study, it was recognised that there could be
large variations in elemental concentrations among individual titles, and
significant variations in colour content on a daily basis and possibly seasonally
as well. In order to minimise the effects of these variabilities, each sample
analysed was homogenised froma whole week's run of newspapers. The weeks
chosen for the analyses were the last weeks in February, in 1992 and 1998. Four
individual national newspaper titles were included in the study: two tabloids
and two broadsheets. The 1992 editions were purchased from a supplier of
historic newspapers.
Each week's run of newspapers was shredded into 4mm622mm strips.
These were thoroughly mixed and progressively sub-sampled by coning and
quartering to produce a representative sample of approximately 100 grams.
These samples were then homogenised and mixed in a laboratory pulper at a
consistency of 3.3 per cent using de-ionised water. Aliquots of approximately
100ml were extracted from the mixed pulp and dried. Three spot samples were
taken from each aliquot and microwave digested in aqua regia. The digested
samples were analysed using Inductively Coupled Plasma Atomic Emission
Spectroscopy (ICP-AES). Results were computed from the average of the three
spot samples.
Colour contents
While it is well known that colour usage in newspapers has escalated
significantly over recent years, it proved very difficult to get a fully
quantitative and objective measure of the magnitude of this rise.
Representative statistics could not be found in the public domain.
Consequently, proxy statistics had to be adopted to estimate these data. These
statistics comprised:
.
The compiled amount of colour display advertising. (Industry average
statistics were published until 1996);
.
The numbers of pages containing some colour, through direct counting
of these pages.
.
Direct measurements of percentage area bounding all coloured display
and editorial (which is still an incomplete measure because of the
variable amount of contained white space).
When considering the longitudinal changes, it must be borne in mind that
other changes apart from direct colour usage can affect the resultant colour
concentrations on the paper. For example, there was a tendency between
the two time horizons to switch from 48gsm to 45gsm paper. This light-
weighting of the paper is equivalent to a concentration effect of the ink of
some 7 per cent in the ink/paper product (assuming the ink mileage has
remained constant). These effects are noted, but have not been investigated
further.
Heavy metal
content of
newspapers
53
Longitudinal study results
Elemental analyses
The measured elemental concentrations of the four newspaper samples are
given in Tables III-VI. From our source, 1992 colour supplements were only
supplied with newspaper A. Colour supplements and standard newsprint
sections were analysed separately.
In general, changes in metal concentrations between the two time horizons
were relatively small. The most significant trend was a mean increase in copper
by 32 per cent relative between 1992 and 1998. It should be noted however that
copper in one of the samples (newspaper A), actually decreased over that
period. Zinc contents decreased between the two time horizons on average by
10 per cent relative, or by about 2-3ppm. Most of the changes did not exceed the
expected inter-sample variabilities expected at a single time horizon. Such
variabilities were quantified in the 1996 analyses (Table VII).
Table III.
Metal concentrations
(Newspaper A)
Standard newsprint Supplements
Element 1992 (ppm) 1998 (ppm) 1992 (ppm) 1998 (ppm)
Ag <1 <1 <1 <1
Ba 29.3 10.7 61.7 73.0
Cd <1 1.6 <1 3.0
Cr 1 1.3 5.3 1.3
Cu 39.3 23.3 53.7 54.7
Hg <5 <5 <5 <5
Mn 55.3 43.7 42.3 54.7
Ni <2 <4 <1 <1
Pb <4 <4 10 <4
Sn 7.3 7.3 53.0 56.3
Ti 8.3 4.7 28.7 17.0
Zn 28.3 16.0 67.7 30.7
Table IV.
Metal concentrations
(Newspaper B)
Standard newsprint Supplements
Element 1992 (ppm) 1998 (ppm) 1998 (ppm)
Ag <1 <1 <1
Ba 4 8.3 28
Cd <1 <1 <1
Cr <1 <1.3 6.7
Cu 12.3 30.0 68.7
Hg <5 <5 <5
Mn 47 46 15.7
Ni 1.3 <1 <1
Pb <4 <4 <5
Sn 2.7 8.3 41.0
Ti 1.3 3.7 28.0
Zn 17.0 15.0 29.3
EMH
11,1
54
Overall, chromium, tin, titanium and barium concentrations all tended to be
higher, though not consistently so, in the magazine supplements compared to
the standard newsprint sections. The changes in metal concentrations between
the 1992 and 1998 supplements appear to be slight, although a fall in lead levels
Table V.
Metal concentrations
(Newspaper C)
Standard newsprint Supplements
Element 1992 (ppm) 1998 (ppm) 1998 (ppm)
Ag <1 <1 <1
Ba 5.3 6.7 10.3
Cd <1 <1 <1
Cr <1 1.6 1
Cu 17.3 33.0 111.7
Hg <5 <5 <5
Mn 36.6 29.0 41.0
Ni <1 <1 <1
Pb <4 <4 <4
Sn 4.3 11.3 7.7
Ti 2.3 19.3 15.3
Zn 18.7 24.0 13.7
Table VI.
Metal concentrations
(Newspaper D)
Standard newsprint Supplements
Element 1992 (ppm) 1998 (ppm) 1998 (ppm)
Ag <1 <1 <1
Ba 9.7 10.3 10.7
Cd <1 2.3 <1
Cr 1 <1 <1
Cu 18.0 28.7 71.3
Hg <5 <5 <5
Mn 38.3 52.3 74.0
Ni <1 1.3 <1
Pb <4 <4 <4
Sn 8.3 7.7 7.3
Ti 8.3 4.7 14.0
Zn 16.7 17.7 22.0
Table VII.
Variability among
individual editions
15 Newspapers 27 Periodicals
Element Mean (ppm) Std Dev. (ppm) Mean (ppm) Std Dev. (ppm)
Ba 10.3 2.1 59.2 50.8
Cr 1.2 0.5 16.2 15.7
Cu 40.3 14.2 46.3 30.3
Mn 44.6 14.1 23.5 17.5
Ni 3.3 4.0 5.9 4.4
Zn 21.8 9.9 44.8 117.5
Heavy metal
content of
newspapers
55
from 10ppm to < 4ppm is noted. There was no apparent difference in copper
levels between the two time horizons. The results however must be treated with
caution as they are based on just one supplement from1992.
Colour contents
The percentage of colour display, averaged over 11 national titles, is
summarised in Figure 1 for the period 1992-1995. Results are monthly
averages. The general trend shows a rise from about 15 per cent to around 30
per cent colour display over the four year period. Month-to-month fluctuations
are of order +2.5 per cent. The phase and magnitude of the fluctuations were
not consistent among individual titles.
Table VIII compares the average percentages of colour pages (of standard
newsprint) over a week's run of individual titles (including the associated
1992 1993 1994 1995
Year
%

C
o
l
o
u
r

D
i
a
p
l
a
y
35
30
25
20
15
10
5
0
Source: Media Week Oct 6 1995 and other editions
Figure 1.
Percentage of
colour display
Table VIII.
Percentage of colour
pages (1992 and 1998)
Percentage pages with some colour Ratio
Newspaper February 1992 February 1998 1998/1992
A 36 31 0.86
B 15 32 2.13
C 4 20 5.00
D 16 28 1.75
X 24 61 2.54
Y 13 16 1.23
Z 12 30 2.50
EMH
11,1
56
Sunday editions) for the last weeks in February 1992 and 1998 respectively.
Newspapers A-D correspond to the titles analysed in the longitudinal
compositional study. Newspapers X-Z are other titles for which 1992 data could
be obtained. These data were collected by counting pages in library archives.
The data set is small as few1992 editions remained openly accessible.
Again there is much variation among titles, with one title (newspaper A)
actually showing a drop in colour between the two horizons. On average, over
all seven titles, the percentage of colour printed pages approximately doubled
between 1992 and 1998.
The range of day-to-day changes were measured for 13 national titles over
the last two weeks of February 1998 (Table IX). Variations up to +40 per cent
are evident.
The third estimate of the long-term and weekly variations in the percentage
of colour was derived from a random sub-sample of 43 editions of a single
Sunday newspaper title spanning a 117 week period from October 1995 to
December 1997 (Figure 2). No significant long-term change in the area of colour
was detected. The average area of colour was 14.4 per cent with a standard
deviation of +1.5 per cent. For this particular title, colour pages averaged
around 30 per cent, which by implication means that around 40 per cent of an
average colour-printed page is actually coloured (although 40 per cent is an
over-estimate due to white space within some of the coloured blocks).
The conclusions from these studies are not definite, though it is estimated
that colour usage in the standard newsprint sections of national newspapers
approximately doubled between 1992 and 1998. The change was not smooth,
having both substantial daily and monthly fluctuations. Changes were not
consistent between individual titles. Clearly this raises the question of sample
representativity in one-off spot measurements. If copper contents map directly
to colour contents, copper levels might be expected to vary by a factor of 2
between individual days and perhaps around +10 per cent (relative) between
Table IX.
Colour contents of 13
national newspapers
Newspaper
Percentage pages with some colour
(range over 2 weeks in 1998)
A 23 43
B 26 44
C 14 28
D 20 31
E 29 50
F 38 51
G 31 50
H 17 26
I 24 50
J 28 70
K 21 50
L 31 46
M 21 - 30
Heavy metal
content of
newspapers
57
weekly or monthly composite samples. Such inferences would appear
consistent with the measured elemental variabilities (Table VII).
Correlation between copper concentrations and colour
Results are shown in Figure 3.
While there are absolute differences between individual newspapers, it is
noted that for any given newspaper, the copper concentration increases directly
with its percentage of colour pages. It is also noted that this still holds true for
newspaper A, for which the copper concentrations and the colour pagination
were both lower in 1988 than in 1992.
20
15
10
5
0
%

C
o
l
o
u
r

(
E
d
i
t
o
r
i
a
l

+

D
i
s
p
l
a
y
)
0
1
0
2
0
3
0
4
0
5
0
6
0
7
0
8
0
9
0
1
0
0
1
1
0
1
2
0
Week
Figure 2.
Variation in coloured
area (October 1995-
December 1997)
Newspaper A
Newspaper B
Newspaper C
Newspaper D
0 10 20 30 40
% of Pages with Some Colour
45
40
35
30
25
20
15
10
5
0
C
o
p
p
e
r

c
o
n
t
e
n
t

(
p
p
m
)
Figure 3.
Copper concentration
versus colour
EMH
11,1
58
Environmental burden of the total newspaper package
In considering the heavy metal content of newspapers, it is important to
consider the overall package rather than just the standard newsprint sections.
Metal concentrations in the overall package (which includes colour
supplements) will generally be higher than for the newsprint section alone.
Typically, in 1998, the supplements comprised around 10-20 per cent (by
weight) of the total weekly newspaper package. The total metal concentrations
for the whole packages of newspapers A-D(in 1998) are calculated in Table X.
On average, around 35 per cent of the copper was associated with the
supplements which, for these samples, comprised 16 per cent of the weight of
the total package. Similar levels of enrichment within the supplements were
found for barium, tin and titanium. There was no preferential enrichment of
zinc or manganese within the supplements.
The 1996 results for newspapers A-D, extracted from the 1996 data set,
provide another comparison with the 1998 data. Results for these two time
horizons are broadly similar for copper (42.6 to 39ppm), zinc (21 to 19ppm),
barium, and manganese. Possible temporal changes in tin and titanium are
noted, with average changes of +8ppm and 19ppm for these elements
respectively. By comparing Tables II and XIII, it is also noted that measured
concentrations in the four-newspaper 1996 sub-sample correspond reasonably
well with the average concentrations of the parent sample. Thus, newspapers
A-D together appear to be quite a reasonable indicator for the whole national
picture.
In order to complete the longitudinal analyses, data for the missing 1992
supplements need to be estimated. In making these estimates, it had to be
assumed that their elemental compositions had not changed significantly
Table X.
Metal concentrations
in four newspaper
packages
Concentrations (ppm) Concentrations (ppm)
Element
Package
A
Package
B
Package
C
Package
D
Percentage
of total in
supplements Mean A-D
Mean A-D
(1996)
Ag <2 <2 <2 <2 n/m n/m <0.2
Ba 16 12 7 10 31 11 11.0
Cd 1.8 <2 <1 <2 n/m n/m <0.2
Co <2 1.3 <2 <2 n/m n/m <0.3
Cr 1.3 <3 1.5 <2 n/m n/m 1.8
Cu 27 37 49 33 35 39 42.6
Hg <10 <10 <10 <10 n/m n/m <5
Mn 45 40 31 54 15 41 43.7
Ni <3 <3 <2 <3 n/m n/m <3
Pb <4 <4 <4 <4 n/m n/m <4
Sn 12 14 11 8 30 11 3.1
Ti 6 8 18 6 27 11 29.8
Zn 17 18 22 18 17 19 21.0
Note: n/m = not measurable (concentrations in individual samples below the detection limit)
Heavy metal
content of
newspapers
59
between 1992 and 1998. The main source of variation was assumed to be the
different numbers of supplements issued at each horizon. Newspapers A-D
together issued four supplements in 1992 and seven supplements in 1998.
These statistics correspond reasonably well (pro-rata) to the overall picture. In
total, 15 supplements were issued by UKnational newspapers in 1992 and 30 in
1998. Analyses results are given in Figure 4.
The results indicate that copper concentrations may have increased by
around 33 per cent (relative), 7 per cent (absolute) post 1992 for the standard
newsprint sections and 40 per cent (relative), 12 per cent (absolute) for the total
package. These increases have been attributed both to the general rise in colour
content in the standard newsprint sections and to the increased number of
colour supplements now being issued. There has been little change since
December 1996.
Future projections
The current (1998) figures showaround 33 per cent colour pages (on average) in
the standard newsprint sections. In projecting further increases in colour
content in these sections, and assuming no changes to the number or size of
supplements or paginations, projected average copper levels for the whole
package of national newspapers could become of order 50ppm (for 50 per cent
colour pages), 60ppm (for 67 per cent colour pages) and 80ppm (for 100 per cent
colour pages). Such estimates are based on per-newspaper averages and do not
consider the different circulation figures of individual titles. A general rule of
thumb can be derived that there may be a rise of about 0.75ppm copper for each
1 per cent increase in colour pagination.
50
45
40
35
30
25
20
15
10
5
0
C
o
p
p
e
r

C
o
n
c
e
n
t
r
a
t
i
o
n

(
p
p
m
)
F
e
b
-
9
2
D
e
c
-
9
6
F
e
b
-
9
8
Standard Newsprint Whole Package
Figure 4.
Temporal changes in
average copper content
EMH
11,1
60
Future concentrations will also be influenced by the relative numbers and
paginations of the supplements. They may be influenced further by the mix of
papers and inks used for those supplements. Metal analyses were undertaken
separately for the major generic categories of ink and paper used for
supplements.
.
Improved (or high brightness) newsprint/Heat set web offset ink
(HSWO);
.
Improved (or high brightness) newsprint/Cold set web offset ink
(CSWO);
.
Super calendered paper/Gravure ink;
.
Coated mechanical paper grades/Heat set web offset ink (HSWO).
Samples were aggregated according to type from a week's run of 15 daily
newspapers (the first week of March 1998). Results are listed in Table XI.
Barium, chromium, lead and titanium concentrations were all higher with the
coated mechanical and super calendered papers. The elevated levels are most
likely to be associated with the fillers and coatings used in these grades. Copper
levels were highest with the improved newsprint/heatset ink combination. This
may be due, in part, to a higher level blue-coloured printing in the improved
newsprint/HSWO titles than in other titles on that particular week. Different
copper loadings among the different printed inks may also be likely. These
aspects were not investigated further.
If the recent movement towards printing more supplements using the
improved newsprint/ heat set combination continues, this could further
aggravate the burden of copper in the total package.
Environmental and health implications
While some ``heavy'' metals have been detected in newspaper samples, the
overall concentrations of those metals were low. To evaluate whether there
Table XI.
Comparative analyses
of paper/ink
combinations (average
of all national
newspaper colour
supplements one
week's run)
Element
Improved
CSWO
Improved
HSWO
Coated
HSWO SC gravure
Ag <1 <1 <1 <1
Ba 11 9 89 26
Cd 1 1 <1 <1
Cr <1 <1 15 24
Cu 60 161 86 85
Hg <5 <5 <5 <5
Mn 25 23 20 14
Ni <1 <1 <1 <2
Pb <2 <2 6 5
Sn 5 5 <9 7
Ti 4 9 38 33
Zn 33 30 35 36
Heavy metal
content of
newspapers
61
may be potential environmental concern, it is instructive to compare the results
with analyses of other materials and waste streams having potentially similar
end uses, and with the legislative and guideline values for their use.
Studies of the ingestion of newspapers by livestock, either fed as part of the
diet or used as bedding (e.g. O'Connell and Meaney, 1997; Comerford, 1992)
have shown that metal concentrations may be lower in newspapers than in
animal feeds such as beet pulp and molasses, though higher than those found
in sawdust bedding. It should also be noted that these, and similar studies by
Temple (1990), Comerford and Spencer (1993), Grieve et al. (1982), Heffron et al.
(1977) and Shane et al. (1993) all concluded that newspapers are relatively safe
for ingestion by cattle and sheep. Abnormal or elevated levels of either copper
or zinc were not found, in the short term, in the blood and liver of newspaper-
fed specimens compared to those in the control groups.
Comparative compositional data for newspapers and other components of
the domestic waste stream were presented by DoE (1995). Selected results have
been extracted to illustrate specific comparisons of interest. The source data
themselves give separate analyses for 32 individual categories of household
waste. In presenting the data here, the published figures have been adjusted to
reduce all concentrations to a dry weight basis (Table XII).
The respective metal concentrations in newspapers sampled in that study
were, in nearly every case, lower than the equivalent concentrations in the other
potentially compostable waste streams. Even at current newspaper copper
levels of around 40ppm, copper concentrations appear no higher than those
historically recorded for kitchen wastes (DoE, 1995). Whilst comparative
studies of newspapers against other green wastes have not been undertaken
since 1993 (as far as the authors are aware), the newspaper fraction would not
appear to present a potential major input of heavy metals to household
composting schemes.
Table XII.
Metal concentrations in
selected categories of
household waste (1993)
Element
Newspaper
(ppm)
Other paper
(excluding
newspapers and
magazines) (ppm)
Putrescibles
excluding garden
wastes (ppm)
Garden
putrescibles
(ppm)
Cd 0.44 0.90 0.73 0.31
Cr 5.53 18.60 17.20 12.78
Cu 23.75 31.00 45.73 70.80
Hg 0.06 0.16 0.15 0.21
Mn 74.52 70.93 208.40 158.51
Ni 2.86 13.10 16.16 120.18
Pb 10.55 30.20 75.88 31.83
Zn 24.45 186.14 146.24 119.96
Note: Data reduced to a dry weight basis
Source: DoE (1995)
EMH
11,1
62
In considering the potential uses of newspaper in gardening and agriculture
applications, either applied directly or after composting, and in considering the
potential impacts of returning de-inking sludge residues (from newspaper
recycling) to the soil, reference is made to the UK and EC limits for sludge
amended soils and to the ICRCL trigger levels for soil (belowwhich remediation
is not considered necessary) (Table XIII).
Of the metals investigated, copper would appear the most sensitive
substance to deal with in complying with these limits, if returning old
newspapers or their residues to the land. In this context it must further be
borne in mind that the de-inking process for recycling newspapers
preferentially concentrates metals into the de-inking sludge, with sludge
concentrations typically >5 times those of the newspaper feed stock. Neither
current levels nor the projected increases pose a problem with the general
principle of applying these sludges as soil conditioners. The levels do, however,
affect the application rates that can be used. Procedures may have to adapt to
any future increases in copper.
Copper in newspapers is predominantly associated with the pigment copper
phthalocyanine ``Blue 15'', the commonest blue pigment in news inks. Typically
Table XIII.
Metal concentrations
in UK soils: a
comparative table
Metal
Typical normal
range in soils
Range in EC
directive* for
sludge-amended
soil
UK limit**
concentration in
sludge-amended
soil (pH 6-7)
ICRCL***
limits
Cd 0.01-2.4 1-3 3 3
d
<1-2 15
e
Cr 5-1,500
a
400
b
600
d
15-300 1,000
e
Cu 2-250 50-140 135 130
c
2-60
Hg 0.01-0.3 1-1.5 1 1
d
0.008-0.19 20
e
Ni 2-1,000 30-75 75 70
c
2-100
Pb 2-300 50-300 300 500
d
10-150 2,000
e
Zn 10-300 150-300 300 300
c
25-200
Notes: All concentrations mg/kg dry solids. Source: Royal Commission on Environmental
Pollution (1996)
* Directive 86/278/EEC (1986)
** SI 1989 No. 1263 (1989) and DoE (1989)
*** Inter-departmental Committee on the Redevelopment of Contaminated Land (1987)
a
limit not set;
b
provisional;
c
any use involving growth of plants;
d
use for gardens
and allotments, etc.;
e
use for parks, playing fields, open spaces, etc.
Heavy metal
content of
newspapers
63
copper phthalocyanines contain 5-10 per cent copper. It is generally reported
that these pigments are stable, insoluble in water and practically non-
biodegradable (e.g. Maret, 1995; Rusterholtz, 1987). Toxicity tests on the copper
phthalocyanines Blue 15 and Green 7 are summarised by Webb (1984). An
eight-week study injecting mice weekly with Pigment Blue 15 produced no
tumours. Three month pre-chronic feeding studies using Pigments Blue 15:3
and Green 7 evidenced no toxic effects. The Ames Bioassay Test (which is a
bacterial mutagenesis assay) was negative and acute toxicity tests
demonstrated high lethal dose levels (LD50; Oral, Rat >10g/kg). In 1991 three
copper phthalocyanine pigments (Blue 15, Green 7 and Green 36) were delisted
from reporting requirements under section 313 of the US ``Emergency Planning
and Community Right to KnowAct'' also referred to as Title II of the Superfund
Amendments and Reauthorization Act (SARA) of 1986. However, despite being
delisted as a source of copper for reporting under SARA III Section 313, local
municipalities have begun to severely restrict the amount of total copper
allowed in waste streams (daPonte, 1992). This, perhaps, forms the main
stimulus for concern (as discussed above).
In granting the delisting, EPA carried out a technical review. The following
extracts are taken from the commentary reported in the Federal Register (May
23, 1991).
. . . have very low solubilities in water (estimates are 8610
-7
3610
-4
Mg/L for pigment blue
15) and do not disassociate or hydrolyze in water under environmental conditions.
. . . it appears that photolysis of these pigments with the resultant release of copper will not
occur.
Data indicate that under environmental conditions, abiotic oxidation of these copper
pigments does not occur.
No data on the anaerobic or aerobic biodegradability of the copper pigments were found.
However based on their extremely lowsolubility in water, their large cross sectional diameter,
these pigments are expected to be very resistant to degradation processes.
On the basis of molecular weight, extremely low solubility in water, and data from sub-
chronic toxicity tests, the three phthalocyanine pigments are not expected to be appreciably
absorbed by any route of exposure or metabolized to yield copper ion.
Because copper does not appear to be available from phthalocyanine pigments,
bioaccumulation of copper is not a concern.
Summary and conclusions
The copper content of newspapers is almost entirely attributable to the (blue)
inks. Copper concentrations in paper are low, typically 1-4ppm. A direct
relationship was found between copper concentrations and number of colour-
printed pages in the standard newsprint sections. This amounts to, on average,
0.75ppmcopper per each 1 per cent increment in the percentage of colour pages.
The 1998 measured levels of copper in standard newsprint averaged around
29ppm. Copper concentrations in the colour supplements can be higher. Levels
from 60ppm to 160ppm were found. Large variations in copper content arise
EMH
11,1
64
amongst individual issues and titles due to variations in the amount of blue
printing. In considering overall copper concentrations, standard newsprint and
colour supplements must be considered together. The 1998 copper
concentrations in the overall package averaged around 40ppm. Concentrations
in the standard newsprint sections may have increased by around 33 per cent
(relative) between 1992 and 1998. Concentrations in the overall package may
have risen more (about 40 per cent relative) between these time horizons.
Increases are attributed to a rise in the average number of colour pages and to a
doubling of the number of colour supplements issued.
Lead, mercury and cadmium were found to be below their measurement
detection limits in nearly all samples. Total chromium levels were highest in
the coated and super calendered papers. Apart from copper, only minor trace
levels of other heavy metals could be conclusively identified as being
attributable to the inks, although the sources of zinc remain unclear. Measured
levels of zinc varied between 8ppm and 21ppm. There was no obvious
relationship between zinc levels and any parameter in the measured samples.
The possibility of contamination from non-paper/ink sources of zinc (e.g.
contamination in the household, or from transport and handling) cannot be
discounted.
The copper in newspapers is bound into the copper phthalocyanine pigment,
which according to informed professionals, including the US EPA, is inert
under environmental conditions, non-water soluble, not biodegradable and not
bioavailable. Because of its lowsolubility and other factors, it is concentrated in
the sludge rather than the water effluent in de-inking operations. Regulations
relating to the disposal of this sludge, however, tend to impose limits on the
total copper content. Future increases in newspaper colour pagination may
propagate problems in meeting such regulations.
Health studies have found that the common pigments used in news inks
have low acute toxicity, and are not carcinogenic or mutagenic. No abnormal
accumulations of heavy metals were found in the liver, blood or milk of cows
fed on newspaper. Composting newspapers may cause less of a copper burden
than other household sources of compostable material.
Future trends in the copper content of newspapers need to be monitored.
While it is considered highly unlikely that a future increase would have any
health implications, there may be some environmental management implications
relating to the reuse and recycling of newspapers, if total copper levels continue
as a regulatory control. The implications will be largely procedural.
While the results of the experimental study refer specifically to UK
newspapers, it is considered that the main conclusions on copper content
should apply generally to other countries as well. Inks are supplied for an
international market and the use of the copper phthalocyanine pigment is quite
ubiquitous.
References
Caractere (1991), ``Inks under the microscope'', Vol. 307 No. 23, pp. 50-2.
Heavy metal
content of
newspapers
65
Comerford, J.W. (1992), ``Heavy metal and hydrocarbon residues in tissue and blood of beef steers
bedded on waste newspapers'', Bull. Environ. Contamination and Toxicology, Vol. 49,
pp. 18-22.
Comerford, J.W. and Spencer, S.W. (1993), ``Waste newspaper as a bedding material for beef and
dairy cattle'', Proceedings of the 4th International Livestock Environment Symposium,
pp. 1212-19.
daPonte, E. (1992), ``Environmental alternatives to PCN blues and DCB yellows'', American Ink
Maker, Vol. 71 No. 1, pp. 24-8.
DaRocha, M. and DiPiazza, J. et al. (1995), ``Analyzing for CONEG heavy metal in printing inks'',
American Ink Maker, Vol. 73 No. 4, pp. 65-8.
Directive 66/278/EEC (1986), Official Journal of the European Communities, L181, pp. 6-12.
DoE (1989), Code of Practice for Agricultural Use of Sewage Sludge, HMSO, London.
DoE (1995), The National Household Waste Analysis Project, Phase 2 Volume 3, Chemical
Analysis Data, Report CWM/087/94, Department of the Environment, London.
Endriss (1993), ``Paints and plastics colorants free of heavy metals?'', Proceedings of the ISCC/
CPMASymposiumon Colour Pigments, Regulations and the Environment, Newport, April.
EPA (1995), 2.600R95047, Analysis of Potential Effects of Toxics on Municipal Solid Waste
Management Options, http://www.epa.gov/cgi-bin/claritgw
Federal Register (1991), Vol. 56 No. 100, 23 May, 23650-23652.
Fitzgerald, M. (1992), ``Are newspapers hazardous to your health?'', Editor and Publisher, Vol. 125
No. 9, p. 9.
Friends of the Earth (1997), Paper Recycling Exposing the Myths, Briefing Paper, Friends of the
Earth, London.
Greive, D.G., Burton, J.H., Braun, H.E. and Frank, R. (1982), ``Voluntary intake of shredded
newsprint by dairy cows'', Canadian Journal of Animal Science, Vol. 62, pp. 799-806.
Grund, N. (1994), ``Ecological parameters in pigment printing'', Melliand Textilber/Melliand
English, Vol. 75 No. 7-8, pp. 157-9.
Grunewald, H., Hogrebe, B. and Von der Geest, C. (1988), ``Environmentally relevant content of
liquid and solid waste from Deinking plants'' (in German), Wochenblatt fur
Papierfabrikation, Vol. 116 No. 7, pp. 263-5.
Hamm, U., Geller, A. and Gottsching, L. (1986), ``Heavy metals in wood, virgin pulps, waste paper
and paper'' (in German), Das Papier, Vol. 40 No. 10A, pp. 37-46.
Heffron, C.L. Reid, J.T. and Furr, A.K. et al. (1977), ``Lead and other elements in sheep fed colored
magazines and newsprint'', Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry, Vol. 28, pp. 657-60.
Inter-departmental Committee on the Redevelopment of Contaminated Land (1987), ICRCL
Guidance Note 59/83 2nd Edition, Department of the Environment, London.
Jokinen, K. and Siren, K. (1995), ``Harmful residues in recycled fibre metals and compounds'',
Paperi Ja Puu Paper and Timber, Vol. 77 No. 3, pp. 106-10.
Maret, J.P. (1995), ``The impact of printing inks on the environment'', Packing India, Vol. 28 No. 2,
pp. 25-31.
McCrady, E. (1996), ``Effect of metals on paper: a literature review'', Alkaline Paper Advocate,
Vol. 9 No. 1, pp. 8-9.
Media Week (1995), 6 October.
Nye, J.W. (1992), ``An investigation of the impact of very high concentrations of cations on pulp
brightening with sodium hydrosulphite: Part 1: Effect on bleach response'', Paper
presented at 1992 Pulping Conference, 1-5 November, Boston, MA, Book 3, pp. 891-7.
EMH
11,1
66
O'Connell, J.M. and Meaney, W.J. (1997), ``Short-term fate of heavy metals/trace elements,
naphthalene and polychlorinated biphenyls in lactating cows fed newspaper'', Irish Vet
Journal, Vol. 50 No. 3, pp. 171-3.
Royal Commission on Environmental Pollution Nineteenth Report (1996), Sustainable Use of
Soils, Cm3165, HMSO, London.
Rusterholtz, W.E. (1987), ``Inks and the environment: an update for boxmakers'', Boxboard
Containers, Vol. 95 No. 2, pp. 27-8.
Shane, B.S. and Metosh-Dickey, C.A. et al. (1993), ``Toxicological evaluation of milk from
lactating dairy cows following consumption of newsprint'', Journal of Agricultural and
Food Chemistry, Vol. 41 No. 2, pp. 240-5.
SI 1989 No. 1263 (1989), The Sludge (Use in Agriculture) Regulations, HMSO, London.
Simon, P.J., Giesson, B.C. and Copeland, T.R. (1997), ``Categorization of papers by trace metal
content using atomic absorption spectrometric and pattern recognition techniques'',
Analytical Chemistry, Vol. 49 No. 14, pp. 2285-8.
Temple, G. (1990), ``Newsprint gets farmer and livestock okay'', Biocycle, Vol. 31, September,
pp. 60-3.
Webb, P.G. (1984), ``Toxicity and handling of organic pigments'', American Ink Maker, March,
pp. 20-48.