TUNGSTEN HEAVY ALLOY

Design Manual
S. G. Caldwell, Ph.D.
1!" C#un$% Line &#ad
Madis#n, AL '("()
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www.$ungs$en/0#d.1#2
Table of Contents
1. The Metallurgy of Tungsten Heavy Alloys... 3
2. Alloy Selection Criteria .... 5
Why use WHAs?
ensity
Mechanical !ro"erties
Ther#al an$ %lectrical !ro"erties
&Mag& 'ersus &(on)Mag& Alloys
3. esign Consi$erations ...... *
The (ature an$ A$vantages of !+M
Monolithic or Multi)!art?
&,a$iation -oints&
!reserving Ma.i#u# Mechanical Strength
/. Machining 0ui$elines ...
11
Sa1ing
0rin$ing
Milling
Turning2 3acing2 an$ 4oring
rilling
Ta""ing
%M
Ther#al Contouring
5. -oining .... 1/
Mechanical
4ra5ing
Wel$ing
Sinter 4on$ing
6. 3inishing . 15
Corrosion 4ehavior
Coatings
7. Ty"ical A""lications ... 16
,a$iation Shiel$ing
Aircraft Counter8alances
Well 9ogging
,acing Weights
2
4oring 4ars
:r$nance A""lications
Conclu$ing ,e#ar;s
1. The Metallurgy of Tungsten Heavy Alloys
The na#e &tungsten& is $erive$ fro# the S1e$ish ter# #eaning &heavy stone&.
Tungsten has 8een assigne$ the che#ical sy#8ol W after its 0er#an na#e wolfram.
While so#eti#es regar$e$ as a scarce or e.otic #etal2 its a8un$ance in nature is actually
a8out the sa#e as that of co""er. The largest ;no1n tungsten reserves are in #ainlan$
China2 though "lentiful reserves also e.ist in (orth A#erica.
Tungsten has the highest #elting "oint <3/1=C or 617=3> of all #etals. The
e.tre#ely high #elting "oint of "ure tungsten #a;es all the co##on #anufacturing
techni?ues use$ for #etals such as iron i#"ractical. S"eciali5e$ #etho$s #a;e "ossi8le
the "rocessing of "ure tungsten into ro$2 sheet2 an$ 1ire for a 1i$e variety of high
te#"erature a""lications inclu$ing incan$escent la#" 1ire2 T@0 1el$ing electro$es2 an$
high te#"erature heat shiel$ing.
Another i#"ortant in$ustrial "ro"erty of tungsten is its high $ensity of 1A.3 g+cc
<=.7= l8s+in
3
>. @n a$$ition to high gravi#etric $ensity2 its high ra$iogra"hic $ensity #a;es
it an i$eal #aterial for shiel$ing or colli#ating energetic .) an$ )ra$iation. 3or such
a""lications2 tungsten is co##only alloye$ in or$er to circu#vent the e.tre#ely high
"rocessing te#"eratures that 1oul$ other1ise 8e re?uire$ to #elt an$ cast the "ure #etal.
Tungsten heavy alloys <WHAs> are i$eally suite$ to a 1i$e range of $ensity
a""lications2 offering a $ensity a""roaching that of "ure tungsten 8ut 1ithout the very
costly "rocessing an$ inherent si5e an$ sha"e li#itations of the for#er. WHAs are
"ro$uce$ 8y a "o1$er #etallurgy <!+M> techni?ue ;no1n as li?ui$ "hase sintering <9!S>2
in 1hich co#"letely $ense2 fully alloye$ "arts are for#e$ fro# "resse$ #etal "o1$ers at a
te#"erature less than half the #elting "oint of "ure tungsten. While sintere$ steel an$
co""er alloy "arts co##only contain significant resi$ual "orosity that #ay re?uire
"oly#eric infiltrants to seal2 sintere$ WHAs have a non"orous surface.
WHA "arts are #anufacture$ fro# very fine2 high "urity #etal "o1$ers B ty"ically
tungsten2 nic;el2 an$ iron. The 8len$e$ #etal "o1$er is co#"acte$ un$er high "ressure
<u" to 3= ;si> to for# a s"ecific sha"e that is very close to the geo#etry of the final "art.
4y utili5ing this near net sha"e for#ing a""roach2 econo#y is reali5e$ 8y the eli#ination
of e.cess #aterial an$ the ti#e an$ energy necessary to re#ove un1ante$ stoc; fro# #ill
sha"es. !resse$ "arts are then su8Cecte$ to high te#"erature sintering in hy$rogen. As the
"arts are slo1ly heate$2 the hy$rogen re$uces #etal o.i$es "resent an$ "rovi$es a clean2
active surface on each of the very s#all #etal "articles. As te#"erature increases further2
che#ical $iffusion ta;es "lace 8et1een "articles. (ec; gro1th occurs 8et1een "articles2
an$ surface energy $rives "ore eli#ination an$ "art $ensification. The "resse$ "art shrin;s
unifor#ly2 1ith a8out 2=D linear shrin;age <e?uating to a""ro.i#ately 5=D volu#etric
shrin;age> 8eing ty"ical. :nce the te#"erature is sufficiently high to for# the li?ui$
3
"hase2 any re#aining $ensification occurs very ?uic;ly as the alloy assu#es a
&s"heroi$i5e$& #icrostructure 8y a #echanis# ;no1 as :st1al$ ,i"ening. The sintere$
structure of a co##on co##ercial WHA is t1o)"hase2 consisting of a lin;e$ net1or; of
tungsten s"heroi$s containe$ in the $uctile #atri. "hase.
The s"heroi$i5e$ #icrostructure sho1n 8elo1 is ty"ical for #ost co##ercial WHA
"ro$ucts. The roun$e$ "hase <E3=)6= # in $ia#eter> is essentially "ure tungsten2 1hich
is surroun$e$ 8y a #etallic nic;el)iron 8in$er "hase containing so#e $issolve$ tungsten.
This structure "rovi$es the #a.i#u# #echanical "ro"erties for a given alloy co#"osition.
Through the "rocess of "ressing an$ 9!S2 #etal "o1$ers are transfor#e$ into fully $ense
sha"es that are very close to the $i#ensions of the finishe$ "arts.
WHAs can su8se?uently 8e su8Cecte$ to "ost sinter heat treat#ent an$ #echanical
$efor#ation to increase tensile "ro"erties an$ create $irectional #icrostructures. While
such o"erations are co##only re?uire$ for #ilitary a""lications2 co##ercial WHAs
generally $o not re?uire this a$$itional "rocessing an$ are su""lie$ in the as)sintere$ state
for #a.i#u# econo#y.
WHAs are a s"ecial class of #aterials2 $iffering fro# "ure tungsten. They share
al#ost no co##on characteristics 1ith &tungsten steels& <high s"ee$ T gra$e steels>.
While this #anual focuses on stan$ar$ co##ercial gra$e WHAs2 it is also "ossi8le to
"rovi$e tungsten)nic;el)iron alloys that haveF
)))ensity ranging to 1A.= g+cc
)))Tensile elongation u" to 35D
)))Har$ness to H,C //
)))Tensile strength to 2== ;si or greater
Certain si5e an$ sha"e li#itations a""ly 1hen these "ost)sinter "rocessing ste"s are
re?uire$. This $esign #anual has 8een co#"ile$ to convey so#e of the s"ecial
characteristics of this fa#ily of #aterials that 1ill 8e of i#"ortance to "ro"er $esign an$
use. :nly 8y o8serving these gui$elines can o"ti#u# "ro$uct $esign2 econo#y2 an$
"erfor#ance 8e reali5e$. We at Tungsten !ro$ucts strive to "rovi$e you B the custo#er B
1ith the 8est #aterial an$ #ost co#"lete technical su""ort availa8le in the in$ustry to$ay.
/
Tungsten Phase
spheroidized by LPS
bcc crystal structure
high modulus
Binder Phase
Ni-Fe-W solid solution
fcc crystal structure
high ductility
2. Alloy Selection Criteria
Why Use WHAs?
WHAs "rovi$e a uni?ue co#8ination of $ensity2 #echanical strength2 #achina8ility2
corrosion resistance2 an$ econo#y. Conse?uently2 WHAs are 1i$ely use$ for
counter1eights2 inertial #asses2 ra$iation shiel$ing2 s"orting goo$s2 an$ or$nance
"ro$ucts. These versatile #aterials "rovi$e $istinct a$vantages 1hen co#"are$ to
alternate high $ensity #aterials2 as seen in the ta8le 8elo1.
Material ensity
!g"cc#
Tensile
Strength
Stiffness Machin-
ability
To$icity %adio-
acti&ity
'ost
W() *+,--*.,- moderate high e$cellent lo/ none moderate
Lead **,0 ma$, &ery lo/ &ery lo/ &ery lo/ high none lo/
1ranium *2,+-*2,. moderate medium special high present high
As can 8e seen fro# these $ata2 WHA overco#es the to.icity2 $efor#a8ility2 an$ inferior
$ensity of lea$ an$ its alloys. 9i;e1ise2 it can "rovi$e e?uivalent $ensity to $e"lete$
uraniu# <G> 8ut 1ithout the s"ecial #achining consi$erations <necessary $ue to its
"yro"horicity> an$ licensing re?uire#ents for a ra$ioactive su8stance. WHA is truly the
#aterial of choice for high $ensity a""lications. These uni?ue alloys "rovi$e the $esigner
1ith #any ne1 free$o#s.
There is one s"ecial category of $ensity a""lications in 1hich WHAs shoul$ not 8e
use$. 3or a""lications in 1hich the service te#"erature 1ill e.cee$ E3==C2 slight surface
o.i$ation 1ill occur in air. @t is i#"ortant to note that at service te#"eratures e.cee$ing
E5==C2 WHA strength 1ill fall off ra"i$ly even in a "rotective at#os"here. 3or these
s"ecial cases2 "ure tungsten #ay "rovi$e a 8etter o"tion. @f reactive at#os"heres are
"resent in co#8ination 1ith elevate$ te#"erature2 the 8est choice for very $ense #aterials
1ill 8e the "latinu# grou" #etals B 8ut at e.tre#ely high cost.
Density
ensity is the single #ost i#"ortant "ro"erty that #a;es a WHA the #aterial of
choice for a given a""lication. The selection of a s"ecific co#"osition for a given $ensity
a""lication #ay ulti#ately 8e #a$e on the 8asis of concurrent #echanical "ro"erty
re?uire#ents or sintering consi$erations2 unless a s"ecific value of $ensity is critical.
WHAs can a""roach the $ensity of "ure tungsten an$ G 1ithout the high cost of the
for#er or the licensing an$ s"ecial han$ling re?uire#ents of the latter.
5
As is true 1ith #ost #echanical $esigns2 the o"ti#u# $esign is the one that
a$e?uately a$$resses all critical "ara#eters an$ offers the 8est co#"ro#ise of the
re#aining o"tions. As the $ensity of a WHA is increase$2 the availa8le $uctility $ecreases.
Alloy $ensity varies accor$ing to tungsten content2 as can 8e seen in the follo1ing ta8le of
Tungsten !ro$ucts stan$ar$ alloys.
TP
)lloy3
'omposition
!Wt, 4#
M5L-T-6*-*0
'lassification
Typical ensity
!g"cc# !lbs"in
6
#
Magnetic
Permeability !#
S*+- .-W-!7Ni"Fe# 'lass * *+,*0 -,8*. >8,-
ens6* .-W-!+Ni"Fe# 'lass * *+,6- -,866 *,-6-*,-9
S*+9 .6,9W-!7Ni"Fe# 'lass 6 *+,86 -,87+ 0,9-9,-
ens67 .6,9W-!+Ni"Fe# 'lass 6 *+,88 -,872 *,-6-*,-9
S*2- .9W-!7Ni"Fe# 'lass 7 *2,*7 -,899 0,--0,9
ens69 .9W-!+Ni"Fe# 'lass 7 *2,*8 -,898 *,-*-*,-6
S*29 .+W-!7Ni"Fe# 'lass 0 *2,9+ -,8+* 6,9-7,-
@n a$$ition to these stan$ar$ co#"ositions2 Tungsten !ro$ucts can also #anufacture
custo# alloys. !lease in?uire 1ith any s"ecial a""lications you #ay have.
Mechanical ro!erties
Mechanical "ro"erties of #o$ern WHAs far sur"ass those availa8le fro# WHAs
even a fe1 $eca$es ago. Three factors "ri#arily contri8ute to this a$vanceF <1> higher
"urity ra1 #aterials2 <2> cleaner an$ #ore "recisely controlle$ "rocess environ#ents2 an$
<3> the use of #o$ern tungsten)nic;el)iron <W)(i)3e> co#"ositions rather than the ol$er
alloys containing co""er.
@t is also i#"ortant to note as a general consi$eration that #a.i#u# attaina8le
"ro"erties for these alloys varies 1ith the si5e of the 8lan;. This is a $irect conse?uence of
the nature of the sintering o"eration use$ to #a;e the "arts. A nu#8er of gra$ients B
ther#al2 che#ical2 an$ gravitational B e.ist $uring sintering. As the #a.i#u# section
thic;ness of a given "art is increase$2 ther#oche#ical re#oval of i#"urities fro# the
center of the "resse$ "art "rior to surface "ore closure 8eco#es #ore $ifficult. Therefore2
s#all "arts 1ill al1ays ten$ to have higher #echanical "ro"erties than larger ones.
Tungsten !ro$ucts offers a stan$ar$ set of co##ercial alloys that confor# to M@9)T)
21=1/2 ASTM 4777)*72 an$ AMS)77254 re?uire#ents for #echanical "ro"erties. As
seen in the ta8le 8elo12 the no#inal "ro"erties liste$ #eet or e.cee$ these s"ecification
re?uire#ents. All values sho1n are for #aterial in the as)sintere$ state2 as this is the #ost
co##only su""lie$ con$ition of the #aterial for co##ercial a""lications.
TP )lloy3 Wt,4 W 1TS !:si# -,64 ;S !:si# <L !4# <lastic Modulus
!$ *-
8
psi#
(ardness
!(%'#
S*+- .- *6- 2- *- 09 6+
ens6* .- **- 2- 2 09 6+
S*+9 .6,9 *6- 2- 8 02 6+
6
ens67 .6,9 **- 2- 6 02 6+
S*2- .9 *6- +9 0 9- 62
ens69 .9 **. +9 7 9- 62
S*29 .+ **- +9 7 96 62
All WHAs are susce"ti8le to hy$rogen e#8rittle#ent2 1hich lo1ers the $uctility of
the alloy. Tungsten !ro$ucts can "rovi$e alloys in a hy$rogen outgasse$ <vacuu#
anneale$> con$ition2 1hich in so#e cases #ay $ou8le the tensile elongation. 3urther
"ro"erty enhance#ents are "ossi8le through a$$itional "ost)sinter "rocessing. 3or
structural <loa$ 8earing> a""lications2 it is reco##en$e$ that #aterial 8e use$ in the #ost
$uctile con$ition feasi8le for the given "art.
Ther"al an# $lectrical ro!erties
The "ro"erties of WHA are governe$ 8y the "ro"erties of its "rinci"al constituent2
tungsten. While "ro"erties 1ill vary slightly 1ith tungsten content2 8in$er co#"osition2
an$ #icrostructure2 several "ro"erties 1ill 8e cite$ for a ty"ical alloy such as S175. This
#aterial 1ill have a ther#al con$uctivity of E12= W+#)H an$ a corres"on$ing electrical
con$uctivity of E13D @ACS. The ther#al e."ansion is very lo12 1ith a CT% of
E5.=%)6+C at 2=C. The s"ecific heat of S175 is E=.36 cal+g+C. While the #elting
"oint of "ure tungsten is e.tre#ely high2 WHAs 1ill 8egin to for# a li?ui$ "hase 1hen
heate$ in e.cess of E1/5=C <26/23>. WHAs are not suita8le for high te#"erature
a""lications.
%Mag% versus %&on'Mag%
@t is unfortunate that in$ustry literature has $escri8e$ fa#ilies of &#agnetic& an$
&non)#agnetic& WHAs2 thus i#"lying significant #agneti5ation of the for#er.
&Magnetic& $enotes a reasona8le attraction to a #agnet B not that the WHA itself 8ehaves
as a "er#anent #agnet in the con$ition su""lie$. The #agnetic res"onse of WHAs is #ost
co##only #easure$ 1ith an instru#ent such as the Low Mu Permeability Indicator
<Severn %ngineering Co.2 Anna"olis2 M>. 4y governing in$ustry s"ecifications2 &non)
#agnetic& character is $efine$ as a #agnetic "er#ea8ility of 1.=5 or less B a con$ition
in$icate$ 8y this tester on a go+no)go 8asis. This is roughly the sa#e level of #agnetic
res"onse as that of a ty"ical austenitic stainless steel. A strong neo$y#iu# #agnet 1ill
stic; 1ea;ly to either #aterial2 thus in$icating this res"onse is a #atter of $efinition rather
than true &either+or& character. As 8oth classes of WHA are electrical con$uctors2 e$$y
currents can 8e in$uce$ in either one if su8Cecte$ to an %M fiel$. &(on)#agnetic& WHAs
are ty"ically use$ 1henever e.isting <functional> #agnetic fiel$s cannot 8e "ertur8e$ in
ra$iation e?ui"#ent an$ for certain 1ell logging "ro8es in 1hich the shiel$ing is
"ositione$ near electrical sensors or 1hen #agneto#eter scanning is "erfor#e$.
Historically2 the ol$er tungsten)nic;el)co""er co#"ositions have 8een use$ in these
a""lications. While current &non)#ag& tungsten)nic;el)iron for#ulations "rovi$e
i#"rove$ #echanical "ro"erties2 their "ro"erties are still lo1er than those availa8le fro#
7
&#ag& gra$es. Therefore2 unless s"ecifically re?uire$ 8y a given a""lication2 stan$ar$
&#agnetic& alloys are the 8etter choice.
<I liste$ alloy characteristics are for reference only an$ su8Cect to change 1ithout notice>
(. Design Consi#erations
!o1$er #etallurgy <!+M> offers t1o o"tions for WHA #anufacturing B near net
sha"e 8lan;s or net sha"e "arts. These consi$erations a""ly as 1ell to !+M "arts of
#aterials such as co""er an$ steel as 1ell. 3urther2 the s"ecific nature of WHA "resents
a$$itional consi$erations that #ust ta;en into account in the $esign "rocess.
The &ature an# A#vantages of )M
!+M is a very useful #o$ern #anufacturing "rocess that "rovi$es a #eans of
"ro$ucing "arts fro# 8len$e$ #etal "o1$ers that circu#vents the nee$ to start 1ith larger
than nee$e$ #ill sha"es an$ then s"en$ #oney an$ ti#e re#oving e.cess stoc;. Through
!+M2 in$ivi$ual "arts can so#eti#es 8e #a$e <net sha"e> 1ithout any #achining in the
follo1ing series of ste"sF
POWDER PRESS SINTER
This se?uence is ty"ically li#ite$ to s#aller "arts that have no significant angular features2
thin 1alls2 e.tre#e $i#ensions2 1e8s2 ste"s2 or un$ercuts. Consistent "ress $ensity in such
"arts #ust 8e #aintaine$ so as to create unifor# shrin;age in sintering. !arts are ty"ically
co#"acte$ in a unia.ial hy$raulic "ress2 an$ #ay necessitate the use of an organic 8in$er
that is re#ove$ "rior to sintering. A slight relief angle on vertical si$es is also useful to ai$
in $a#age)free "art release an$ eCection fro# the "ressing $ie. This fa8rication route
"rovi$es the 8est econo#y. Gn$er certain con$itions2 sintere$ $i#ensions can 8e hel$ to
=.5D or 8etter. !+M favors the "ro$uction of 8lan; sha"es 1ith reasona8ly unifor#
$i#ensions. Therefore2 e.tre#e co#8inations such as large area+#ini#al thic;ness2 s#all
hori5ontal section+$ee" fill2 an$ significant front to 8ac; geo#etry $ifferences shoul$
li;e1ise 8e avoi$e$ in the $esign "hase if this si#"lifie$ fa8rication a""roach is $esire$.
Most "arts ho1ever2 8y nature of si5e or geo#etric co#"le.ity2 re?uire so#e
secon$ary #achining an$ are fa8ricate$ as near net sha"e 8lan;s as follo1sF
POWDER PRESS SINTER MACHINE
This a""roach is #an$atory for co#"onents containing angular features an$ ste"s an$ for
si#"le sha"es 1ith very tight $i#ensional re?uire#ents. @t is i#"ortant to ;ee" in #in$
for "arts of critical 1eight an$ tight tolerance that so#e "rovision 8e #a$e for 1eight
a$Cust#ent to co#"ensate for slight variations in $ensity fro# no#inal values on a "er)
"iece 8asis. A$$itional constraints #ay a""ly 1hen "ost)sinter "rocessing is re?uire$.
*
uring high te#"erature 9!S2 gravity ten$s to $istort or &slu#"& "arts. This
8ehavior 8eco#es #ore "ro#inent the greater the "art height is 1ith res"ect to the 8asal
area. Higher DW alloys shoul$ 8e use$ for greater slu#" resistance. 3or #any
a""lications2 $ue to these !+M consi$erations2 a A2.5DW alloy 1ill 8e a goo$ choice.
Single iece or Multi'art?
While conventional 1is$o# hol$s that there is econo#y in si5e2 this "hiloso"hy has a
li#it 1hen a""lie$ to !+M. As "art si5e increases2 attaina8le #echanical "ro"erties
$ecrease slightly. 9arge "arts also invite the for#ation of a front to 8ac; $ensity gra$ient2
es"ecially in lo1er DW alloys. Also2 as "art si5e increases2 #achining allo1ances #ust
also 8e increase$ to guarantee clean u" of the 8lan; to the finishe$ geo#etry. 'ery tall
"arts 1oul$ "rove i#"ractical to #a;e as a single "iece 8ecause of furnace height
li#itations an$ ten$ency for gravitation colla"se $uring 9!S.
The solution for large or s"ecial geo#etry "arts is to fa8ricate the# as s#aller
&8uil$ing 8loc;s& 1hich can either 8e #echanically fastene$ to su""orting structures or
furnace 8ra5e$ into a large #onolithic co#"onent an$ then #achine$. The 8uil$ing 8loc;
a""roach also #a;es "ossi8le the creation of functionally gra$ient #aterials 1hen utili5e$
in furnace 8ra5e$ or sinter 8on$e$ asse#8lies.
:riginal re?uire#ent 4etter o"tion
Ma;ing a large 1eight co#"onent as a series of s#aller2 #echanically attache$ ones
overco#es #anufacturing si5e li#itations an$ can result in 8etter #echanical "ro"erties
an$ #ore econo#ical "arts that if $a#age$ in service2 can 8e re"lace$ 8y section as nee$e$
rather than as a 1hole.
A
esire$ "art too
large+tall for
$e"en$a8le 9!S
!art asse#8le$
<8ra5e$> fro# 3
&8uil$ing 8loc;s&
for #achining
Tungsten !ro$ucts currently offers 7 stan$ar$ gra$es of WHA in a variety of 8loc;2
flat2 an$ roun$ sha"es B or custo# #achine$ to final for#. Si5es can range fro# gra#
1eight to #any hun$re$s of ;ilogra#s. Sheet is availa8le in thic;nesses $o1n to =.=25&.
%*a#iation +oints%
Many cylin$rical sha"e$ ra$ioisoto"e containers having noncircular ra$ial 1in$o1s
1oul$ 8e virtually i#"ossi8le to #anufacture as a single "iece2 as it 1oul$ 8e e.tre#ely
$ifficult to $evise a #etho$ to %M the a"erture an$ "reserve any shar" angular $efinition.
The solution is to e#"loy Tungsten !ro$ucts &ra$iation Coint& construction2 1hich "revents
any "ossi8ility of straight line of sight ra$iation lea;age 8y #eans of geo#etric offsets in
the #ating halves. As seen in the transverse cross sectional $iagra#s 8elo12 even very
carefully #achine$ flat Coints can allo1 so#e ra$iation "enetration. 4y use of a si#"le
ste"2 the ris; of $irect line lea;age fro# the containe$ source is eli#inate$. A #ore
ela8orate Coint 1ith larger offsets that further re$uces ra$ial features #ay 8e Custifie$ in
so#e a""lications. Securing har$1are such as 8olts can 8e also #a$e of WHA to "reserve
"rotection level.
!oor 0oo$ 4etter
reserving Ma,i"u" Mechanical Strength
0oo$ #echanical $esigns avoi$ unnecessary stress concentration. This is es"ecially
i#"ortant consi$ering the notch sensitivity of all WHAs. Attention to $etails such as the
shar"ness of internal corners2 root ra$ii of notches2 grooves an$ threa$s2 an$ the "ro.i#ity
of holes or other cutouts to "art e$ges hel" "reserve the #a.i#u# attaina8le strength fro#
a WHA "art. Concave ra$ii shoul$ 8e li#ite$ to =.=2=& or greater 1henever "ossi8le.
Holes shoul$ not 8e locate$ closer than 1.5 ti#es hole $ia#eter fro# the e$ge of a "art.
While #ost 1eights are re?uire$ to su""ort only lo1 acceleration centrifugal or inertial
loa$s2 these strength of #aterials consi$erations 8eco#e even #ore i#"ortant in "arts that
also serve a structural function or are utili5e$ in high s"ee$ a""lications.
!oor
"ractice
1=
source
0oo$
"ractice
-. Machining .ui#elines
A "rinci"al a$vantage of WHAs over "ure tungsten for $ensity a""lications is their
a8ility to 8e rea$ily #achine$ into co#"le. geo#etries using co##on #etalcutting tools
an$ techni?ues. While it is generally sai$ that WHAs #achine si#ilar to gray cast iron2
this $escri"tion can 8e #islea$ing. 9o1er DW alloys 1ith high $uctility ten$ to #achine
#ore li;e a stainless steel of co#"ara8le har$ness. ue to the high elastic stiffness of
WHAs2 cutting forces 1ill 8e higher than for #ost #etals. ,igi$ tooling an$ a$e?uate
s"in$le tor?ue are #an$atory for goo$ results. Coolant+lu8ricants2 if e#"loye$2 shoul$ 8e
the non)al;aline2 1ater solu8le ty"e.
Sa/ing
4lan;s of WHA #ay 8e rea$ily cut using a heavy $uty sho" 8an$sa1 e?ui""e$ 1ith either
a 8i)#etal 8la$e 1ith hoo; "rofile teeth or a seg#ente$ e$ge car8i$e 8la$e at lo1 s"ee$
<1==)25= sf#>. Coolant is not re?uire$ for 8an$sa1 sectioning. WHAs #ay also 8e cut on
an a8rasive sa1 using alu#ina or silicon car8i$e 8la$es 1ith coolant.
.rin#ing
WHAs are ca"a8le of e.cellent surface finishes 1hen centerless or surface groun$.
'itrifie$ 8on$ alu#ina or silicon car8i$e 1heels of #e$iu# har$ness are reco##en$e$. A
1ater solu8le coolant shoul$ 8e use$. ia#on$ 1heels shoul$ not 8e use$ $ue to ra"i$
loa$ing. Surface grin$ing of very thin stoc; shoul$ 8e "erfor#e$ carefully so as to avoi$
8o1ing fro# intro$uce$ resi$ual stress.
Milling
'irtually all co##ercial WHAs easily for# short chi"s 1hen #achine$. The
e.ce"tion to this rule is lo1 DW alloys su""lie$ in a very $uctile state2 in 1hich case
chi"8rea;ing #ust 8e a$$resse$ in tooling selection. Milling of WHAs is 8est "erfor#e$
using #ulti)insert cutter hea$s. The use of coolant+lu8ricant is o"tional.
Roughing
5S= 'arbide
>rade
%a:e
!#
'learance
!#
<dge
Tolerance
Tooth
Load !in#
epth of
'ut !in#
Speed
!sfm#
11
?*9 or ?6- -+ to - - > -,--9--,-*9 -,-7---,*69 6---0--
Finishing
5S= 'arbide
>rade
%a:e
!#
'learance
!#
<dge
Tolerance
Tooth
Load !in#
epth of
'ut !in#
Speed
!sfm#
?*9 or ?6- - to @+ - to -** > -,--7--,-*- -,--9--,-7- 7---9--
So#e #o$ern cutter+insert co#8inations 1ill "er#it $e"ths of cut on roughing to e.cee$
=.25& on #achines of sufficient "o1er. 4est final surface finish is "ro#ote$ 8y the use of
large nose ra$ius inserts2 high s"in$le s"ee$s2 light fee$ rates2 an$ "ositive ra;e inserts.
While coate$ inserts offer i#"rove$ life 1hen #achining #ost #etals2 this a$vantage is
so#eti#es offset 1hen #achining WHAs $ue to the higher cutting forces create$ 8y the
roun$e$ <hone$> e$ges necessary for coating of the insert.
Turning)0acing)1oring
While HSS cutting tools can 8e use$2 o"ti#u# "erfor#ance 1ill 8e reali5e$ through
the use of shar" e$ge$ car8i$e inserts. @f chatter occurs 1ith longer e.tensions2 toolhol$ers
fa8ricate$ fro# WHA "rovi$e the 8est solution to the "ro8le#.
Roughing
5S= 'arbide
>rade
%a:e
!#
'learance
!#
<dge
Tolerance
Feed %ate
!ipr#
epth of
'ut !in#
Speed
!sfm#
?*9 or ?6- -+ to - - > -,--9--,-6- -,-7---,*69 6---79-
Finishing
5S= 'arbide
>rade
%a:e
!#
'learance
!#
<dge
Tolerance
Feed %ate
!ipr#
epth of
'ut !in#
Speed
!sfm#
?*9 or ?6- - to + +-** > -,--9--,-*- -,--9--,-*9 69--0--
:"ti#al insert geo#etry for 8oth turning an$ #illing 1ill 8e $eter#ine$ 8y the s"ecific
a""lication. ia#on$ sha"es fro# 35)*= all 1or; 1ell2 1ith larger angles "rovi$ing
#ore $ura8le cutting e$ges an$ also offering the "ossi8ility of using the co#"le#entary
angle corners as 1ell. He.agonal inserts "rovi$e further econo#y 1ith 6 usa8le cutting
e$ges 8ut are restricte$ fro# #achining narro1 features.
Drilling
Stan$ar$ surface treate$ HSS t1ist $rill 8its generally "erfor# satisfactorily. 'ery
high DW alloys or s"ecial high har$ness WHAs #ay #an$ate the use of car8i$e 8its. As
hole si5e $ecreases2 attention to clearance an$ $e8ris re#oval 8eco#e #ore critical to
avoi$ sei5ing or 8rea;age. The use of ta""ing lu8ricant is reco##en$e$.
Ta!!ing
12
Ta""ing can 8e the #ost challenging o"eration for WHAs $ue to the high resultant
tor?ue on the ta" shan;. 3or this reason2 2 or 3 flute2 "ositive ra;e2 s"iral "oint2 high
clearance ta"s shoul$ 8e use$. !re#iu# co8alt steel ta"s "erfor# 8est for this a""lication.
The use of ta""ing co#"oun$ <such as a heavy sulfonate$ oil> is essential. Choose the
coarsest threa$ "ossi8le for a given $ia#eter an$ a""lication. Holes shoul$ 8e ta""e$ to
co#"letion 1ithout 8ac; trea$ing to avoi$ 8in$ing. With care2 threa$s as fine as 2)56 can
8e successfully ta""e$. @t is generally 8est to ta" large holes 1ith a single "oint tool. 3or
other $ifficult to ta" situations2 the use of a slightly larger "ilot hole #ay solve the "ro8le#
8ut 1ith re$uce$ threa$ engage#ent area.
$DM Sha!ing
%M2 8oth 1ire an$ sin;er ty"es2 are routinely use$ to sha"e WHA 8lan;s. %M
shoul$2 ho1ever2 8e a &last resort& techni?ue for several reasons. 3irst2 it is inefficient
co#"are$ to #etalcutting alternatives. WHAs have high arc erosion resistance2 an$ are
occasionally use$ as %M tools. %M sha"ing is therefore very slo1. Also2 even at
lo1er s"ar; energy settings2 %M can still intro$uce surface layer $a#age that can in
so#e a""lications "rove $etri#ental. Gsing %M to sha"e highly $uctile WHAs can
so#eti#es e#8rittle the# through reintro$uction of hy$rogen into the #etal. Still2 %M
re#ains the only "ractical sha"ing techni?ue in so#e s"ecific a""lications. An e.a#"le is
the #achining of 8lin$2 non)circular holes 1ith relatively shar" corners an$ ta"er.
Ther"al Contouring
Techni?ues such as o.yfuel2 "las#a Cet2 an$ laser cutting are not reco##en$e$ for
WHAs. These #etho$s ty"ically "ro$uce unacce"ta8le levels of o.i$ation an$ ty"ically
"ro$uce locali5e$ ther#al crac;ing.
13
2. +oining
WHA can rea$ily 8e Coine$ to itself or other #aterials. Whenever feasi8le2
#echanical #etho$s of attach#ent are "referre$2 as they avoi$ "ossi8le ther#oche#ical
alteration an$ its effect on local #echanical "ro"erties.
Mechanical
-oining is #ost co##only "erfor#e$ using stan$ar$ fasteners such as 8olts an$ "ins.
WHA "arts can 8e li;e1ise 8e threa$e$ to "erfor# as fasteners <in such a""lications as
ra$iation shiel$ing>. @n choosing a #echanical Coining #etho$2 it is i#"ortant to ;ee" in
#in$ the notch sensitivity2 i#"act sensitivity2 an$ lo1 CT% of WHAs. Threa$s shoul$
have as generous a root ra$ius as "ossi8le for #a.i#u# strength. @#"act fastening
techni?ues such as riveting are not reco##en$e$. Shrin; fitting is "ossi8le "rovi$e$ the
WHA "art is the inner #e#8er. 3or shrin; fitting2 an interference fit of E=.==5& "er si$e is
"re"are$ an$ the WHA "art coole$ in $ry ice or 9(
2
1hile the outer #e#8er is heate$ to
several hun$re$ $egrees 8efore fit u".
1ra3ing
1/
4ra5ing is 8est "erfor#e$ in a hy$rogen furnace to "rotect the WHA "art fro#
o.i$ation. A variety of filler #etals such as "ure co""er2 #onel2 an$ stan$ar$ 8ra5ing
alloys 8ase$ on co""er2 silver2 an$+or nic;el can 8e use$. 4ra5ing te#"erature constraints
an$ the en$ a""lication generally $eter#ine the filler #etal choice. 9arge co#"onents can
8e asse#8le$ fro# a nu#8er of s#aller "ieces using this a""roach. As 1ith any 8ra5ing
o"eration2 goo$ Coint "re"aration is essential for "ro$ucing fully 8on$e$ interfaces.
Clearances of E=.==2& or less are ty"ical. 4ra5ing can alter the che#istry 1ithin the
i##e$iate vicinity of the Coint. !oints of attach#ent shoul$ not 8e locate$ along such
5ones. Manual torch 8ra5ing using a flu. is also "ossi8le 8ut 1ill result in o.i$ation an$ is
li#ite$ to Coining s#aller co#"onents. 9o1 te#"erature sol$ers 1ill not 1et WHAs.
Wel#ing
Wel$ing is generally not "erfor#e$ on WHAs $ue to the vast $ifference in #elting
"oint 8et1een the W "hase an$ 8in$er "hase. A T@0 <0TA> torch can ho1ever 8e use$ as
a very intense heat source to flo1 fillers such as #onel2 "ure nic;el2 or nic;el)8ase$
su"eralloys into a Coint for a &?uasi)1el$&. This techni?ue re?uires #uch e."erience for
goo$ results.
Sinter 1on#ing
This is a techni?ue that is ty"ically li#ite$ to Coining "arts at the ti#e of #anufacture
to for# larger asse#8lies. !erfor#e$ in a hy$rogen furnace at the 9!S te#"erature2 sinter
8on$ing results in an invisi8le interface 1ith no local $egra$ation in #echanical "ro"erties.
4. 0inishing
WHAs are reasona8ly resistant to corrosion an$ are not susce"ti8le to stress
corrosion crac;ing <SCC> as is a co#"etitive high $ensity #aterial2 G. 3or so#e $ensity
a""lications such as aircraft counter8alance 1eights2 long ter# corrosion resistance
8eco#es a concern $ue to "ersistent e."osure to harsh environ#ents. @n such cases2 a
variety of "rotective finishes can 8e a""lie$. While relatively resistant to corrosion un$er
a#8ient con$itions2 e.tre#e hu#i$ity2 salt s"ray2 an$ the "resence of strong electrolytes
can "ro#"t surface corrosion. This is $ue to the electroche#ical $ifference 8et1een the
#atri. an$ the tungsten "hases2 1hich sets u" #icro)scale galvanic cells on the e."ose$
surface. The #atri. "hase is #ost rea$ily attac;e$ 8y aci$ic solutions2 1hereas the
tungsten "hase is #ost ra"i$ly $issolve$ 8y al;aline solutions. WHAs are not generally
use$ in #arine a""lications2 8ut shoul$ have a "rotective coating for any such use.
@t is i#"ortant to note that certain conversion coatings <8lac; o.i$e2 chro#ate2
"hos"hate2 etc.> though in 1i$es"rea$ in$ustrial use2 are not suita8le for WHAs. As an
e.a#"le2 the che#istry of 8lac; o.i$e "rocesses for steels is 8ase$ on the "resence of an
iron)rich surface2 1hich is $efinitely not the case for any co##ercial WHA. Therefore2 if
such a techni?ue is utili5e$2 the e."ecte$ a""earance an$ $ura8ility of o.i$e coating on
WHA 1ill not 8e achieve$. Si#ilarly2 ano$i5ing "rocesses 1hich are 1i$ely use$ for
15
alu#inu# an$ reactive #etals are not a""ro"riate for WHAs2 1hich 8y nature $o not for#
the sa#e ty"e of coherent surface o.i$e layer.
Conversely2 1hen a unifor# che#ical attac; is $esira8le <such as for $ecorative
etching2 #ar;ing2 or che#ical #achining>2 the sa#e electroche#ical $ifferences 8et1een
the t1o "hases co#"rising WHA "revents consistency of $issolution res"onse. While
8asic #ar;ing can 8e $one che#ically2 it 1ill not 8e unifor# on a #icrosco"ic scale. @f
high $efinition2 solvent resistant "atterns or @ #ar;ings are re?uire$ on WHA "arts2 it is
reco##en$e$ that either vi8ratory scri8e or laser #ar;ing syste#s 8e e#"loye$.
Metallic
Ca$#iu# "lating 1ith a chro#ate overcoat is co##only use$ for aircraft 1eights.
This ty"e of "lating is i$eal shoul$ the coating nee$ to 8e "erio$ically stri""e$. 3or #ore
$ura8le an$ less to.ic "rotective coatings2 nic;el is an e.cellent choice. Al;aline "lating
solutions shoul$ 8e use$ to avoi$ hy$rogen intro$uction into highly $uctile "arts.
5rganic
A variety of "oly#eric finishes2 inclu$ing e"o.y an$ acrylic 8ase$2 #ay 8e
effectively use$. :rganic coatings are "ro8a8ly the 8est choice in #ost a""lications.
!aints a$$itionally allo1 convenient color co$ing an$ @ #ar;ing of co#"onents 1hen
re?uire$. :rganic coatings also "rovi$e a $ielectric layer2 useful in "reventing the
for#ation of a galvanic cou"le 1hen WHA 1eights are fastene$ to $issi#ilar #etals such
as alu#inu# alloys. 3or o"ti#u# $ura8ility2 organic coatings shoul$ 8e $rie$ 8y 8a;ing
at the reco##en$e$ te#"erature to ensure the full set of curing reactions occur.
6. Ty!ical A!!lications
*a#iation Shiel#ing
Mo$ern in$ustrial ra$iogra"hy an$ oncology syste#s currently utili5e 8ea# energies
that can e.cee$ 2 Me' fro# isoto"ic sources an$ 1ell over 2= Me' fro# s#all
accelerators. The a8sor"tion 8ehavior of WHAs for high energy electro#agnetic ra$iation
is $erive$ fro# the high linear a8sor"tion coefficient of the "rinci"al tungsten "hase.
These alloys are e.cellent #aterials for the shiel$ing an$ colli#ation of .)an$ )ra$iation
$ue to their co#8ination of ra$iogra"hic $ensity2 #achina8ility2 strength2 an$ lo1 to.icity.
WHAs offer a su"erior "rotection level to lea$ in an e?uivalent thic;ness. 4ut unli;e lea$2
WHAs resist $efor#ation an$ can 8e accurately fastene$ B i#"ortant factors in the
construction of #ulti)leaf ra$iation colli#ators. WHA can 8e su""lie$ in the for# of thin
rolle$ an$ #achine$ sheet for such a""lications. 3or 8ul; shiel$ing a""lications2 Tungsten
!ro$ucts has #anufacture$ #any shiel$ing co#"onents in the 1==)1=== ;g si5e range.
9arge isoto"e containers can 8e fa8ricate$ 1ith co#"le. geo#etry ra$ial 8ea# "orts using
&ra$iation Coint& construction. Class 22 32 or / WHAs are ty"ically use$ for shiel$ing.
Aircraft Counterbalances
16
Counter8alance 1eights for fi.e$ an$ rotary 1ing aircraft have 8een use$ for #any
years. WHA 1eights2 unli;e lea$ 1hich cree"s un$er its o1n 1eight at roo# te#"erature2
can 8e securely fastene$ to aerostructures. @n contrast to G 1eights2 WHA 1eights are
free fro# SCC concerns2 s"ecial licensing re?uire#ents2 environ#ental issues2 an$ the
negative "u8lic res"onse to having #any "oun$s of ra$ioactive #aterial routinely flying
overhea$. WHA 1eights are ty"ically #achine$ fro# near net sha"e 8lan;s to "recise
tolerances an$ "rovi$e$ 1ith a "rotective coating to the custo#erJs s"ecification. This is
an a""lication 1here a coating is highly reco##en$e$ to resist corrosion fro# te#"erature
an$ #oisture cycling2 $e)icing flui$s2 aggressive aircraft cleaning flui$s2 an$ galvanic
contact 1ith fasteners an$ the airfra#e. Class 1 or 2 WHAs are #ost co##only use$.
Well 7ogging
WHA is an e.cellent casing #aterial for $o1n hole logging of oil 1ells. Casings
#ust 8e sufficiently heavy to rea$ily sin; through #aterials such as 8arite #u$ an$ strong
enough to 1ithstan$ the hy$rostatic "ressure of this harsh environ#ent. Most $esigns are
highly #achine$ for sensor an$ 1in$o1 "ositioning. Mechanical "ro"erties are very
significant to the surviva8ility of these rather large co#"onents. Tungsten !ro$ucts has
years of e."erience in "ro$ucing high "ro"erties in large 8ars of class 12 22 or 3 #aterial.
*acing Weights
rivers consistently re"ort they can sense $ifferences in ho1 a car han$les on the
trac; if the 1eight on a given 1heel varies only 8y a cou"le of "oun$s. 3ine tuning a car
to a given trac; is a very cu#8erso#e an$ ti#e consu#ing or$eal 1ith conventional lea$
"late 1eights. WHA 1eight 8loc;s offer u" to 5=D #ore 1eight in a given volu#e2 1ith
the a$$e$ a$vantages of $irect attach#ent via threa$e$ holes or thru)8olting an$ the
free$o# fro# $efor#ation that is a constant "ro8le# 1ith lea$. Class 1 or 2 WHAs are
#ost co##only use$. The high $ensity of WHAs "er#it 1eights to 8e "lace$ in the lo1er
half of (ASCA, 1eight a$Cust#ent tu8es2 effectively lo1ering the overall center of
gravity for i#"rove$ han$ling. Tungsten !ro$ucts has a s"eciali5e$ line of racing 1eights
for these a""lications.
1oring 1ars
The high $ensity2 high elastic <KoungJs> #o$ulus2 an$ co#"osite #icrostructure of
WHAs #a;e the# i$eal #aterials for lo1 chatter 8oring 8ars an$ long e.tension
toolhol$ers of various ty"es. WHAs are very stiff an$ resistant to $eflection. Their high
$ensity2 cou"le$ 1ith the t1o "hase #icrostructure of the alloy2 "rovi$e effective vi8ration
attenuation. Class 1 or 2 WHAs are #ost co##only use$.
5r#nance A!!lications
WHAs have 8een routinely use$ in high $ensity frag#enting $evices an$ ar#or
"iercing <A!> a##unition ranging fro# s#all cali8er 5.56 ## roun$s u" to 12= ## anti)
tan; "roCectiles an$ 8eyon$. Material for ;inetic energy "enetrators is ty"ically vacuu#
17
anneale$ an$ resolutioni5e$+?uenche$ for #a.i#u# $uctility <25)35D %9 ty"ical> an$
toughness "rior to 8eing col$ 1or;e$ 8y s1aging. efor#ation "rocessing generates a
$irectional #icrostructure2 high yiel$ strength <15=)2== ;si for #ost $esigns>2 an$ elevate$
har$ness </=)// H,C>. %ven higher #echanical "ro"erties are attaina8le fro# tungsten)
nic;el)co8alt co#"ositions. These high "ro"erty sets "rovi$e a useful in$ication of the
1i$e range of "ro"erties in 1hich WHAs can 8e su""lie$.
Conclu#ing Co""ents
We ho"e that this WHA esign Manual has "roven 8oth useful an$ interesting.
WHAs "rovi$e an e.tre#ely versatile "ro"erty set to $esign engineers2 an$ 1e at Tungsten
!ro$ucts strive to 8e the in$ustry lea$er not only in su""lying the highest "erfor#ance
alloys2 8ut also the 8est custo#er an$ technical su""ort availa8le. :ur @S: A==2
certification stan$s as "roof of our co##it#ent to ?uality. Whether your a""lication is
8est a$$resse$ 1ith stan$ar$ alloys or a co#"letely custo# "ro$uct2 1e 1elco#e your
s"ecific in?uiries.
Tungsten Products Your Best Choice
for
Tungsten Heavy Alloys
1*