This document provides an overview of basic microbiology, including definitions and examples of different types of microorganisms studied in microbiology such as bacteria, viruses, fungi, and parasites. It describes bacteriology, virology, mycology, and immunology. It then focuses on bacteria, discussing their morphology, structure, staining techniques, types of cell arrangements, and intracellular structures like flagella, pili, endospores, and more.
This document provides an overview of basic microbiology, including definitions and examples of different types of microorganisms studied in microbiology such as bacteria, viruses, fungi, and parasites. It describes bacteriology, virology, mycology, and immunology. It then focuses on bacteria, discussing their morphology, structure, staining techniques, types of cell arrangements, and intracellular structures like flagella, pili, endospores, and more.
This document provides an overview of basic microbiology, including definitions and examples of different types of microorganisms studied in microbiology such as bacteria, viruses, fungi, and parasites. It describes bacteriology, virology, mycology, and immunology. It then focuses on bacteria, discussing their morphology, structure, staining techniques, types of cell arrangements, and intracellular structures like flagella, pili, endospores, and more.
Micro biology: It is science dealing with the study of
minute microorganism. Microbiology included bacteriology, virology, Mycology, immunology. Bacteriology: It is science to deal with the study of the bacteria. Virology: It is science to deal with the study of the virus. Mycology: It is science to deal with the study of fungi. Immunology: It is the science to deal with the resistance of the body to any foreign substance. Parasitology It is the science to deal with Parasites. Bacteriology: Bacteria: It is unicellular microorganism capable of living independently performing all the physiological function essential for life as it contains all enzymes to perform vital activity. It is proaryotes ! reproduce by binary fission what is the type of cells depends on structure: "# Proaryote. $# %uaryote. Proaryote cells %uaryote cells &as primitive nucleus. Multiply by binary fission. &as no nuclear membrane. 'he ()* is one set of single circular &as true nucleus. Multiply by mitosis. &as nuclear membrane.
(ouble set of chromosome inside the " chromosome of double standard ()* in the cytoplasm. &as no organelles . Include bacteria, +icttsia, ,hlamydia ! Mycoplasma. nuclear membrane. &as organelles -ungi ! protozoa. Morphology of bacteria .hape arrangement size /"0 .hape : 'he bacteria is characterized by different shape and size / Pleomorphism0 . .o to determine the shape of bacteria must be during the lonarithmic phase of growth. /a0 ,occi : Means coccus i e spherical or oval or avoid. %1ample : .taphylococcus bacteria . .treptococcus bacteria. /b0 Bacilli or Bacillus : Means stic lie . it2s length is more than breadth . %1ample : Bacillus bacteria. ,lostridium bacteria. /c 0 ,occobacilli : %1ample ,oryne bacteria, %scherichia coli. /d0 .piral bacteria : 'he simplest form is coma shape: $ %1ample 3ibreo cholea. /e0 .pirullum: )on fle1uous rod, spiral . /f0 .pirocheates : .piral but fle1uous move by a1ial filament. /g0 long filamentous branched rod :. %1ample: *ctinomycetes ############################################################################ /B0 *rrangement / ,ell *ggregates 0 : # 4hen the bacteria reproduce by binary fission without separation form cell aggregates. # 'he shape of cell aggregates or the arrangement depend on o )o. of division o Plane of division. ,occi (iplococci .ingle divistion ! single plane of division e.g. )isseria ! pneumococci. 'efrad 5 group due to double division ! double plane of division . e.g. Micrococcus. .arcina 6 group dut to plane ! number of division. . .treptococci chain .ingle plane of division ! more than one number of division from chain 77777 .taphylococci More than ome division ! more than plane of division. 8 Bacilli (iplobacilli : e.g. Klebsiella, B. anthacoides. .ingle or separately arranged . e.g. salmonella .treptobacilli e.g. B. anthraces. ,hinese letter arrangement: v or 9 letter. e.g. Corynebacteria diphtheriae . ######################################################################### /, 0 .ize : Bacteria is measured by micron. Microne is the unite of measurement : " millimeter ";;; 4hile nanometer / millimicron 0 : " ";;; *ngestron : " millimicron # for virus &ow to measure the bacterial size < "# 7ccular and stage micrometry. $# %lectron microscope. 8#Photographic method # ,occi is " in bacilli vary =5> to =6> by " to ".? micron
? The bacterial structure is classified in to : %ssential *ccessory -ound in all bacteria may be found or not # ,ell wall # ,apsule # ,ell membrane # .lime layer. # ,ytoplasm or protoplasm # .pores # )ucleus of nuclear material # -lagella / ,hromatin material 0 # *1ial filament # Pilli # Metachromtic granules. Capsule : .ome bacteria has capsule or not / called capsulated bacteria or not 0. 7thers has capsule ! slime layer while others contain capsules only. It is gelatinous material compose of 9ipopolysaccharde or protein as in B. anthraces or glycoprotein . )ot stained e ordinary stain or appear as halos around the organism but accept stain with capsular stain = Indian in > and negative stain . Function : "# protection against phagocytosis /antiphagocytic function0 for virulence. $# Protection from dryness / loss of water ! nutritive substance0. 8# ,arry / capsular *g 0 / A 0 . 5# &elp in diagnosis because is high specific chemically ! immunologically ! thus allow for type differentiation as B in case of Macfadean reaction B. anthracis , Cuelling reaction pneamococci . Slime layer : Is loose soluble layer chemical structure as capsule but the water contents is high . 'his colloidal substance gives surface colonies a mucoid appearance as in lebseilla. . Cell Wall : Bacteria have well defined cell wall in compare with euaryote. It is non living rigid consider as e1oseleton. 'he bacteria are classified into gram positive ! gram negative bacteria . according to the structure of cell. !" #ram positi$e bacteria : * thic layer of peptidoglycan /?;#B;D0 of the cell wall content0 E teichoic acid /acidic polysaccharide0. .o the bacteria accept the crystal violet not decolorize by ethyl alcohol because the stain in integrate in the cell. %" #ram negati$e bacteria : * thin layer of peptidoglycan /?#$;D0 of cell wall and another membrane are made up of lipids, lipopolysaccharide /9P.0 ! Protein lipopolysacharide is a harmful substance classified as an endoto1in . #ram&s stain : consist of : "# ,rystal violet / primary#"ry stain 0 gram positive tae violet $# @ram iodine/mordant0. 8# %thyl alcohol . / decolourization 0 5# ,arbol fuschin / counter stain 0 gram negative tae pin color . F Function of cell 'all : "# *ct as e1oseleton. $# (etermines the shape. 8# *llow the classification of bacteria into gram positive and gram negative. 5# Protection to the cell from rupture e g. due to change in pressure /rigidity0. ?# ,arry somatic /7 *g0 which is importance in virulence. Flagella : (efinition: whip lie process, mae of flagellin protein /contractile protein0 resemble to myosin protein in muscle, originates from the cytoplasm. # 4hen it beats bacward, the bacteria move forward. # It can be seen e electron microscope. Function: "# It is responsible for motility. $# It is carry & antigen. 8# I. m in identification. -lagella are of great practical I . m to bacteriology since specific antisera can be prepared ! used for serological differentiation. 6 (istribution and number of flagella: Bacteria Motility: )on motile bacteria motile bacteria Brownian Movement 'rue movement / -alse movement 0 Method of detection of motility: G *trichate no flagella e.g. B. anthracis ,orynebacteria. Monotrichate 7ne flagella at " pole e.g3ibrio cholera 9ophotrichate tuft of flagella In both pole or one pole %1. Pseudomonas aeruginosa *mphitrichate 'wo flagella at both Pole e.g. 3. parahemolytica Peritrichate %scherichia coli %.coli 'richate )ot true , due to molecules in the liCuid stricing an obHect ! causing obHect to be vibrate at about the same rates ! maintain their relative position. 'he body contraction or a1ial filament . %.g. spirachaetes. -lagella )B : Move from one position to another "#(ar field microscope. $#Phase contrast microscope. 8#4et mount method. 5#&anging drop techniCue. Pilli or fimbria: (efine: short hair lie structure arising from cytoplasm made up of protein, shorter than flagella. # Present in some gram negative bacteria e.g. %.coli or )eisseria gonorrhoea. -unction : a0 *ttachment to each other, or attachment to host cells. b0 -or transfer of genetic material from one cell to another where they are able to be specialized pilli called se1 pilli. /-.pilli0. ############################################################################# Spores not in all bacteria " 4hen conditions for vegtative growth are not favourable, bacteria of the genera Bacillus and ,lostridium are able to survive by forming resistance endospore.
'hese spores are able to with stand cold, heat dehydration, or the action of disinfectants . * spore is unable to multiply , but when condition for vegetative growth return , it is able to produce bacterial cell which is capable of reproducing. .pore is not stained e ordinary stains as it appear as halos around the organism. It tae special stain called schaeffer fulton / malchite green 0 or (orner method. "; Malchite green E heat the spore/ green 0 ! the bacteria /Pin0 *lso modified Iiehl )eelsen stain in to we decolourize e ;.?D & $ .7 5 spore appear pin ! the body of bacilli blue. Type and position of spores : .hape Position bulged or .pherical central non bulged 7val or ovoid subterminal 'erminal e.g. clostridium tetani drumstic spore / .pherical , terminal and proHected 0. -unction : "# Protection of the bacteria from unfavorable condition. $# I.m in identification of bacteria . e.g. B . subtilis with stand radiation , J3 light , boiling at "$;, for "? minute. Formation of spore : 'he cell is divided by septum into two uneCual cell. 'he larger one is called Kmother cellK and the daughter cell. *nd the mother cell is surrounded the spore. "" *1ial filament : rotates giving a twisting and fle1ing movement Cell membrane : Formation : # It is formed due to condensation of cytoplasm toward outside. # It is formed of a lipid bilayer with protein embedded in between. (efine : It is semi permeable membrane found in all bacteria formed of phospholipids and protein. Function : "# It is the active part of bacterial cell function for proaryotes instead of organelles in euaryotes. $# It is the place of metabolic ! enzymatic activities e.g. respiration /transport energy e transport system 0. 8# ,ontrol the entry electrolytes , water ! transport of nutrients into the cell via carrier protein / transport protein permease 0 . 5# %1it of wastes out of the cell. Mesosomes: are folding up of cell membrane into finger lie protrusions or pocets that e1tend to cytoplasm. * place where chromosome is a attached during replication. Cytoplasm or protoplasm : "$ Internal content of cell gelatin lie solution made up of mainly water E nutrient / sugar , a a , salt L.0 . 4ithin cytoplasm : Chromatin )ucleod": @enetic material is made up of a single circular strand of ()* called the chromatin and no nuclear membrane / no true nucleus 0. 'he area in which ()* concentrated is called nucleoid. Function : ,arry information for function and survival of cell. *ibosomes : -unction : Place for protein synthesis . Made up of $ unit protein E r +)* It give the cytoplasm of bacteria a granular appear . #ranules Inclusions " : -unction : to store different types of nutrient and consume them when nutrients are not available in the environment . .tored nutrient as : %nergy rich organic compound . e.g. glycogen / .tored glucose 0 sulfur granules phosphate. Metachromatic granule $olatin " -ound due to abnormal metabolic or it is stored nutrient. It is scattered in cytoplasm as in case of ,orynbacterium diphteria or in both poles of cell / Bipolarity0 Pasteurella. .tained e special stain -unction identification. Main Protoplasmic compounds+ Carbohydrates ,ipids Proteins )ucleic Composition building bloc-" Simple sugars . amino group found as Triglycerides of F+/ phosphors in a+ a+ )ucleotides comple0 combination "8 *ol+c in the cell #lycogen Stored glucose" Cell 'all synthesis 1ssential energy source phospholipids Cell membrane 1nergy source 2 1n3ymes 2 Synthesis of organelles . other cell structures 'ith protein )ucleoproteins" 2 ()/ : Code for cell function . structure 20 Bacterial Cell & Nucleiod DNA Ring DNA replication Cell wall synthesis Cell separation 'ransverse Binary -ission a0 Parental cell . "5 b0 ,ell elongation size enlarged walls chromosome. (uplication E attached to mesosomes. c0,ell wall septum grow inwards , chromosomes move to opposite ends. .eptum formation E chromosome separate from mesosomes. d0 'wo identical daughter cells. Phases of #ro'th : 5 Phases : "# 9ag phase $# 9og phase . 8# .tationary phase . 5# (eath phase. !2,ag phase : Bacteria are first introduced into an environment or media. Bacteria are checing out their surrounding. ,ell are v . active metabolically. )o of cells changes v. little / does not increase 0. I hr to several days according to type of bacteria media and accommodation of the bacteria. %2 ,og phase : "? +apid cell growth / e1ponential growth 0 . Population doubles every generation. Microbes are sensitive to adverse condition . eg. *ntibiotic ! antimicrobial agents. 42 Stationary phase : (eath rate : rate of reproduction . ,ells begin to encounter environmental stress . 9ac of nutrient ! & $ 7 , metabolic wastes ! spore form now. (eath phase 1SS1)TI/, 1,1M1)TS )11(1( F5* B/CT1*I/, #*5WT6 %9%M%)'. +79% I 0 %lements needed for synthesis of structural components. II0 %lements needed for cellular function /mineral salts 0 III 0 'race elements / needed in minute Cuantities.0 , " & $ 7 $ )itrogen phosphorus. A " Mg " -e ,a ,opper ,obalt Maganize In .ynthesis of : sugars amino acids , lipids, nucleic acid. a.a. E nucleic acid *'P nucleic acid phospholipids. *ctivation and function of certain enzymes. %nzyme activity spore formation. *ctivation of enzymes. "B I30 @rowth factors / earn it be synthesized by the cell 0 3itamines purine pyrimidine Precursors of nucleic acid / ()* 0 Factors affecting microbial gro'th : 1n$ironmental Conditions : !2 Temperature : 'emperature affect microbial growth and structure , especially it affects enzymes. 'here groups of M.7 according to temperature reCuirements. a. Psychrophiles : # ?, $?, . b. Mesophiles : between $? 5?, c. 'hermophiles between 5?, F; "";, %2 #ases : a 71ygen gas /7 $ 0 -our groups according to 7 $ . reCuirements : i0 .trict anaerobes : 7 $ is to1ic . 7rganism die in presence of 7 $ . not contain catalase nor supreo1ide mismutase ii0 .trict aerobes : 7 $ is a must if 7 $ is absent organisms die$;D, contain catalase. iii0 -acultative anaerobes: ,an live in the presence or absence of 7 $ .contain catalase ! supero1ide dismutase. iv0 Microaerophilic: +eCuire little amounts of 7 $ to grow /$# ";D0 contain supero1ide dismutase. b# ,arbon dio1ide gas : ,7 $ *ll bacteria need little amounts of ,7 $ to grow . Bacteria produce the ,7 $ as end product of "F metabolisms / carbo1yphilic organism can live in presence of carbon dio1ide 0 . 42 6ydrogen Ion concentration p60 : p& affects the reproduction of M.7 maHority lives at neutral p&:F neutrophiles . # .ome grow at low p& 8#? M.7 . are called *,I(7P&I9%.. 9actobacilli. # .ome grow at high p&: 6#G M M.7 are called *9A*97 P&I9%.. 72 5somotic pressure : 'he pressure e1erted on cell membranes due to flow of water / from less solute concentrated to more concentrated solute0 across a concentration gradient. Microorganisms prefer a slight hypotonic or isotonic solution, concentration of ;.6?D )a,l K)ormal .alineK . In hypertonic solution: the bacteria shrinage and dryness. In hypotonic solution :the bacteria rupture and burst. T1*MI)5,5#8 : .terilization : 'he complete illing of all forms of living organisms including bacterial spores. (isinfection : 'he Ailling of pathogenic microorganisms from obHects. (isinfectant : * chemical agent used to destroy pathogens on non living obHects. . *ntiseptic: "6 * chemical substance / disinfectant 0 used to destroy m.o that is safe to use on living tissues. *sepsis: *bsence of pathogenic m.o on living tissues. .anitization: +educe the )o of M.7 on obects and from environment to a safe level accepted by public health organization / .anitary condition 0 . .uffi1es : *dded at the end of words. ,idal : is added when a illing action is meat e1: Bactericidal. .tatic : Is added when the organism is inhibiled from multiplication . %1. Bacteriostatic . P68SIC/, M1T65(S 5F C5)T*5, Method 7bHect sterilized (ry &eat : a0 &ot *ir oven "B;, for " "N$ hours "6;, b0 Incineration : -ire temperature O 8;;, . c0 -laming @lass ware , metals, intruments. (estroy not need obHects as dead bodies and turn them to ashes. "G
d0 +ed hot method Most &eat : *bove ";;, a0 *utoclave : "$", for "?min pressure "? pound Ninch $
Below ";;, vaccine B;,N" hr. b0 Pasteurization : B8, for 8;min / 9'&'0 F$, for "? .ec /&'.'0 68, mommentery / flash 0 # metal /scissor scalpel ! mouth of test tube ! -las0. platinum loop platinum wire. .urgical dressing, metallic instruments, gowns any articles not heat sensitive, fluids . Media not contain /mil gelatin sugar0 3accine Aill pathogens in mil and other fluids as Huices. *t ";;, : # boiling. # 'yndallization : ";;, intermittent for 8 successive . # .teaming days for sterilization of media /.ugar , mil gelatin0. %2 Filtration : ,ellulose acetate membrane filter heat sensate pore size : ;.$M / for bacteria 0 uses: liCuids as : .erum , sugar sol protein -iltration : Physical removal of microorganisms from liCuids and air. It does not ill microorganism. $; -luid / *ir or liCuid 0 are allowed to pass through fine filters with pores that permit ant passage of fluid but traps M.7 filters include cellulose acetate membrane filters. ,ellulose acetate membrane filters made of various pore sizes ranging from 6mm E; ;.$? m. Pore size of ;.$$m is effective for removing bacteria, however some viruses and mycoplasma can pass through it. *pplications: .terilize heat sensitive liCuids as serum sugars , drugs and proteins. .eparate drugs and proteins. -ilter air to remove airborne contaminants . .artorius membrane filter syringe filter .eitz. Jltrasonic cleaners : Mechanical cleaning very high freCuency sound waves super and ultra sonic . It creates strong . *adiation : %nergy in the form of electromagnetic waves and particles that are transmitted though space. P Mode of action : (amage to ()* causing damage death or mutation. *lso can from free radicals / 7& # E &7 $ 0 which are to1ic to cells. 'wo types of +adiation : Ionizing radiation 6#rays , Q#rays with short /0 wave length , high energy strong penetration power. Jsed to sterilize heat sensitive items. $" *s: *ntibiotics , drugs , tissue grafts , vaccines , +ubber gloves, plastic products as petri#dishes, syringes, catheters .. ,anned food, -resh meat , poultry. )onionizing : J. 3 . light : &as moderate /0 , low penetration power used for disinfection of smooth surfaces , air .. +eduction of M.7 of air in clinics hospitals , industry , food catering areas. -ood storage areas. %1. @ermicidal 9amp Chemical /gents used To control microorganisms+ *ntiseptic and disinfectants : "# *lcohols . $# &alogens 8# &eavy metal ions K Mercuric compounds silver nitrate eye dropsK. 5# Phenolic compounds . ?# (etergents . surface active agents. B# *lylating agents. F# (yes. 6# 71idizing agents . &ydrogen pero1ide / & $ 7 $ 0. G# *cid ! *lalies. !2 /lcohols : / )ot effective in presence of organic matter0 : %thanol E Isopropyl alcohol not effective against bacterial endospore . Mainly used against vegetative bacteria, fungi and most viruses . Mode of action : ,ytoto1ic to morobial cell. (isruption of cell membrane. Jses : # *ntiseptic at a concentration F;#F?D to disinfect the sin. $$ # (isinfection of thermometers. # (isinfection certain surgical instruments. # )eedles and syringes by soaing but not much reliable. $# &alogens : / 71idizing agents 0 : ,hlorine / cl0 , -luorine / - 0 , Bromine / Br0 Iodine /I0 not effective in presence of 7.M. Mode of action : Inactivate enzymes . 71idize cellular components. ,hlorine : Jsed as a disinfectant of water / ;.?#"ppm 0 swimming pools. Jsed as a gas or liCuid from. ,& $ E & $ 7 &ypochlorous acid . # Bleaching agent in form of hypochlorite / ,l7 # 0 in ?;D solution ac chloro1. # (isinfecting hemodialysis material at a concentration soop against hepatitis B virus. (isadvantages : ,orrosive to metals E sin. Iodine : ?D solution , used as an antiseptic for wounds. # 'incture iodine / iodine E F;D alcohol 0 . # Betadine / providine or iodophore0 where surface active agents. *re added . very effective . (isinfect : Patient2s sin before surgery . cleaning of wounds. Bromine . Flourine: 'o1ic to humans used in little amount to event dental caries. 42Phenolic Compounds : Bactericidal or bacteriostatic depending on the concentration . But to1ic of corrosive to sin gives brown stain. *ction : ,oagulate proteins. $8 %nzyme inactivation. (isruption of cell membrane. %ffective against vegetative bacteria including M. tuberculosis, fungi and enveloped viruses. (isinfectant of walls E floors .. / 9ysol , gresol 0 . ,hlorohe1idine : phenol derivative effective against gram /Eve0 E /#ve0 bacteria added to soaps for hand washing before surger. &e1achlorophene effective against ..aureus but to1ic Brain damage. %ffective in presence of 7.M. (etergents Surface acti$e agents " : 7rganic molecules which dissociate in water into anionic or cationic molecules and these are germicidal. But some are non ionic and these are not germicidal. *ction : # (isrupt cell membrane activity . # Bind to organic materials. Main function is cleaning of surfaces by removing microorganism and organic materials. # Bactericidal against vegetative bacteria fungi E some viruses / Ruternary ammoning compounds 0. /l-ylating agents : .terilizing agents : *ction : *dd methyl or ethyl group to cellular molecules. %specially alylating proteins and ()* )on functional . %thlene o1ide : @as or liCuid or B propriolacton. &igh penetration power. 3ery to1ic to human. $5 Jsed as a chemosterilant for heat sensitive wrapped items : +espiratory tubes Plastics , heart pumps. +ubber , I.3 catheters. Instruments / delicate ones 0. .terilization is done in a special chamber at B;, for "#"; hours . -ollowed by deto1ification i.e. aeration for 565. ii0 -ormaldehyde gas /8FD0 iii0 @lutaraldehyde gas /$D0 9ow penetration power , effective to : disinfect rooms in hospitals / -umigation0. .terilize inantmate obHects. .terilize surgical instruments , tubing which are not wrapped by glutaraldehyde which is more effective and less to1ic than formaldehyde. .terilization is run by seeing unwrapped items for ";#"$ hours. /F0 (yes : %.g. @entian violet . ,rystal violet. @entian violet. Brilliant green Methylene blue. # 'hey are slowly bactericidal . # 'hey are used alone or incompination with other agents as sin antiseptics. 9" 50idi3ing agents : e.g. & $ 7 $ A Mn7 5
/ Pot . Permenganate0. M.7.* : o1idation of m.o Jse antiseptic . )ot act well in the presence of 7.M. $? :" /cid ; /l <alies : M.7 . * : *ffect the hydrogen iron conc. ).B. Mycobacterium is e1treme resistant to p& change. e.g. *cetic acid Benzoic acid / Preservative 0 9actic acid .our mil. Boric acid ! picric acid *ntiseptic of wound. .odium hydro1ide ! Potassium hydro1ide use in soaps. Salts of hea$y metals : M.7.* : ,oagulate protein : e.g. .ilver nitrate Mercurochrome *ntiseptic for sin ! mucous mebrans. Merthiolate Preservation of serum. Iinc o1ide sin antiseptic . *rsenical preparation for treatment of spirochaetosis ! syphoilis. $B /)TIMIC*5BI/, /#1)TS Terminology .. 1 - Chemotheraputic agent: is any chemical substance used to treat diseases . 2 - Antimicrobial agent: a chemical that inhibits the growth or kills microorganisms . 3 - Antibiotic: a compound produced by certain bacteria or molds to inhibit the growth or kills microorganisms . 4 - Bactericidal: an antimicrobial drug that kills bacteria . 5 - Bacteriostatic: an antimicrobial drug that inhibits the growth of bacteria . 6 - Broad-spectrum antimicrobial: an antimicrobial agent that is effective against a wide range of microorganisms , often against gram positive and gram negative organisms . 7 - Narrow spectrum antimicrobial: an anti microbial agent that effective against a limited number of organisms . e. ! gram "ve or gram #ve $ bacteria . $F Site of action of antibiotics on bacterial cell . Side effects ( adverse effects ( 1 - Allergic reaction : some people develop allergy or hypersensitivity to certain antimicrobials . they will have symptoms of fever rash and most serious ANA%&'(AC)*C +&,C-. e... penicillin.s . 2 - )oic effects : some cause toic effects to certain parts of body when used at high concentrations . e...a- amino glycosides: can damage kidney , anemia , deafness . $6 Sulfonamide : inhibit folic acid synthesis . metabolism Protein synthesis : !2 amino glycosides 2 - tetracycline&s . 3 - chloramphenicol . Cell 'all synthesis : 1 - penicillins . 2 - cephalosporines . 3 - bacitracin . Inhibit peptidoglycan synthesis Cell membrane permeability 1 - polymixin-B )ucleic acid rifamycin b- tetracycline.s : deposit in certain body tissues as * /.I tract colitis, gastro intestine tract diarrhea . * liver damage to hepatocytes . * teeth " bones Broun discoloration to teeth among children ! from birth 0 years .( 3 - suppression to the normal flora: normal flora might be inhabit or kill the normal flora so specific bacteria will over grow and cause disease e... antibiotic associated colitis . Examples of antimicrobials 1 - %enicillins: produced from the mould called ) penicillium $. an antibiotic very effective against gram positive bacteria and some gram negative bacteria . +ome organisms especially +.aureus produce en1yme penicinillase that become resistant to the antibiotic . 2erivatives include : * penicillin /- effective against streptococci . * penicillin v * ampicillin . * amoicillin . * methicillin . +ide effects: anaphylactic shock due to allergy , which could be fatal within feus hours . $G ) Haundice , fatty liver ( Broad spectrum 2 - cephalosporins: produced from the fungus cephalosporium . +everal derivatives eist called e. .. cephradine . cephaclor. Cefiine .. later generation : bacteria . 3 - aminoglycosides : produced from bacteria streptomyces . +everal derivatives as. gentamycin streptomycin to bramycin. +ide effects . very toic to kidney, and liver " hearting lass . 3ffective against gram negative rods and some gram positive bacteria . Control of antibiotic resistance 1 - 2evelopment of new antibiotic so that there is a large and epanding number of diverse antibacterial drugs . 2 - Antibacterial drugs should be administered at therapeutic doses only for stable time . 3 - 2rugs combinations may over come the development of chromosomal mutation to resistance or to plasmid # mediated resistance e.g ..! clavulanic acid or sulbactum resistance beta # lactamases ( 4 - 2rugs use should be guided by antimicrobial susceptibility test ! antibiotic sensitive test ( . 8; @eneration cephalosporin2s . *re more effective against gram negative 5 - )he development of wholly synthetic antimicrobial drugs as fluoro4uinolones may also make naturally occurring resistant populations less population . 5ethods for evaluation of antibiotic sensitivity .. 1 ( antibiotic sensitivity test !-irby-Bauer method ( a-tube dilution method . b-agar diffusion test . =Muller 6inton agar+ "0 *ntibiotic sensitivity test / Airby bauer Method 0 a0 'ube diluation method . b0 *gar diffusion test. a2Tube dilution :to determine minimal inhibitory conc MI, .uitable to determine *b. level in body fluids. b2/gar diffusion : 8" synergism *utonomy antagonist * * * * B B B B 'he media used : Mueller &inton agar which allows the chemotherapeutic agent to diffuse freely. Procedure: ". *septically cover the plate e the desired show swab in three directions to ensure complete plate coverage. $. .terilize forceps by dipping in alcohol ! burn off the alcohol. 'hen obtain the discs ! place into the surface of the agar. @ently tap the dis to ensure better contact e the agar. Placing ?#B disc the same distance apart. 8. Incubation at 8F, "6#$5 hours . Measure the zone of inhibition in mm. using ruler according to the clearance of the zone of inhibit and the diameter indicate whether the m.o is sensitive, intermediate or resistance. T1*MI)5,5#8 ,hemotheraputic agent: it any chemical substance used to treat diseases. *ntimicrobial agent: * chemical that inhibits the growth or ills microorganisms . *ntibiotic : * compound produced by ceria bacteria or molds to inhibit the growth or ills microorganisms. Bactericidal : *n antimicrobial drug that ills bacteria. Bacteriostatic : *n antimicrobial drug that inhibits the growth of bacher . Broad spectrum antimicrobial : *n antimicro agent that is effective against a wide range of microorganisms , often against gram positive and gram negative organisms. )arrow spectrum antimicrobial *n anti microbial agent that is effective against a limited number of organism. %1. @ram Eve or gram /#ve0 bacteria. 8$ +esistant an terminal. side effects /d$erse effects " : "# *llergic reactions : .ome people develop allergy or hypersensitivity to certain antimicrobials. 'hey will have symptoms of fever , rash and most serious *)*P&S9*,'I, .&7,A . %1. Penicillins. $# 'o1ic effects some cause to1ic effects to certain parts of body when used at high concentrations. *minogycosides : can damage idney anemia , deafness. 'etracyclines: deposite in certain body tissue as o @ I'ract colitis, diarthoea. o 9iver damage to hepatocytes. o 'eeth E bones brown discoloration to teeth among children from birth 6 years. 8# .uppression to the normal flora : )ormal flora might be inhibit or ill the normal flora so specific bacteria will over grow and cause disease e1. *ntibiotic accociCted colities %Q*MP9%. 7- *)'IMI,+7BI*9. "# Penicillins : Produced from the mold P%),I99IJM . *n antibiotic very effective against gram positive bacteria, and some gram negative bacteria. .ome organisms especially .. aureus produce enzyme penicinillase that breas the structure of penicillin and become resistant to the antibiotic. (erivative include : Penicillin @ %ffective against streptococci. Penicillin 3 88 *mpicillin *mo1icillin Broad spectrum Methicillin .ide %ffects : /*naphylactic shoc 0 due to allergy which could be fatal within few hours. $# ,ephalosporins: Produced from the fungus cephalosporium several derivatives e1ist called ", $ , 8 , 5 generation ,ephalosporins . %1. ,ephradine, cephaclor, cefi1ine later generations /8 , 5 0 are more effective against gram negative bacteria. 8# *MI)7@9S,7.I(%.: Produced from bacteria .treptomyces. .everal derivatives as @entamycin .treptomycin, tobramycin . .ide %ffects : very to1ic to idney and liver E hearing loss. %ffective against gram negative rods and some gram positive bacteria. Control of /ntibiotic resistance : "# (evelopment of new antibiotics so that the is a large and e1panding number of diverse antibacterial drugs. $# *ntibacterial drugs should be administered at therapeutic doses only for suitable time. 8# (rugs combinations many over come the development of chromosomal mutations to resistance or to plasmid mediated resistance e.g. / clavulanic acid or sulbactum resistance to beta lactamases 0. 5# (rugs use should be guided by antimicrobial susceptibility test. 'he development of wholly synthetic antimicron drugs as fluoruCrinolones, many also mae naturally occurring resistant populations less population 85