Future Steel Buildings/Introduction

Introduction
What is steel?
Steel is an alloy that consists of iron and carbon. Carbon content added to
steel depends on the grade of steel and typically ranges from 0.2 to 2.1 %.
Carbon is mostly used for alloying ith iron but a number of other alloying
elements ha!e also been used such as manganese" chromium" !anadium and
tungsten.
Carbon and other elements function as hardening agents pre!enting
deformations of iron atom crystal lattice. #he in!ention of Bessemer process
in the mid 1$th century impro!ed steel production methods. Further
modifications ere made in the process to ma%e it cost effecti!e and produce
steel of better &uality.
'odern processes ma%e steel ith different combinations of metal alloys to
produce steel ith different properties for !arious purposes" such as(
Carbon steel is composed of mainly carbon and iron. It ma%es up $0 %
of steel production.
)igh Strength lo alloy steel *)S+,- has small additions of other
elements such as manganese to increase steel strength.
+o ,lloy steel uses alloys of manganese" chromium" nic%el or
molybdenum to impro!e the hardness of thic% sections.
Stainless Steel uses 11 % chromium usually combined ith nic%el to
resist rust formation *corrosion-.
What are steel structures?
Steel buildings are metal structures made of steel. #hese metal structures can
be used to build offices" hospitals" homes" schools" arehouse and
or%shops. #hese steel buildings ha!e gained popularity orldide. #he use
of computer aided design technology has gi!en a ne dimension to building
designs. #he future steel buildings can be assembled easily as most of the
steel components are pre.engineered. /uts and bolts can be fi0ed in the
specified holes and the structure can be made in minimum time ith less
labor. 1ersonali2ed commercial and industrial buildings can also be made" as
steel is no a!ailable in different colors and shapes.
Steel has become the leading choice as construction material due to its
numerous ad!antages o!er other building materials. #he steel functions as a
s%eleton for the building. It performs all the functions a human s%eleton does.
Steel helps %eep the building standing tall. It pro!ides strength to the
structure. In addition" steel pro!ides resistance against harsh climatic
conditions and gi!es a slee% appearance to the structure. 'aintenance of the
steel structure is easier compared to if concrete is used for the same purpose.
Properties of Structural Steel
Folloing properties of structural steel are considered before using them for a
construction. #hese properties are useful for determining the &uality of steel.
)igh &uality steel is used so that dependable and long lasting construction is
possible. #he most important components include the folloing(
1. Density
3ensity of a material is defined as mass per unit !olume. Structural
steel has density of 4.45 to 6.1 g/cm7.
2. Elastic Modulus
8lastic modulus or modulus of elasticity is the measurement of
tendency of an ob9ect to be deformed hen force or stress is applied to
it. #ypical !alues for structural steel range from 1$0.210 gigapascals.
3. Poisson's Ratio
It is the ratio beteen contraction and elongation of the material. +oer
the !alue" lesser the ob9ect ill shrin% in thic%ness hen stretched.
,cceptable !alues for structural steel are 0.24 to 0.7.
4. Tensile Strength
#ensile strength of an ob9ect is the determination of limit up to hich an
ob9ect can be stretched ithout brea%ing. Fracture point is the point at
hich an ob9ect brea%s after application of stress. Structural steel has
high tensile strength so is preferred o!er other materials for
construction.
. !ield Strength
:ield strength or yield point is the stress at hich an ob9ect deforms
permanently. It cannot return to its original shape hen stress is
remo!ed. Structural steel made of carbon has yield strengths of 164 to
456 megapascals. Structural steel made of alloys has !alues from 7;;
to 14$7 megapascals.
". Melting Point
#here is no defined !alue for melting point due to the ide !ariations in
types of structural steel. 'elting point is the temperature at hich
ob9ect starts to melt hen heated.
#. S$eci%ic &eat
Specific heat or heat capacity is the amount of heat hich needs to be
applied to the ob9ect to raise its temperature by a gi!en amount. ,
higher !alue of specific heat denotes greater insulation ability of the
ob9ect. <alues are measured in =oules per >ilogram >el!in. Structural
steel made of carbon has !alues from ?50 to 2061 and that made from
alloys has !alues ranging from ?52 to 1?$$.
'. &ardness
)ardness is the resistance of an ob9ect to shape change hen force is
applied. #here are 7 types of hardness measurements. Scratch"
indentation and rebound. Structural steel made by using alloys has
hardness !alue beteen 1?$.;24 >g. Structural steels made of carbon
has !alue of 6; to 766 >g.
Steel in Construction Industry
@sing steel as construction material is not only limited to industrial buildings or
temporary shelters. Steel has established itself as one of the most !ersatile
construction materials a!ailable for use. It has become a popular choice due
to its durability" strength and resilience.
Steel is also called as a green product. Concrete and ood cannot be reused"
steel can be recycled thus is more cost effecti!e.
Advantages of Using Steel
Steel buildings can be produced and engineered faster than con!entional
buildings. 1re.engineered steel has cut don the cost and labor. Construction
does not re&uire long times. #he material can be shipped to the location and
9oined together to ma%e a strong structure.
Steel buildings are able to ithstand the natural disasters. 8arth&ua%es"
cyclones" hurricanes" sudden climatic changes can stri%e anytime. @se of
concrete can cause a number of causalities. ,lso damages caused to the
concrete structure need a lot of money to be repaired. Steel is cost effecti!e
and resilient.In addition#ermites" rodents and insects cannot house in steel.
#his ill reduce the sufferings of many people ho spend loads of money on
fumigations.
Since steel is lighter but has more tensile strength" it can be used ith other
construction materials if needed. #hese steel structures ha!e more fle0ibility
as compared to other building materials. Components can be shifted from one
place to the other ithout difficulties. :ou can e!en add space by e0tending
the structure.
Grades of Steel
Classification of steel in different grades is based on their chemical
composition and physical properties. It has been de!eloped by many standard
organi2ations.
Society of ,utomoti!e 8ngineers *S,8- steel grades.
British Standards.
International Argani2ation for Standardi2ation *ISA-
,S#' International
=apanese steel grades =IS standard
Bermany steel grades 3I/ standard
China steel grades BB standard
Structural Steel
Structural steel is made from high strength lo.alloy *)S+,- steel. )S+,
steels are different from other steels in the ay that they are made according
to specific mechanical properties not chemical composition. #his type of steel
is used to produce shapes" structural bars and plates hich are used for
building and bridge construction. Structural steel has high strength and is
fle0ible.
#ypical carbon content of )S+, steel is 0.05.0.25%. Carbon is included for
steel to retain its eld ability. Ather alloy elements include up to 2 %
'anganese and small &uantities of copper" nic%el" calcium" chromium"
!anadium and titanium. #hese elements are added to strengthen steel and
increase resistance to corrosion. Structural steel is formed using heat
analysis.
Structural steel shape" composition" si2e" strength and storage are regulated
in most industriali2ed countries. Steels used for building construction in the
@S are identified and specified by ,S#' International.
Before proceeding ith the building design" figure out the e0act purpose of
construction. 'ost of the time greater attention is paid to the final loo% of the
building" not the purpose for hich it has to be built. It is important to consider
ho big and tall a structure needs to stand. #he time for hich building needs
to be used is also an important factor.
If the building needs to be used for long periods" steel is a good choice. It ill
gi!e greater strength and durability. Steel does not bend" brea% or tist ith
increasing load. Changes can be made !ery easily to the steel structure.
1re.engineered steel used for construction these days has pre defined points
at hich bolts need to be fi0ed.
#he most impressi!e feature of steel is that it is recyclable and is !ery
en!ironmentally friendly.
'ost steel buildings used for offices or e!en apartments are located on busy
streets of the city. It becomes more important to consider the safety of the
residents and people a%ing around these structures. Structural flas need to
be a!oided at all costs.
(uilding Design
#he design of a modern building in!ol!es a team of e0perts from different
disciplines. #he team needs to communicate clearly to a!oid any undesired
outcome at the end of the procedure. #he concept of the final design of the
building starts ith a draing. )ere the architecture comes into action.
3esigners *architects- start ma%ing ne draings and s%etches. , rough
design is made initially. ,ny problems in the design need to be corrected in
the early stages. Cith support from the structural engineer" the comple0
procedure of draing a building structure can become easier.
#here are to basic parts of a building design. First is the aesthetic and
second is practical. #he physical and !isual appearance of the building needs
to be attracti!e. It ill influence the perception people ha!e of the building.
#he practical aspect of the building design is mainly concerned ith the space
allotment for different acti!ities. It includes entry and e0it of people" lighting"
acoustics" legal matters and building codes.
Computer ,ided 3esign *C,3- is idely used computer softare to create
technical draings. #here is no need to ma%e the draing on paper. , 73
model of the building can be made using C,3. <isuals can be added to the
model. 3ifferent colors and te0tures can also be applied. 'ost appropriate
settings can then be finali2ed.
,fter the architecture is decided" it is important to or% out the design of the
frameor%. Beams" columns" bracing are decided by engineering calculations.
It is the 9ob of the structural engineer to gi!e a shape to the architectDs idea.
Steel Frame
, steel frame refers to the building techni&ue ith a steel s%eleton. <ertical
steel columns and hori2ontal I beams are constructed in a rectangular grid.
#his grid frame supports the attached alls" floors and roof of the building.
#he de!elopment of the steel frame techni&ue has made the construction of
s%y scrapers possible.
The cross section of steel columns has a shape similar to the letter H. the two flanges
of the column are thicker and wider as compared to the flanges on a beam. This
makes it better to withstand compression stress on the building structure. Square or
round steel tubules can be also used. They are often filled with concrete. Steel beams
are connected to the columns with fasteners and bolts. The steel web in I beam is
wider than column web to resist higher bending stress and moments that occur in
beams.
Applications of alloy steels
Structural steels
#he structural steels can be grouped con!eniently on the basis of tensile
strength. )oe!er" the di!iding lines beteen the classes are ill defined oing
to the ide !ariation in properties obtained from one steel by !arying the heat.
treatment" and the ruling section in hich the properties are re&uired.
#he basis of design of machine components generally fall into either static or
dynamic loading. For static loading the proof stress should be used ith a
safety factor of 2 or less. For dynamic loading the or%ing stresses must be
related to the fatigue limit" hich is about 55% of tensile strength for mild
steel" but only 50% at 440 '1a and ?0% at 15?0 '1a tensile strength. /otch
sensiti!ity is also !ery important.
Structural Steels Belo !"# $Pa tensile
#he main ob9ecti!e of steels in this class is to enable lighter structures to be
built by the use of relati!ely high tensile steels" hile retaining as far as
possible the highly desirable properties. 1roperties include easy or%ability"
adaptability and insensiti!ity to faulty manipulation possessed by mild steel.
#hese steels may be used in the hot rolled condition.
Four characteristics are important(
*1- yield strength for design
*2- notch ductility to a!oid brittle fracture
*7- eldability
*?- cost.
From the point of !ie of cost" therefore" &uench and tempering processes on
thic% plates and sections are usually ruled out. )oe!er" the installation of
special e&uipment" such as roller &uench presses" may ma%e the techni&ue
an alternati!e to e0pensi!e alloy additions.
Further" although %illed steels are established in 8uropean technology"
balanced steels remain in fa!or in @> because hot top practice is not idely
used and a greater yield is obtained in balanced steels. Increased use of
continuous casting may affect this in the future.
#he most popular types are those ith manganese raised to 1.7.1.4% ith
carbon 0"2.0"?%" but for elding the carbon is %ept lo. #he ,merican
ECorten ,E Steel has a composition of C" 0.12F Si" 0.5F Cu" 0.5F Cr" 0.6F 1" 0.1
and 'n" 0.5%. ,lthough the tensile strength is less than ?$? '1a the yield is
in the region of 741 '1a.
#he combination of copper and phosphorus also increases the resistance to
atmospheric corrosion hich is important hen thinner plates are used. #he
original steel E,E suffers a decrease in yield strength and notch ductility in
thic%ness o!er 25 mm" to o!ercome hich ECorten BE as de!eloped.C 0.1?F
1 0.0?F 'n 1.1F Cr 0.5F Cu 0.?F < 0.1F Bol ,l 0.02.
#he addition of 0.5 nic%el and 0"25 % molybdenum to a manganese steel
gi!es a good general purpose steel *465 ' 1$-. Fortield steel containing 'o"
0.5F B" 0.007F C" 0.11%. has a #S of ;16 '1a and is readily elded since it
transforms in the bainitic region.
Pearlite Reduced Steel. 1earlite increases the tensile strength but not the
yield stress" and since it raises the brittle.ductility transition temperature" there
is a good case for reducing the carbon content. +o carbon steels *G 0.15%-
strengthened ith 'n H /b and control rolled ha!e good eldability and
toughness and are called 1earlite Ieduced Steel *1IS-.
Grain refinement%
3ecreasing the ferrite grain si2e significantly increases both yield strength
and notch ductility ithout increasing the carbon e&ui!alent" hich affects
eldability. #he relation of yield strength
y
to structure is gi!en by the 1etch
e&uation(

y
J
i
H >
y
d
.1/2
Fine grained steels using ,l / ha!e to be produced as %illed steel ith lo
*production- yield *BS 503-. /iobium and !anadium ha!e a loer affinity for
o0ygen than aluminium and can be used in semi.%illed steels" an economic
ad!antage. Since 1$;0 about 0.70.0.1% /b forming /b7C? has been
increasingly used as a grain refiner and precipitation hardening element and
is the basis of se!eral eldable steels in BS ?7;0" replacing $;6 44;2 740;"
and includes ? tensile ranged *?0" ?7" 50" 55 h bar- ith se!eral sub.grades
hich are distinguished by increased stringency of yield stress and notch
ductility re&uirements. Both ladle and product analyses and carbon
e&ui!alents are included.
Precipitation &ardening%
In /iobium steels./b?C7 dissol!es abo!e 1250KC" large grains and
subse&uent precipitation hardening is pronounced" but brittle transition
temperature is high. /ormalising at $00.$50KC forms a precipitate" resulting in
a grain refined steel" slight precipitation hardening" but lo impact transition
temperature.
By controlled hot rolling
from 1250KC to a lo finishing temperature *$00KC- ith a substantial amount
of deformation in range $50.650KC" a fine ferrite grain si2e is obtained in
sections up to 25 mm" ith a minimum yield of ?;7 '1a due to dispersion
hardening occurring in the ferrite during cooling.
#hic% plates present difficulties in getting the re&uired drop in rolling
temperature. )olding at an intermediate temperature produced a partially
recrystallised structure of large grains surrounded by small ones. #he final
structure is of !ery mi0ed si2e ith poorer mechanical properties.
It is possible to &uench similar steels from 1050KC to form a lo carbon
martensite or ith loer carbon content" acicular ferrite folloed by tempering
to gi!e higher properties. /icuage steel" C" 0.0;" /i" 1" Cu" 1.1" /b" 0.02" 'n"
0.5 rolled and aged at 500.540KC has a yield of ;00 '1a and a tensile
strength of 400 '1a" elongation 27% and 7?.62 =oules charpy < notch impact
at .20KC coupled ith good eldability and corrosion resistance.
Steels Above 680 MPa Tensile
Ielati!e to the steels 9ust discussed" those in this group are designed solely
for their mechanical properties" hich depend on accurately controlled heat.
treatment.
In 1$?1 BS $40 co!ering bars" billets and forging in this strength range
rationali2ed steel specifications to conser!e essential alloys. #he basic
principle as the specifying of mechanical properties related to si2e of bar
hen heat.treated rather than chemical composition. #he cheapest steel ill
de!elop the re&uisite properties in the limited ruling section of the component
used although other factors may modify the choice such as forging
characteristics and die ear" machinability and ease of heat treatment.
Suitable compositions ithin the range ha!e to be chosen in relation to mass.
#hus nic%el alone has a lo efficiency in spite of its pre.ar popularity. ,
conception ne to many engineers is that the actual steel used for a gi!en
tensile strength depends on the size of the article at the time it is heat-treated.
In 1$40" BS $40 as re!ised and the 8n designation as replaced by a si0
digit system. #he first three digits refer to alloy type" the fifth and si0th digits
represent 100 times the mean carbon content. ,t the fourth digit letters" ," '
and ) indicate if the steel is supplied to analysis" mechanical property or
hardenability re&uirements" hich are the ne alternati!e methods.
Ultra'high (ensile Structural Steels
Interest in *15??.21;0 '1a- tensile steels for use in the aircraft industry is
leading to the de!elopment of modified steels hich can be used up to ?00KC
in supersonic aircraft and hich possess ade&uate ductility and notch impact
strength. <acuum arc or 8lectro.slag melting of some of these steels reduces
inclusions and impurities and gi!es a more suitable cast structure. ,s a result"
the trans!erse properties of the resultant forging tend to be superior to those
from con!entionally air cast ingots. , fe typical compositions are gi!en in
#able 1. #hese are based on /i.Cr.'o or use silicon ith nic%el or copper.
Silicon reduces the e0pansion in g.martensite change and hence reduces ris%
of &uench crac%ingF hile copper is useful for producing secondary hardening
at ?50.550KC.
#,B+8 1. #:1IC,+ 0"74% C" 1650 '1a S#88+
Si Mn )i *r Mo + Te,$er El
7% Cr.'o.< 0"2 0"5 0"2 7"0 0"$ 0"2 700 6
Ie0 57$ Si.'n./i 1"; 1"; 1"6 0"1 0"? 0"2 750 4
)50 1"1 0"5 . 5"0 1"7 1"1 5;0 4
S,8 ?7?0 0"7 0"; 1"6 0"6 0"25 . 220 $
Si.Cu steel 2"0 CuJ2 . . 0"4 0"2 ?00 $
Cith such lo alloy contents protection against rust by cadmium plating or
aluminium spraying is necessary. @nfortunately" cleaning and plating
processes can introduce hydrogen into the metal and embattlement at the
high strength le!el can be serious. Such embattlement becomes e!ident
under sustained loading" for e0ample a 2"5 /i Cr 'o steel hardened to 2220
'1a tensile bro%e ithin 100 hours at '1a and in 12 hours at 15?? '1a
sustained load in air and much shorter times in corrosi!e media. Cith such
high tensile steels it is highly desirable to *a- a!oid notches" *b- to reduce
internal stresses by tempering at as high a temperature as possible" *c-
minimi2e the introduction of hydrogen *abrasi!e blasting preferred-. Cadmium
coats should be a!oided for ser!ice abo!e 250KC. For other high strength
steels refer to precipitation hardening transformation and controlled
transformation stainless steels.
$araging Steels
#hese use the martensitic reaction hich end high hysteresis occurs in Fe./i
alloys. #hey are iron based alloys containing 16 /i 6 Co 5 'o ith small
amounts of ,l and #i and less than 0"07% C" hich ma%es such a difference
to fracture toughness and ease of elding. #he strength is maintained ith
increase in section thic%ness and also up to 750KC. ,lloy cost is balanced by
loer production cost" !irtually no ris% of decarburisation" distortion or
crac%ing. #hese steels are used for air frame and engine components"
in9ection moulds and dies.
An cooling from the austenitic condition the alloy transforms to a fine lath type
martensite" and precipitation hardening is induced by EmaragingE at ?60KC.
'any types of precipitates ha!e been reported *e.g. /i7#i,l- but the main
hardener is probably orthorhombic /i" 'o" the solubility of hich is probably
reduced by Cobalt. #he steels ha!e high fracture toughness" >Ic due to a
combination of fine grain si2e of the martensite and the high dislocation
density" leading to fine precipitation. #he steels can be nitrided. #he corrosion
resistance is only slightly impro!ed but the 12% Cr !ariety has been
de!eloped for corrosion resistance.
&air-line *rac.s
'any alloy.steel ingots and large forging are susceptible to the formation of
small sil!ery crac%s or fla%es in their interior. #hese crac%s often form at room
temperature after an incubation period and the cause of them is not
completely %non but is related to the crac%ing of elded hightensile steels in
that hydrogen has a large influence in promoting embattlement hich
increases ith the tensile strength of the steel. +ess trouble is e0perienced
ith acid open.hearth steel *usually containing ? cc per 100 gm- than ith
basic electric steel containing about ;.6 cc per 100 gm of hydrogen in the
ladle. Slo cooling and also isothermal transformation at about ;00KC tends
to reduce the incidence of hair.line crac%s and this is materially assisted by
the !acuum melting. #o reduce the abo!e hydrogen concentrations to about 1
cc per 1 00 gm re&uires beat.treatments of the folloing magnitude at ;50KC(
Dia bar (metre 0.0! 0.! 0.! "
Hours " "00 #00 "$00
#he problem is therefore more acute ith large ingots.
Alloy spring steels of the chromium.!anadium *Cr" 1F <" 0"2F C" 0";- */i"
0"5F Cr" 0"5F 'o" 0"2F C" 0";- and silico.manganese *Si" 2F 'n" 1- types are
also oil hardened from 60KC and tempered at ?60KC to gi!e a <ic%erLs
hardness of ?00" tensile strength of 17$0 '1a" ith appreciable ductility.
Springs are made from steel treated as follos(
a- Cold dran patented steel ire.
b- Cold or%ed annealed steel.
c- Muenched and tempered *0"5/1"0%C- steel *<1/ 7?0.?70-. ,fter ha!ing
been formed" the springs" *a" b" c- are only gi!en a lo temperature temper
*140.700KC- to relie!e forming stresses.
d- ,nnealed steel. ,fter ha!ing been formed" the spring is then &uenched and
tempered. ,ll hea!y springs are formed hot and fre&uently hardened
immediately after forming. ,ero.engine !al!e.spring steel must be free from
any %ind of surface defect. Springs for atches and aircraft instruments"
Bourden tubes" diaphragms etc. are often made from /i.span containing ?2
/i" 5 Cr" 2"7 #i" 0"02 C" 0"55 ,l hich has lo mechanical hysteresis and can
be heated to reduce the effect of changes in ser!ice temperatures.
Faults in springs are due to(
1- 3ecarburisation due to annealing" etc." affecting the fatigue properties.
2- Segregations forming lines of ea%ness in the material hich may open up
into splits in ser!ice.
7- Internal cup and cone fractures due to o!erdraing.
?- 'echanical damage" such as rolling laps" deep groo!es" scratches due to
ire draing" !ice mar%s and scoring due to inding.
5- Incorrect tempering" especially in chromium.!anadium steels.
&igh and )o (hermal *+pansion Steels
#here are cases in engine construction here steel has to or% in con9unction
ith light alloys" such as cylinder.head bolts" !al!e seating" or cylinder liners
in aero engines. #he comparati!ely high thermal e0pansi!ity of aluminium
leads to looseness unless the steel has a similar coefficient of e0pansion. #he
austenitic steel of the folloing composition
C" 0"5$F /i" 12F 'n" 5"1F Cr" 7"?
has a thermal e0pansion of 0"000021 per degree C up to ?00KC" hich is only
slightly loer than that of aluminium" and it combines good mechanical
properties ith resistance to abrasion.
Cold rolled austenitic stainless steel is another alternati!e. Chere an
abnormally lo coefficient of e0pansion is re&uired" In!er" containing 7;% /i"
is used.
(all-race steel. , typical composition is C" 1"0F 'n" 0"5F Cr" 1"7;%. ,fter
&uenching in oil from 610KC the steel is usually tempered at 100.200KC to
a- reduce hardening stresses"
b- reduce crac%s in grinding.
#empering at 100KC also increases the hardness slightly" e.g.(
#empering temperature nil 100 200 250 <1/ 600 64; 450 47;
Creep'resisting Steels for Use at Steam (emperatures
#he use of higher temperatures and pressures in modern poer stations has
necessitated the use of special steels for the pipe.lines and other parts. #he
essential characteristic of these steels is higher resistance to creep at
temperatures !arying from ?00K to 5;5KC. , common steel used for this
purpose is one containing appro0imately 0"55% molybdenum ith a carbon
content of appro0imately 0"15.0"2%.
Failures of pipes ha!e occurred in ,merica" hich ha!e been traced to the
formation of a netor% of graphite in the heat.affected 2one of the pipe
ad9acent to the eld. )eating the steel to appro0imately 450KC appears to
accelerate the formation of this graphite" hich is also largely affected by the
process of ma%ing a steel" particularly as regards the use of aluminium as a
deo0idi2es" hich is more commonly used in ,merica than Breat Britain. It
has been found that a small addition of a carbide stabili2er" such as 1"0%
chromium" is beneficial in minimi2ing this trouble.
#he addition of 25% < raises the creep resistance still further. #he 1% Cr 'o
< steels currently in use are chiefly of to types" those for steamchest
castings here due to elding considerations the carbon le!el is limited to
0"5%F and those used in )1/I1 rotors in hich the need for impro!ed
hardenability ith large rotors has necessitated carbon le!els of 0"25.0"70%.
Creep seems to be related to the uniformity of the <?C7 and its interparticle
spacing hich should be less that 1000, *10.5 cm-. #his distribution is
affected by cementite hich promotes regions denuded of <?C7 and to
minimi2e this problem the cooling rate from the austenitising temperature
must be such as to gi!e an entirely upper bainitic structure.
+o.carbon 7 and ;% chromium steels containing 0"5% molybdenum ha!e
carbides hich resist hydrogen attac% and embattlement at ele!ated
temperatures and pressures and are useful in synthetic ammonia plants and
oil refineries. Columbium or titanium is sometimes added to minimi2e the air.
hardening tendencies in the steel by forming carbides less soluble at heat.
treating temperatures. ,ir.hardening still occurs after elding but air.cooling
from 600KC is sufficient to soften the steel. Iesistance to corrosion and
o0idation increases ith the chromium contentF the elongation at rupture is
also increased.
,evelopments in the Processing of Alloy and
Stainless Steels for (ur-ine Blading and
Bolting Applications
A-stract
#he ma9ority of special steels for turbine applications are made by the electric
arc furnace route. Careful selection of ra material is necessary to ensure
undesirable residual elements are %ept to a minimum. Secondary refining
techni&ues such as !acuum arc degassing and ladle furnace technology"
coupled ith impro!ed casting methods" ha!e gi!en significant &uality
impro!ements so that it is no possible to use air melted steels to replace
remelted steels in many applications ith resultant cost sa!ings. Close
compositional control and uniform heat treatment ha!e impro!ed the
consistency of the finished product.
Introduction
Steel played a significant role in the early stages of turbine and 9et engine
de!elopment and retains its dominant role as the first choice material for
blading and bolting in steam turbines and the compressor section of land
based gas turbines. Steel still has its part to play in current 9et engine
construction in the form of shafts" gears" bearings and rings but has no been
replaced as a turbine blade material in ne designs. #he ma9ority of installed
steam turbine e&uipment poered by fossil.fuel boilers operates ith a
ma0imum steam temperature in the range 570.5;5KC" nuclear boiler steam
temperatures are in the range 750.550KC. #hus steel must be adaptable and
operate o!er a ide range of temperatures from 5;5KC don to near ambient
temperatures.
#he increasing si2e of turbines has placed greater demands on the integrity of
the steel used as components become larger" rotational speeds increase and
containment forces rise. 3e!elopments in steel production and inspection
techni&ues o!er the past 20 years ha!e gi!en significant impro!ements in
consistency and integrity to satisfy the increasing e0pectations of the turbine
industry. #he ma9ority of steels used in turbines ha!e been specifically
de!eloped to cater for the !ariety of ser!ice temperatures" stresses" pressures
and corrosi!e conditions that e0ist in the turbineDs en!ironment and
demonstrate the adaptability of steel as a material. )oe!er" the ide range
of steels in a turbine often means that each type is anted in a !ariety of
sections and product forms" conse&uently order &uantities per grade and si2e
are small and production is predominantly !ia the fle0ible electric arc
steelma%ing and ingot cast route folloed by rolling to the desired profile.
*lectric Arc $elting
#he si2e and poer rating of electric arc furnaces has continued to increase
such that many units are no in the $0 to 160 tonne range ith poer ratings
up to 120 '<a. )igher poer ratings ha!e enabled a reduction in melt don
time and the arc furnace is no used primarily as a rapid melting unit but
operates in con9unction ith a secondary steelma%ing unit.
Submerged/eccentric bottom tap holes" see figs. 2 N 7" or sliding gate !al!es
are no a common feature on the arc furnace and pre!ent slag carry.o!er into
the refining ladle ith resultant impro!ements in steel cleanness and analysis
control.
Secondary Steelmaking
Ladle Furnaces
During slag free tapping from the arc furnace into the ladle a clean
synthetic slag is added to maintain low oxygen levels which is necessary if
inclusion levels are to be minimised and a consistent yield from ferro alloys
additions is to be achieved. The composition of the slag is controlled to
achieve the desired sulphur level. Heating is provided by three electrodes,
see fig. 4, and enables precise temperature control. Inert gas bubbling is
used to stir the molten steel and promote better mixing of the steel and
alloying additions and to homogenise temperature. Turbine steels often
have a complex, carefully balanced composition to optimise properties.
Close analytical control is therefore important to ensure that every cast
meets tight composition ranges and to ensure that cast to cast variability is
minimised hence giving consistency in downstream processing
characteristics and service performance. The maority of ladle furnaces are
e!uipped with computer controlled, conveyor fed, metered alloying
systems which give precise alloy additions. Coupled with the fact that the
use of a synthetic slag gives a predictable alloy yield in the molten steel this
gives much more accurate
compositional control. "t the end of secondary steelma#ing very gentle
stirring promotes the flotation of
inclusions leading to a clean product. $adle furnaces may also have a
vacuum facility and this
type of unit is generally known as a %acuum arc degassing (&'D( unit.
Future developments and applications of
nitrogen-bearing steels and stainless steels
1. Introduction
%&erba volant, scripta manent', so thought the (omans for whom the fate
of speech was to y away and to disappear in the general noise, in
contrast to that of writing that was li#ely to stay. )ecause this $atin
sentence was %written' much before *utenberg and the Internet, the
erosion of %scripta' was not so well+established, although even now some
people believe that what is simply written is in fact engraved in
unperishable marble. Doubts about this
eternity can be expressed and therefore it is worth ta#ing the ris# to
document the future of high+nitrogen steels ,H-./. This exercise demands
at the same time several contradictory !ualities0 prudence and
imprudence, modesty and pride. This precautionary paragraph offers the
right if not the duty to abandon a cautious attitude in order to explore still
undiscovered elds. " strict, rigorous and scienti c process is to be
replaced by a %soft' philosophical and
imaginative approach. 1eanwhile, this approach needs to be supported by
more arguments and observations 2 the basic principles of physical
metallurgy and materials sciences 2 some of the results and interpretations
have already been published. Trends in steel ma#ing
and technology as well as the attitude of the global society are to some
extent more ris#y to decipher and base predictions on. "fter a reasonable
attempt to deduce generic trends, some special domains where nitrogen
alloying could be promising are listed and commented upon in this paper.
2. Deciphering of global trends likely to inuence future
developments of !S
.ociological, political, economical studies brought out many aspects about
the present evolution of society0 globalisation, ef ciency, exibility and
contradiction. " rather important ignorance about these domains has to
be admitted by the author, who proposes a caricatural resume of the
attitude of society in many parts of the world, as depicted by a cartoon
which shows a top tribune triumphalanty announcing %-ow you got
everything', and to whom the crowd answers, %3e demand everything
else'. This anecdote is rather consistent with the very common feeling
according to which society simultaneously desires one thing and its
converse0 ris# and security, !uality and cheapness, e!uality and privilege.
Despite the dif culty in evaluating the impact of these human factors on
the future of H-. many demands of
society may in uence positively the development of H-..
4 .afety in the eld of transportation ,cables for telphers, blades of
reactors, landing parts
of aircraft, wheels for trains, bodies for cars, double shells for fuel tan#ers.
4 5nvironment+friendly technologies ,safety in oil pipelines, oil
exploration.
4 .afety and reliability of industrial plants and e!uipment ,mechanical
industry, car industry, nuclear reactors, control devices, cutting machine,
paper industry.
4 (eliability and new possibilities in civil engineering and structures.
4 $eisure and sport industry ,high demand for extreme mechanical
resistance and lightness/.
4 Defence and space industry.
"ll the possible niches afforded to H-. by above domains correspond to
high mechanical
resistance ,yield stress, ultimate tensile stress, ductile2brittle temperature
transition, fatigue life, critical stress intensity factor, ductility/ and
increased corrosion resistance ,pitting corrosion, crevice corrosion, stress
corrosion, corrosion fatigue/, i.e. all properties for which the addition of
nitrogen is found to be bene cial. The industrial society also imposes some
constraints to the development of H-. and even poses some obstacles.
Constraints are related to price, availability of materials ,need for different
suppliers/, well+established !uali cation and norms, data ban# of
properties.
These constraints suggest that there exists some sort of threshold that has
to be overcome for spreading the applications of H-. over a wider range.
Time scales of economics and research do not always coincide. Time scale
in industrial management results from the actualisation of assets, expenses
and revenue. .ince the re!uired time to nalise new H-. grades, protocol
of use and implementation is decreasing with new techni!ues of
modelling and simulation, and because some clear and appreciable
advantages from the usage of H-. are established, matching the two a
priori different time constraints is far from being insurmountable.
6bstacles are also related to inertia and intellectual la7iness which have
some conse!uences on education and research. The probable and implicit
reasoning which leads to this attitude
is based on a biased interpretation of the #inetics of evolution of any
domain according to which an .+shaped curve would be followed ,see
gure 8/. If axes are considered in arbitrary units, any domain is e!uivalent
to the other. If in contrast with this view relevant units such as gross global
product .9 : vs:time .t: is considered, domains for which the derivative d9
;dt
decreases may be much more promising than other domains with larger
derivatives, and this because the residual potential of growth of a domain
such as steel considered classical, may still be large. 3hat is observed in
economics is also shown by research, it would appear more fruitful to
explore a new promising domain rather than a more classical one and this
because the return ,publication, advertisement/ is fast. 1eanwhile other
very speci c demands for already existing grades of H-. or new grades
li#ely to be developed in the future also exist in the following disciplines.
4 )iomaterials necessary for new prostheses ,arti cial heart, arti cial oints
and bones/
4 Complex devices such as activators for which a functional property
,magnetic, shape memory effect, chemical property, electrical
property 0 0 0/ is coupled with the mechanical and corrosion resistance of a
nitrogen+containing alloy ,H-"/.
4 -anotechnology development also needs new high performance
materials such as nanostructured H-. and nitrocermet ,nitride ceramic2
metal composite/.
". Scienti#c foundations of !S
In contrast with most other alloying elements which under %normal'
conditions are in solid or li!uid state, nitrogen is gaseous. This results from
the stability of the -< molecule which is also consistent with the fact that
no natural nitride appears to exist. In order to achieve nitrogen alloying it is
therefore necessary to utilise a nitrogen source in which the chemical
potential of nitrogen source- is higher than that of the alloy alloy - .
)ecause the gas phase is nearly always present in an elaboration process,
gas - has to be at least e!ual to that of the source <=2<8
,
*
-
>
.
-
>
"
-
? * D gas? . D source?" D alloy0
1eans to control
*
-
?
.
- and
"
- are0 pressure of gas phase, temperature, decomposition of
nitrogen+containing molecule .-H@? 0 0 0/ plasma, composition of the
slag 0 0 0 composition of the base metal 0 0 0 ,see gure </.
It has been shown
82<= that low nitrogen solubility in li!uid steel led to a special steelma#ing
process0 high pressure electro slag remelting ,95.(/ which is a rather
expensive and %high tech' area to produce steels with very high nitrogen
contents. The nitrogen content corresponding to about 8A mass roughly
re!uires B interstitial atoms for 8== metal atoms.
In case of a repulsive -2- interaction
<< about @=A of metal atoms can have one - nearest neighbour. )ecause
the -21 and -+defect interactions are very important it is easy to
understand why nitrogen alloying dramatically affects all properties of the
metallic matrix.
The cost of the 95.( process stimulated a more classic and cheaper steel+
ma#ing process in which the solubility of - is increased by addition of
alloying elements such as Cr, 1n,C@4 D Eoct
9rinciples of H-. and H-" syntheses, schemati7ed by the variation of the
chemical potential of - in different phases present during elaboration.
1o, 0 0 0 these elements decrease the chemical potential of -. This process
which does not
need a high pressure of the gas phase is suitable for producing steel with
nitrogen content less than = 4A. The utili7ation of austenitic and duplex
ferritic2austenitic H-. grades in "ustria,
Erance, *ermany, India, Dapan, .candinavia, should permit exceeding the
threshold under which potential users are subect to some inhibition
regarding H-. suppliers.
It should also be noticed that in case of very speci c applications of H-. a
solid state production of alloys is possible by adaptation of HI9 ,high+
temperature isostatic pressuresintering/ and CI9 ,cold+temperature
isostatic pressure+sintering/. 1ixtures of @8F steel powder with ,Cr- or
Ee-, 1n-/ nitrides is li#ely to provide a very elegant and ef cient means to
obtain near net+shape parts of hard H-.. "nother method which can still
be considered to be reliable is mechanical alloying which has been proven
to be ef cient in the preparation of different grades of H-.. 1echanical
alloying can also be used very effectively in the preparation of nitrides with
high melting temperatures <@.
Initially nitrogen was used only as an alloying element and as a substitute
for nic#el in steels. The synthesis of a special category of steels with high
nitrogen content has been carried out to meet speci c properties. In
transition metal alloys, - as well as C occupy interstitial positions therefore
electronic structures are strongly modi ed and -21 interactions are
important. The elastic interaction between - interstitials, possible clusters,
precipitates, ordered domains and dislocations is large, therefore the
effect on mechanical properties is also important. .ince the electronic
structure of metal atoms is changed, the core structure of dislocations is
li#ely to be strongly affected and therefore the decomposition of a perfect
dislocation into partial ones occurs. The larger the stability of nitrides of
the transition metals, the smaller is the d electron density0 example Ti, &,
Cr, Gr, -b, 1o nitrides are much more stable than 1n, Ee nitrides and -i,
Cu nitrides are actually unstable. In contrast, with carbides there is often a
structural compatibility between the crystallographic lattices of solid
solutions and nitrides which often are HaggHs compounds. 6ne may
therefore expect that nitrides should be more coherent with the matrix
than carbides and that the interfacial energies = should therefore obey this
ine!uality, f=carbide;matrix I =nitride;matrixg. Hence, the driving force
for growth of nitrides is comparatively less than that of carbides.-itrogen+
bearing steels and stainless steels C@B
.ince the nitrogen+enriched solid solution was supersaturated at high
temperature TH , under high pressure .9H 8*:, the chemical driving force
for atomic redistribution in the matrix in the solid steel under low pressure
9$ and at low temperature T$ simultaneously results from 8T D TH T$
and 89 D 9H 9$. 6ne can expect that in comparison with similar C
alloyed grade, H-. would present a higher 8* and therefore the
nucleation of precipitates is li#ely to be easier when C is replaced by -. The
reduction of critical radius for nucleation rc D <=;8* has two origins0
reduction of = and increase of the driving force 8* . The ef cient
strengthening in H-. is derived from the ne si7e, the uniform distribution
and the coherence of nitrides with the matrix. In this interplay of
micromechanisms it is observed that the =28A - composition range which
is considered to be relevant for steel ma#ing, a considerable number of
different steel grades with very different properties are worth thin#ing
about. It was shown
<4, for example, that it is possible to promote cleavage of austenite in a
duplex steel by an excessive nitrogen concentration .I 8A: and a coarse
solidi cation microstructure. "n intermediate nitrogen content ,= @BA/ of
the austenite improves the stress+corrosion crac#ing resistance in both
austenitic and duplex steels and this because plastic deformation of the
gamma phase is reduced and therefore corrosion at the unpassivated slip
lines is less <B
. "nother bene cial effect of nitrogen in steel has been observed in the
eld of hydrogen+induced embrittlement for which it has been shown that
H-. presents a higher resistance than similar unnitrided steel <F.
The rate of improvement or deterioration of various mechanical properties
depends upon the nitrogen content, microstructure, method of processing
etc. However it is not possible to achieve simultaneous improvement in
strength and toughness by adding nitrogen. However, some mapping of
different mechanical properties could be made which delineate that clear
improvement in a given property ,yield stress or ultimate tensile stress/ is
not counterbalanced by as negative an effect as could be expected for
other properties ,ductility, toughness, 0 0 0/.
The probable reason for this bene cial in uence of nitrogen is related on
the one hand to its interstitial behaviour and on the other hand to the
change in the electronic structure. -itrogen offers an extremely wide
range of possibilities for improving the mechanical properties by modifying
the basic processes involved in plastic deformation0 solid solution
hardening, ordering, large variety of precipitates, localisation2
delocalisation of deformation, stac#ing fault energy, grain boundary
segregation, grain si7e re nement, recovery, recrystallisation, 0 0 0
dislocation core structure etc. It is well+#nown that a #ey parameter
controlling mechanical properties is microstructure ,morphology, texture,
grain shape, grain si7e, grain orientation, 0 0 0 /. -itrogen alloying has
proven that ef cient <C
interaction between segregated metal atoms at grain boundaries with
nitrogen impedes grain growth and phase growth.
In addition a modi cation of the recovery process specially in ferrite is li#ely
to change grain nucleation @= . In conclusion it can be said that the effect
of nitrogen on basic mechanisms involved in the alteration of mechanical
and corrosion properties is considerable and varying. Therefore a wide
range of compositions and microstructures of H-. would be necessary to
characteri7e the properties. Eor effective utili7ation of H-. grades, a
databan# concerning thermal
and thermomechanical treatments, microstructures, properties are
necessary. .imulation and automatisation of experiments dramatically
reduce the time necessary to achieve a programme of certi cation.
-umerical simulation performed for different time scales and length scales
Jit means at the atomic scale ,ab+initio, molecular dynamics, 1onte Carlo/,
the mesoscopic scale ,phase eld, 1onte Carlo, 0 0 0 /, macroscopic scale
, nite elements, thermodynamics codes, 0 0 0 /K and the coupling of these
codes now allows us to achieve virtual experimentsC@F D Eoct which
replace real ones completely. Therefore the re!uired time which separates
the idea from the mar#eting of the new steel, as well as other new
materials is vanishing dramatically.
$. %ctual& future and possible applications
Industrial applications of existing austenitic, martensitic and duplex H-.
have been described by .peidel in his boo#. H-. nd applications in
chemical industry, transportation, ship yard biomaterials, sporting
e!uipment, environment+friendly technology. Hard and wearresistant H-.
are li#ely to be used for cutting tools or for erosion+wear resistant parts.
1any applications for H-. are li#ely to emerge such as, high temperature+
resistant alloys ,in case
the Ti Gr, &, -b, Cr, 1o content is high/, nanostructured H-., composite
nitricermet, parts of actuators, some shape+memory alloys, nitrides with
very high saturation magnetisation. Ee8F-<=:, gradient materials based on
the diffusion of -<under chemical gradient or stable stress eld, wear
resistant coating, thermal barrier coatings, creep resistant -D. ,nitride
dispersion steel/ and -D" ,nitride dispersion alloy/ based on similar
principle to 6D. ,oxide dispersion steel/ and superplastic H-. and
nitrogen+enriched alloys for which the grain si7e has to be #ept at a
nanometric si7e.
3hen nitrogen alloying does not lead to a clear improvement or to cost
reduction as compared to well+#nown classical steel grades, the motivation
for developing new grades should be limited. It is reasonable to foresee
applications of H-. and H-" ,high nitrogen alloys/ to ta#e advantage of a
speci c property improvement resulting from nitrogen addition.
'. (onclusion
"lthough ceramics and metallic materials are different, similar
brea#throughs resulted from nitrogen alloying0 in the rst case
%hybridation' of oxides "l<6@, .i6< with nitrides "l-, .i@-4 led to the
discovery of .i"l6-, in the second case analogies and differences between
C and - resulted in new H-. and H-". "s the properties of nitrogen alloy
are to a large
extent unexplored, this offers a wide eld of innovations and promising
solutions.
The two alloying elements for development of H-. and H-" are in fact
nitrogen and imagination. .ince one has to have con dent in the
remar#able abilities of researchers, engineers and users, it can be
concluded that the future of H-. and H-" is bright.