Adverb is a word or group of words that describe or add to the meaning of a verb (He ran slowly), an adjective (Its

very cold),
another adverb (They go there very often) or a whole sentence (aturally, we want you t come)!
Types Of Meanings Expressed By Adverbial Groups
Adverbs e"press five broad types of meaning in clauses and groups# circumstantial, stance, degree, focusing, connective! The meaning
of a particular adverb must be seen together with its function in conte"t! The literal meaning of many adverbs can become figurative,
or completely different, when used as an intensifier!
$o, although far is listed as meaning distance, Dont go too far, it e"presses degree in Prices wont go down very far!
%hen it functions as an intensifier it ta&es on a meaning similar to much# far too short, a far nicer place, while so far e"presses time,
similar to up to now!
'ircumstantial adverbs# where, when and how things happen
$pace
(osition# Put the chairs here/ there/outside/upstairs
)irection# Push it inwards/down/through/out/away.
)istance# Dont go too far/near/close.
Time
*oment# They will be coming tomorrow/sometime/then/soon/later.
+re,uency# The doctor came once/daily/frequently/now and again.
)uration# We didnt stay long. We spoke briefly.
-elation# The train will arrive soon. It hasnt arrived yet.
$e,uence# first, second, next, then, last, finally.
*anner
carefully, significantly, well
)omain The concert was a success artistically but not financially.
$tance# e"pressing a personal angle
'ertainty, doubt# ou are certainly right. Perhaps Im wrong.
.vidential# Apparently, they emigrated to !ustralia. The species is reportedly dependent on...
/iewpoint# We are in good shape financially, and healthwise, too.
.mphasis# "e is plainly just a creep. Indeed he is.
0udgement# The #inister has wisely resigned.
Attitude# Thanfully, it didnt rain. !opefully, it will be fine tomorrow. I lost the manuel, unfortunately.
+ocusing adverbs# restricting the scope
-estriction# That is merely a detail. "e is $ust interested in money. "e hardly ate anything, only a yoghurt.
-einforcement# The hotel had everything, e"en a fitness centre.
Even is a scalar adverb which carries an implication that the unit modified by even is either high or low on a scale of e"pectedness, in
the conte"t! In the e"ample, a fitness centre is higher than e"pected, as not all hotels have a fitness centre! In he wouldnt stay
even for one day, it is implied that one day is a shorter stay than had been e"pected! 1oth are interpreted as slightly surprising!
'onnective2 3in&ing adverbs# logical connection
$e,uence# #irst, we have no money, and second, we have no time.
-einforcement# The house is small and furthermore has no garden.
'onclusion# It was a tiring trip, but altogether very interesting.
-estating# Weve got two pets, namely a rabbit and a canary.
-eason# I couldnt find you, so I left.
'ondition# Take an umbrella% otherwise youll get wet.
'larification# "e wants to live abroad, or rather anywhere away from home.
'ontrast# They accept his invitations, yet they run him down.
Alternation# Theres no tea. Would you like a cup of coffee instead&
'oncession# What you said was true% still it was unkind.
Attention4see&ing# $ow, you listen to me' $ow then, whats all this about&
)egree adverbs# comparing, intensifying
'omparison# This is the most(the least efficient scanner weve had so far.
Intensification# "e lives all alone but seems quite/fairly/pretty happy.
Attenuation# It was ind of strange to see her again.
Appro"imation) There were about/roughly/more or less *+ people there.
$ufficiency# Is the water hot enough&
."cess# Well, actually, its too hot.
High intensification
the "ery latest techni,ues Thats "ery kind of you
a really good film It was really good
an awfully nice man "e looked awfully tired
a most e-traordinary performance "is ideas are most odd
I am way concerned about the environment .!m/0 .1s only0
otice that the original meaning of some high intensifiers has undergone semantic change! +or e"ample, terrifically indicates
approval, awfully and terribly can intensify both good and bad ,ualities, while dreadfully and horribly are used only with bad ones!
The following are common collocations#
dripping wet% boiling hot% free&ing cold% blind drun% dead straight% wide awae% fast asleep% fro&en stiff% extra special% stining
rich% fully aware% ra"ing mad% highly contro"ersial% radically opposed% eminently suitable% deeply mo"ing% seriously stupid% hugely
successful% supremely confident% terrifically good'looing% horribly disfigured.
Quite, which normally e"presses a medium degree of intensification, can e"press a high degree in the sense of indicating a complete
degree or e"tent to which something is the case# I stood ,uite still! To convey this meaning, ,uite is spo&en with higher pitch and
emphasis! 5uite always ta&es on a high degree when it modifies an emotive adjective as in quite ama2ing, quite incredible, quite
disastrous.
"e looks quite different in his everyday clothes.
ou are quite right.
Medium intensification
A medium degree of intensification is e"pressed by the four adverbs ,uite, pretty, rather, fairly! %ithin the medium degree, we can
recognise four sub4degrees in order of
descending intensification#
Its uite cold here in the winter!
Its rather cold here in the winter!
Its pretty cold here in the winter! (informal, spo&en style)
Its fairly mild here in the winter!
Quite denotes moderate but une,uivocal intensification of the adjective, whether this is
appreciative as in ,uite pleased, ,uite satisfactory, ,uite nice,
unappreciative as in ,uite dangerous, ,uite pessimistic, ,uite nasty,
neutral as in ,uite tall, ,uite cheap(e-pensive, ,uite short(long.
3he felt there was something not ,uite right about the room.
(oliteness or lac& of certainty are often the motivations of the use of ,uite, as in Im not ,uite sure!
5uite is used to modify not only adjectives but also verbs and adverbs# I dont ,uite know, I didnt ,uite understand.
!ather can lower the force of a statement by indicating a certain limited degree, as in it looks rather difficult! It becomes related to
indirectness when used in situations which warrant a stronger word such as very or e-tremely! (oliteness is
sometimes the motivation for the use of rather, for e"ample, to avoid direct criticism of others, Im rather worried about your e-am
results, or to mitigate the e"pression of the spea&ers own emotions, as in I was rather pleased at winning the lottery! At the same
time it implies that a larger degree or e"tent is to be understood, for instance very worried, very pleased! This ability to say one thing
while implying another ma&es rather a subtle tool in interpersonal interaction! -ather is a word that has contributed greatly to the
notion of 6.nglish understatement, as in#
4uying that second5hand car may turn out to be a rather costly mistake.
"retty e"presses the notion of ,uite but not completely! It is used with all types of gradable adjective, but has an appro"imative value
characteristic of informal speech7 e!g. 3hes pretty good5looking, I feel pretty tired after that long walk, That film was pretty awful,
dontyou think& 3i&e rather, it can also imply a stronger degree, especially when e"pressing a negative evaluation# That paper of his
was a pretty poor effort .6 very poor0. The idiomatic combinations pretty well, pretty much can modify certain adjectives and
determinatives, for instance, pretty well impossible, pretty much the same!
"es going to have a pretty bad headache for a while, and the cut is pretty deep, so its bound to be sore . . .
#airly as a modifier indicates an almost large or reasonable degree of a ,uality (fairly accurate, fairly well5off)! It can be used more
easily with favourable and neutral adjectives than with strongly unfavourable ones, as with fairly honest, fairly intelligent, fairly
reasonable, but not 7fairly dishonest, 7fairly foolish, 7fairly unreasonable#
"e seems to have a fairly good idea of what he wants to do.
The above glosses represent only the typical semantic orientation of these four intensifiers! At the same time, their references are all
slightly indeterminate, rather than fi"ed points on the scale! The attitudes they e"press can be varied in speech by intonation!
8ther adverbs which suggest that something is very close to having the ,uality named are# almost, nearly, roughly, appro-imately,
partly, largely.
Attenuation
Attenuation refers to a slight degree of the ,uality or its entire absence, and is e"pressed as follows#
slightly better a little disappointing a bit salty
ind of weird
sort of greyish hair
somewhat odd .formal0
$ort of and %ind of are used, in very informal .nglish, when the spea&er is uncertain how to e"press the e"act ,uality of something!
$light attenuation or reservation can be e"pressed by negating a high degree#
not "ery likely
not quite sure of her name
not entirely true
not particularly fond of insects
"ardly likely, barely necessary, scarcely believable, none too happy e"press a minimal degree of attribution and often imply a
certain degree of the opposite ,uality!
Im not at all surprised at the result, or, Im not surprised at all at the result e"press absence or denial of the uality named
At all can be used as an attenuator in yes2no interrogative, negative and conditional clauses, as a politeness strategy in the case of
conditionals! It is placed before or after the adjective#
!re you at all worried& !re you worried at all&
Wed like to stay another week, if its at all possible .or if its possible at all0
#orms Of Adverbs
*orphologically, .nglish adverbs are either simple, derived or compound!
$imple forms
These are words of one or two syllables, usually of native origin, that are not compounded and do not have derivational affi"es!
."amples# now, then, here, there, far, near, soon, as, such, pretty, quite, rather, else, well, e"en, e"er, ago.
'ertain simple adverbs have the same form as the corresponding adjective#
! hard worker 8 he works hard a fast car 8 she drives fast
!n early arrival 8 we arrived early a late performance 8 we left late
&erived forms
9 Those formed from adjectives by the addition of the suffi" 4ly include#
badly, happily, fairly, freely, slowly, proudly, honestly, cheerfully, sadly, warmly.
happy happily
lucky luckily
mere merely
wide widely
practical practically
literal literally
considerable considerably
invariable invariably
9 $ome adjectives already have the 4ly suffi" (friendly, princely, daily, weely, monthly, etc!), and this form is also that of the adverb!
That is to say, another 4ly suffi" is not added# we dont say :monthlily!
9 A few adverbs in 4ly are not derived from adjectives# accordingly, namely, joingly, among others.
9 $ome adjective;adverb pairs have ,uite unrelated meanings#
hard(hardly% bare(barely% scarce(scarcely% present(presently% late(lately% short(shortly.
9 'ertain very common adjectives e"pressing very basic meanings dont lend themselves to adverb formation#
big, small, young, old, tall, tiny, fat, among others.
9 Those formed from nouns, by the addition of 4wise, 4ways, 4ward(s), include#
clocwise, moneywise% sideways, lengthways% bacward)s*, forward)s*.
9 A small group of adverbs beginning a4 indicate mainly position or direction#
about, abo"e, abroad, across, again, ahead, along, aloud, apart, around, aside, away.
9 Another small set of adverbs has be4 as first syllable, also indicating position or direction#
before, behind, below, beneath, besides, between, beyond.
These can also function as prepositions) Ive been here before .adv.0% It was before the war .prep.0.
*any adverbial forms also function as prepositions'
1oth prepositions and adverbs e"press, typically, circumstantial meanings, especially those of space and time! It is not surprising,
therefore, that some words can realise functions of both classes#
aboard, about, above, across, after, along, around, behind, below, beneath, between, beyond, down, in, inside, near, off, on, opposite,
outside, through, throughout, under, underneath, up!
Here are some structural criteria for distinguishing prepositions from adverbs#
9 A preposition ; but not an adverb ; re,uires a nominal complement, and when this is a pronoun, the preposition governs its
case (for him, to them)!
9 In paired e"amples such as We went into the caf9 8 we went in, what was a preposition in the first version is replaced by an
adverb in the second!
9 the adverb is heavily stressed, whereas the preposition is normally unstressed, or only lightly stressed (lower down the scale vs
lower D:W;% we walked past the caf9 8we walked P!3T)!
9 In certain positions prepositions are stressed7 for instance, when stranded at the end of a wh4,uestion# What is it <:=< Where
is it <=:#< The preposition with is stressed in the e"pression 6with it (= trendy), and also in one adjunctive use Ill take it WIT" me,
but not in to start with (= (at) first)! Without is similarly stressed in I cant do WIT":>T it, WIT":>T you! In the combinations do
without and go without (food), the word without functions as an adverb particle# Theres no mil& left, so well just have to do without!
In the following e"amples, both the adverb and the (( are functioning as Adjuncts or 3ocative 'omplements#
Adverb "reposition
There are always two pilots
All the children were running
The last time I met *onica was in
$eptember, but I havent seen her
The rule is that wor&men must go
aboard
around
since
outside
aboard the plane!
around the playground!
since then! (cohesive with $eptember)
outside the factory if they want to
smo&e during morning brea&!
However, not all prepositions have adverbial counterparts# the forms at, from and towards function as prepositions, but not as adverbs!
'onversely, the forms together, apart and forth function singly as adverbs but not as prepositions! %hen combined with a preposition,
however, together with and apart from function as comple" prepositions!
+urthermore, even when a form serves both functions, the sense may be different in each case! To as a preposition is different from its
adverbial function in The unconscious boy came T: (= recovered consciousness) in both stress and meaning!
In the following e"amples, the words in italics function as part of a (( (in the left column) and as modifier of a > head (in the right)#
"" m in (G
near the town centre
outside the gates
inside the museum
tears rolled down her chee&s
near neighbours of mine
an outside broadcast
some inside information
a down payment
(repositions are best contrasted with adverbial particles# up, down, in, out, on, off, over, away, back, and so on! These are a sub4set of
short forms with meanings of direction and 6path, among others, which are used with verbs to form phrasal verbs# wal& down the
street ; wal& down7 get off the bus ; get off! Adverbs are also used to form comple" prepositions, such as far from, as well as, instead
of.
)ompound forms
There are two types#
9 shortened forms of what were originally ((s#
downhill, indoors, inside, outside, downstairs, o"erhead, o"erall, o"ernight, and others.
9 combinations with other classes of word#
somewhere, anywhere, nowhere, e"erywhere% howe"er, moreo"er, ne"ertheless% anyway, anyhow.
(hrasal adverbs are those which do not form compounds, but consist of more than one word#
of course% at all% ind of, sort of% in fact% as well.
$tructure And General )haracteristics Of The Adverbial Group
The structure of the adverbial group is composed potentially of three elements# the head h, the modifier m and the posthead element,
either m(post4modifier) or c (complement)#
Adv>
HEA&
.A-3?
HEA& * modifier
.A-3? in the morning
modifier * HEA&
very .A-3?
modifier * HEA& * modifier
very .A-3? in the morning
modifier * HEA& * complement
more $38%3? than necessary
far A%A? from civilisation
so +A$T (that) I couldnt catch him
,uite '3.A-3? enough
The head element is always realised by an adverb!
The modifier is realised typically by grading and intensifying adverbs and less typically by ,uantifiers (ten miles across)!
The complement e"presses a different type of meaning from that of the modifier!
It e"presses the scope or conte"t of the meaning e"pressed by the head luckily for us
It can serve to define the modifier more e"plicitly# more correctly than before
It is for this reason that complements are mostly realised by ((s and clauses, whereas pre4modifiers are usually realised by words!
However, we shall see that few adverbs ta&e prepositional complements!
9 Adverbs modify verbs, clauses, adjectives and other adverbs!
9 Adverbs and Adv>s function typically in group structures as pre+modifier and post+modifier'
9 In addition, they marginally realise subject and object functions in clauses!
Today is the last <riday in the month.
I dont know when. They didnt tell me why.
9 *any adverbs of directional meaning function as particles (up, down, in, out, etc!) in phrasal verbs#
/veryone rushed out.
9 They are very fre,uently optional, in the sense that they can be omitted without the clause becoming ungrammatical!
$ummary Of The $yntactic #unctions Of Adverbs And Adverbial Groups
Adverbs have three main functions#
as Adverbial
Adverbials are clause elements that tell either the circumstances relating to the clause, such as when or where an activity too& place7
e"press the spea&ers feelings, evaluations, or comments on what the clause is about or lin& the clause (or some part of it) to another
clause!
$yntactic forms of adverbials
Adverbials can occur as#
single adverbs and adverb phrases, never, very well, frankly, first.
noun phrases -including single nouns., 3aturday, each year.
prepositional phrases, with them, for a few weeks, in this chapter...,
finite clauses# We sent for you because you were absent.
non/finite clauses,
ing4clauses# 3he reali2ed, lying there, what she must do.
ed4clauses# +hen ased by journalists about the refuge problem, he said ?What refuge problem&
to4infinitive clauses# To a"oid an accident, the driver slowed down.
verbless clauses# The author apologi2es where appropriate. +hen in doubt, the answer is n.
In terms of their grammatical functions adverbials fall into four main categories#
@! A)0A'T (have the same status as the other clause elements,)
$tance ad0uncts, relationship to the whole sentence#
-alph &issed his mother on the platform.
"redication ad0uncts, relationship to the predication
$he put the letter on the kitchen (optional# its omission leaves an acceptable sentence, 6$he found the letter)
$he found the letter on the kitchen (obligatory# omission is impossible# :6$he put the letter)
In many cases, it is convenient to see predication adjuncts as 6object4related and sentence adjuncts as 6subject4related
$tance adjunct# In @une, we foresaw a disaster! (refers to the time of foreseeing, subject4related)
(redication adjunct# %e foresaw a disaster in @une! (refers to the date of the disaster, object4related)
$emantic !oles of Ad0uncts,
'ircumstantial adverbs#
They answer ,uestions such as how<, when<, where<, how much<, how long<, why< and what!!!for<
1 $pace
(osition#
The dog was asleep on the grass.
)irection#
They walked down the hill.
>oal#
3he hurried to the station.
$ource#
This book cannot be taken from the library.
)istance#
We mustnt go "ery much further.
1 Time
(oint in time#
3he was born in ,-./. #o2art lived in a period of great musical creati"ity. Ill see you at nine on 0onday. The doctor wants
to see you again afterwards. I lived there in the fifties when my first child was born.
+re,uency#
They "ery seldom went to see their parents. 1sually/$ormally/2enerally, she doesnt go to bed before midnight, "e has been
asking incessantly/continually/ permanently/always for you. $e"er have I e-perienced such rudeness. 3he occasionally
greets me.
)uration#
I will be in 1hicago until Thursday. We have been at the airport since midday. Well be here up to midday. 3he has worked
here only this last wee. The office is closed between one and two o3cloc.
-elationship between one time and another#
3he must still be in the office. When did you pre"iously go to the dentist&% I dont understand e"en now% 3he should complain
it again.
1 "rocess
*anner#
The minister e-plained his policy "ery clearly. 3he looked at him coldly. "e walks lie his father. Please dont speak in that
rude way. The cook in the #rench style. I wish I could write as you do.
*eans#
4y her insight, she grasped the patients real problem. 3he influenced me by her example. They decided to treat the patient
surgically .6by means of surgery0
Instrument#
I have difficulty eating with chopstics. 3he fed the baby with a teaspoon. "e was killed with a hunting nife. 3he e-amined
the specimen microscopically .6with a microscope0
Agency#
Penicillin was discovered by 5ir Alexander #leming. "e was killed by a terrorist.
1 !espect (e"press the respect in which the truth value of a sentence is being claimed)
3he helped him with his research. They are advising me legally .6on point of law, with respect to law, not 7lawfully(not
illegally0. ! neighbour is advising me on legal issues/so far as legal matters are concerned/ in respect to law/ from a legal
standpoint. As dinosaurs go, they were the biggest of the big.
1 )ontingency,
-eason#
"e did it because he was angry. 3he made the sacrifice for his son. There were many deaths form malnutrition. +ith him
being so angry, I didnt tell him the worst part.
(urpose#
"e bough the book to study metaphysics. The driver slowed down so as to a"oid an accident. Inoculation must be carried out
lest the disease spread. "e died in order that others might li"e.
'oncession# (when it ta&es the form of a prepositional phrase)
3he gave lectures despite her illness.
'ondition#
If you ere in the mood, we could at least go. If I could correct this, I certainly would.
-esult#
"e read the book carefully, so he acquired a god nowledge of biology. It has been forced to slash prices, with the result that
profits dropped ele"en per cent.
1 !ecipient,
They tell to whom an action was directed!
Ill $ust write the check for you. Ill $ust write you the check. I think were getting that for the house. 3pecial cages have been
developed for wild mice. The referendum results will be presented to 6egislature.
B! $A10A'T (have a subordinate role, lac& the grammatical parity with other sentence elements)
2ide orientation, relate to the sentence as a whole or the subject!
/iewpoint subjuncts# mar& the viewpoint or perspective from which the proposition is claimed to be true
Architecturally, the plans represent a magnificent conception. #rom a personal "iewpoint, he is likely to do well in this post.
6ooed at politically, the proposal seems dangerous. +eatherwise, the outlook is dismal .!m /0 We are in good shape
financially, and healthwise, too.
'ourtesy subjuncts#
ou are cordially invited to take your places. "e asked if I would please read his manuscript. 3he indly offered me her seat
.6she was kind enough to offer...0 but 3he offered me her seat kindly .6she offered me her seat in a kind manner0
(arro3 orientation, relate to the predication or a particular past of the predication!
1 4tem sub0uncts,
They operate in the semantic area of manner but distinguished from the corresponding manner adjunct by being placed at the
beginning or in the middle! They could be#
$ubject subjuncts#
3he has consistently opposed the lawyers arguments .6she has been consistent in always opposing the lawyers not 7?her
arguments have been conducted consistently0, Intentionally, they said nothing to him about the fire. +ith great reluctance,
he rose to speak.
(redication subjuncts#
"e cant drive yet. Is he already here&, "e doesnt work for us any more/longer, "e no longer works for us% 3he said she
would see me no more% They ne"er seem to read books.
1 Emphasi5ers,
I just/simply/really cant believe a word he says' "e is plainly just a creep. Indeed he is. surely, certainly
1 4ntensifiers,
Amplifiers#
They fully appreciate the problem. "e has completely ignored my ,uestion. 3he was badly in need of help. "e badly needed
consolation. "ow much they must have suffered' I understand your attitude totally. 3he cant possibly e-pect you to wait so
long. I paid him a great deal for his advice.
)iminishers#
They have practically forced him to resign. In spite of his manners, I rather like him. 3he sort of laughed at the idea. I was
only $oking. "e didnt in the least en$oy the party. 3he wont mind in the slightest. 3he slept a little in the afternoon. 3he
helped him a little with his research.
1 #ocusing,
-estrictive#
I merely wanted to know his name .6I didnt want to know anything else0 7nly her sister visited her in hospital .6;o one else
did so0 That is merely a detail. "e is $ust interested in money. "e hardly ate anything, only a yoghurt. I will be in 1hicago
only until Thursday.
Additive2 -einforcement#
<red had also invited his mother5in5law .6in addition to others0 8"en on 3undays, my doctor is willing to come and see me
.6in addition to ordinary working days0 The hotel had everything, e"en a fitness centre.
C! )I$0A'T (have a superior role to sentence elements, being somewhat detached from and subordinate to the rest of the
sentence)
1 $tyle &is0uncts,
They comment on the manner of conveying the message!
*anner and *odality#
franly, to be fran, honestly, truthfully, putting it bluntly, if you don3t mind my saying so, seriously, to tell you the truth,
considered candidly, To put it briefly, there is nothing I can do to help. ou can, in all honesty, e-pect no further payments.
-espect
generally, literally, personally, technically speaing, generally speaing, 5trictly .in terms of the rules0, she should have
taken offence at the remark. #rom what he said, the other driver was in the wrong.
1 )ontent &is0uncts, (ma&e an observation on the actual content of an utterance and on its truth conditions)
'ertainty#
They tell the level of certainty or doubt about the proposition in the clause!
The play was undoubtedly/apparently written by <rancis 4eaumant. ou are certainly right. 3he certainly helped him with his
research. Perhaps Im wrong. In essence, the $udge called her evidence in ,uestion. 5ince she had no time to ha"e the car
fixed, =achel telephoned for a ta-i. The proposal would have been accepted if the chairman had put it more forcibly.
.valuation2 Attitude
They e"press a spea&ers evaluations and attitudes towards the content of a clause!
+isely, she consulted her lawyer .6she was wise to consult her lawyer0, $aturally, my husband e-pected me home by then .6
It was natural for my husband to e-pect me back by then0 To my regret, she did not seek nomination. What is especially
fortunate, the child was unhurt. We were not, which is surprising, invited to meet the new members of staff. Thanfully, it
didnt rain. .!m /0 !opefully, it will be fine tomorrow. I lost the manual, unfortunately. The #inister has wisely resigned.
correctly, cunningly, foolishly, justly, rightly, stupidly, curiously, funnily )enough*, strangely, unexpectedly, predictably,
understandably, disturbingly, pleasingly, regrettably, happily, lucily, sadly, amusingly, significantly.
D! '80A'T (connect two utterances or parts of an utterance, and they do so by e"pressing at the same time the semantic
relationship between them)
$emantic !oles of )on0uncts,
1 6isting
.numerative# In the first place, the economy is recovering, and secondly unemployment is beginning to decline.
for one thing )...for another*, next, then )again*, finally.
Additive# 3he has the ability, the e-perience, and abo"e all the courage to tackle the problem.
furthermore, moreo"er, what is more, similarly, in addition, on top of that.
$ummative (conclusion)# "e was late for work, he ,uarrelled with a colleague, he lost his wallet% all in all, it was a bad day. It was a
tiring trip, but altogether very interesting.
altogether, o"erall, therefore, in sum, to sum up.
1 Appositive (restating), There was one snag) namely, the weather. Weve got two pets, namely a rabbit and a canary.
that is )to say*, i.e., for example, e.g., in other words, specifically.
1 !esultive (reason. , I got very late, so I missed the train. I couldnt find you, so I left.
therefore, as a result, accordingly, in consequence, of course.
1 4nferential, ou havent answered my ,uestion% in other words you disapprove of the proposal.
in that case, so, then, otherwise, else'
1 )ontrastive,
-eformulatory (clarification)#
3he asked some of her friends 8some of her husbands friends, rather. "e wants to live abroad, or rather anywhere away from home.
also )or* better, more accurately, in other words, alias, worse.
Antithetic#
They had e-pected to en$oy being in #anila but instead they both fell ill.
on the contrary, by contrast, on the other hand, then.
'oncessive#
#y age is against me) still, its worth a try. What you said was true% still it was unkind.
howe"er, ne"ertheless, yet, all the same, of course, that said, anyhow, anyway, still and all, only, though.
E Transitional
)iscoursal#
Aet me introduce you to my sister, and by the way, did I tell you that Im moving&
incidentally, now.
Temporal#
The ambulance got stuck in rush5hour traffic and in the meantime the child became delirious.
meanwhile, originally, subsequently, e"entually.

As Modifier -in group structures.,
9 of adjectives
premodifier# all wet7 quite nice7 too long7 completely new, slightly larger!
submodifier# much too short7 rather more interesting!
post4modifier# ,uic& enough7 very beautiful indeed, so long ago
*ost commonly the adverbs is a intensifier or emphasiFer#
extremely dangerous, deeply concerned, perfectly reasonable, really beautiful, "ery difficult, just impossible, significantly
higher, too bad, pretty good, quite different, absolutely fantastic.
or e"press notions as manner and means but also have some intensifying effect#
easily debatable, openly hostile, quietly assertive, readily available, literally speechless
or e"press 6view point
politically e-pedient, theoretically sound, technically possible,
9 of adverbs
premodifier# nearly there% more easily% "ery often, so clearly, surprisingly well, extremely ,uickly.
submodifier# .not0 all that easily% far too often.
post4modifier) ,uickly enough% very easily indeed% never again.
The most common combinations of adverbs G adverbs are#
pretty much, so much, "ery much, too much, much better, much more .powerful0, pretty well, really well, "ery well, right here,
right there, right now, pretty soon.
9 of noun phrases
premodifier# the then #inister of "ealth% a nearby hotel% quite a success, we had quite a party, they were quite
some players, it was rather a mess, an away game, inside information.
post4modifier# the $ourney bac% the way ahead, the meeting yesterday, the meal afterwards, the trip abroad, the
hall downstairs, the ,uotation abo"e, something else, who else, little else, much else, all else.
9 of pronoun, predeterminer and numeral
premodifier# almost nobody, nearly everybody, almost all, about double, roughly half, approximately *B+
people, o"er/under two hundred deaths, we counted approximately the fist thousand votes, she gave me almost
the largest piece of cake.
9 of prepositional phrases
premodifier# right out of sigh, right through the wall, just down the road, well into their seventies,
well within the time.
9 of particle of phrasal verbs
pick up% put on% take out% pull off% go in, go away, come bac, put on, break down
%hen a noun phrase follows the particle, the verb may still be an adverb! The particle in the phrasal verb is an adverb because
it can be transposed to follow the verb#
They turn on the light. They turn the light on.
If the position on the particle is fi"ed it is just a preposition, part of the prepositional verbs#
They took to us 7They took us to.
!s 1omplement of Preposition
$ome place and time adverbs function as complement of a preposition#
near there, from abroad, from behind, from abo"e, under, there, over here, through there, from inside%
since recently, since then, from now, for e"er, till then, till now, before long.
In conversation, adverbs sometimes occur alone, unconnected to other elements in a clause! They occur as responses to something
said by the previous spea&er! In such cases the adverb can serve to e"press or emphaFise#
9 agreement
?In other words he is fully recovered ?8xactly3
?#aybe thats a way to do it ?Absolutely3
?;ow thats what I call a first5class meal' ?9efinitely'
?Its warm, isnt it&. 4y the radiator ?Probably3
9 assertion
?Did you en$oy the outing& ?Tremendously, yes'
?!re they that good& ?9efinitely3
9 granting permission
?1an I have a look at the contract& :;ertainly.
9 they can be used as ,uestions#
?ou can still vote if you lost it ?<eally&
?ou are supposed to put the lid otherwise it wont switch off ?5eriously&
"ositions Of Adverbs 4n The )lause, 4nitial7 Middle And #inal
Adverbs and adverbials can appear in#
initial position#
before the subject or any other element# Intentionally, they said nothing to him about the fire.
<eally, I dont li&e driving!
The adverb comprises the whole sentence, the subject and the predicate!
The adverb is separated from the clause! It comprises the whole clause strongly!
medial position,
between the subject and the beginning of the verb phrase# I really dont know what they are doing.
I really dont li&e driving!
The adverb covers the predicate, without the subject, but including the negation and au"iliary (dont)! the adverb focuses mainly on
the predicator and its complement and is placed before or after the au"iliary, which in this case carries negation!
after the au"iliary verb but before the main verb# 3he had often dreamed about coming back.
I dont really like driving.
The adverb comprises the predicator and its complement (driving)! the adverb focuses mainly on the predicator and its complement
and is placed before or after the au"iliary, which in this case carries negation!
after the main verb but before other obligatory element of the clause (subject predicative, direct object, etc)#
It is still three weeks away. It is no longer a 1asino.
final position,
after obligatory elements# Id been living independently for about two years.
I dont like driving, really.
The adverb is separated from the clause! It comprises the whole clause wea&ly, as if it were an afterthought!
4nitial position is commonly used
to give information already mentioned in the recently preceding discourse
To assess the impact on education, we turn to some specific cases.
At that moment a servant entered the library (= 6that moment refers to something already mentioned)
when the adverbial has scope over the entire clause
5lowly, the rising sun appeared over the distant hori2on.
9ecisi"ely, he pushed open the door of the shop and went inside.
to set the scene (in place or time)
7n the other side of the fence, the upper part of the field was full of holes.
6ast wee, he promised that there would be no more complaints.
with lin&ing adverbials to clearly signal the connection between two clauses as the reader is guided from the @H clause to the BH one#
The hotel was rather noisy. 7n the other hand, it wasnt e-pensive
for most adverbials that e"press the spea&ers attitude to the content of the clause or comment about its content
0aybe it is true, maybe it isnt. In most cases he would have been ,uite right. According to him, nuclear power was the only
clean energy for /gypt. In fact Im taller than the others. In our "iew it would be a backward step. !onestly, I dont know.
!opefully, the new plan will lead to some improvements. 1ndoubtedly, the success is due to your efforts.
Hopefully, and other similar adverbs such as seriously, frankly, may also function as adjuncts of manner, within the clause#
3he underwent the operation hopefully. .i.e. full of hope0
Medial position is common for
Adverbs ending in 4ly include many of manner# carefully, easily, correctly, cheaply, politely, peacefully, urgently, and also some
emotive ones# angrily, gladly, desperately! They lend force to what immediately follows#
We sincerely hope you en$oyed your stay with us.
I have been seriously thinking of changing my $ob.
I will gladly help you if you need me.
addition2restriction adverbs
I was only asking. ou simply dont reali2e how serious this is.
degree adverbs that have limited scope
"e hadnt quite decided whether they were to talk to the audience I totally disagree with you.
adverbs of modality and evidence
Theyre probably still partying. .modal0
3he is supposedly a rich woman. .hearsay evidential0
certain adverbs of fre,uency ; always, ne"er, seldom, hardly e"er, often, rarely, sometimes, usually
We always spend our holidays abroad.
We have ne"er been to !frica.
Aawyers often love to tell you about how good they are.
for short adverbials of time
I always thought that I reminded him of her. "e now faces a trial. 1rops rarely e-perienced constant environments.
#inal position is the most common position for
circumstances adverbials in general
The dog was asleep on the grass. They walked down the hill. We mustnt go "ery much further. 3he was born in ,-./. 3he
looked at him coldly We arrived early.
%hen there is a direct object, however, the adverb must be placed after the object# %e caught the bus easily! ot :%e caught
easily the bus! This is because in .nglish an object is not separated from the verb which selects it, even by adjuncts of degree#
I like apples very much. ;ot 7I like very much apples.
The only e"ception to this is when the direct object is e"ceptionally long and so re,uires end4focus!
"e speaks fluently several /uropean and oriental languages.
If the adverb is modified or complemented as a group, it may still occupy end4position even if the )8 is also long#
"e speaks several /uropean and oriental languages as well as !rabic very fluently indeed.
the adverbs of negative import ; ne"er, seldom, rarely, hardly e"er for purposes of emphasis, this structure is formal in style#
<arely does one find such kindness nowadays.
$e"er in my life have I heard such cra2y ideas'
adverbs such as abroad, across, bac, e"erywhere, downstairs, inside, uphill, forwards, sideways, e"pressing position and direction#
Push it forwards% turn it sideways.
finite clauses
1ome back when you are ready. /-cuse me if a tal too much.
the lin&ing adverbials# then, anyway, though
Does she still lives at home then& ou didnt miss much anyway. 3he was listening though.
Indefinite time adverbs such as sometimes, e"entually, immediately, finally, recently, pre"iously, can be placed in final, pre4verbal or
initial position! Again separation of verb;object is e"cluded#
He stopped the machine immediately! (normal unmar&ed position)
He immediately stopped the machine! (focuses on the process stop)
4mmediately he stopped the machine! (focuses on the whole of the clause)
:He stopped immediately the machine! (unacceptable!)
The adverbs still, yet, already
These three adverbs e"press, in broad terms, the following time relationships#
5till refers to processes or states which continue to occur or not occur up to the present!
=et refers to processes or states which may occur in the future or have not occurred up to the present moment!
Already refers to processes or states which occurred before the present moment!
The following table shows their interrelated uses in ,uestions and answers, as in interpersonal communication! In negative replies,
there is sometimes an e,uivalence between the not yet and the still not constructions!
%e may observe the similarity of meaning of still and yet in a be G to4infinitive structure, and as concessive connectives#
"ell make a champion of you yet/ still.
! cure for chronic bronchitis is still/ yet to be found.
It was a hard climb. 5till, it was worth it. .concessive0
"es rather uncommunicative, yet everyone seems to like him. .concessive0
Question Affirmative ans3er (egative ans3er
)oes Tom still visit you< ?es, he still visits us!
?es, he still does!
o, he doesnt visit us any more!
o, he doesnt visit us any longer!
o, he no longer visits us!
Is Tom still wor&ing< ?es, he is still wor&ing!
?es, he still is! o, he isnt any more!
o, he isnt wor&ing any more!
o, he isnt wor&ing any longer!
o, he is no longer wor&ing!
Is Tom wor&ing yet< ?es, he is already wor&ing!
?es, he already is!
o, he isnt wor&ing yet!
o, he still isnt wor&ing!
Has Tom arrived yet< ?es, he has arrived already!
es, he has already arrived!
?es, he already has!
o, he hasnt arrived yet.
o, he still hasnt arrived!
o, he hasnt yet!
Has Tom already gone<
Has Tom gone already<
?es, he has already gone!
?es, he has gone already!
?es, he already has!
o, he hasnt gone yet!
o, he is still here!
)oes Tom &now yet< ?es, he already &nows!
?es, he &nows already!
?es, he already does!
o, he doesnt &now yet!
o, he still doesnt &now!
o, he doesnt yet!
#unction and type
$ince there is rarely a one4to4one relationship between function and type, many words can realise more than one syntactic function,
with the position of the adverb varying according to its function! This is illustrated by the adverbs 6altogether and 6later#
Altogether)
"e owes me a hundred dollars altogether .ad$unct0
I think you are altogether wrong .modifier of ad$.0
There were a lot of interesting people there, so altogether we had a very good time. .connective0
6ater>
There will be another performance later. .ad$unct0
The later performance will be at midnight. .modifier of noun0
The performance later will be a better one. .post5modifier of noun0
)omparative And $uperlative 8ses
)omplements of comparison and excess
'omplements of adverbs are almost e"clusively of one type, namely grading! *any adverbial heads admit indirect complements,
which depend, not on the adverb itself, but on the degree modifier!
'omparative and degree complements of adverbs can be prepositional phrases or clauses!
The adverbs phrase function as an adverbial in all of these e"amples below#
A)/.-1 G4er G than4phrase
"e rode it oftener than ever.
"e reached the farther than her.
A)/.-1 G4er G than4clause
:ur coach left earlier than it should have done.
more2 less G A)/.-1 G than4phrase
4ill speaks 3panish much more fluently than his sister.
more2 less G A)/.-1 G than clause
We e-pected this to happen more ,uickly than it did.
as G A)/.-1 G as4phrase
I dont translate as accurately as a professional.
as G A)/.-1 G as4clause
I didnt do it as well as I wish I had.
too G A)/.-1 G to4inf
We reached the station too late to catch the train.
A)/.-1 G enough G to4inf
We didnt leave early enough to get there in time.
!t least four people were bitten seriously enough to be hospitili2ed.
so G A)/.-1 G that4clause
"e spoke so calmly that it made her calm too.
so G A)/.-1 G as to4clause
"e went so far as to write home about the business.
$uperlative +orms
3he works the hardest of the family.
"e reached the farthest.
Who cooks .the0 most/ least regularly in you family&
I work .the0 best/ worst in the morning.
Tomorrow morning would suit me best, for the meeting.
It was the driver who came off worst in the accident.
The forms shared by adverbs and adjectives early, late, quic, fast, long, soon ta&e ;est and 4er #
"e spoke longer than I did.
I arrived later than #onica, because I came by a later train.
Please come the earliest you possibly can.
Irregular forms of comparison -egular form of comparison
Inflectional (hrasal
badly worse worst fast faster fastest
well better best early earlier earliest
far
farther
further
farthest
furthest
late later latest
long longer longest
little less (lesser) least hard harder hardest
much more most soon sooner soonest
more 8most
less 5 least
happily
luckily
merely
practically
literally
considerably
$uch structures may be considered as discontinuous complementation, though the two parts of the structure, before
and after the head, differ in position and content!
The modifiers more (4er) and less do not necessarily re,uire the than complement7 on the other hand, complements
introduced by than cannot be used without a previous modifier which controls this construction!
If a comparison of e,uality (as ! ! ! as ! ! !) is established between two adverbs of manner (such as elegantly,
amusingly) the second as must be followed by a finite clause with a form of be, do, or have substituting for the
predicator#
@ane !usten wrote as elegantly as she did amusingly. .and not 7as elegantly as amusingly0
Adverbs modified ,uantitatively by so and that are also complemented in the same way as adjectives! The se,uence of
the clauses can be inverted, the second one then becoming an e"planatory comment on the first#
"e e-plained the problem so clearly )that* everybody understood.
/verybody understood the problem, he e-plained it so clearly.
Adverbs are graded by the same words as adjectives# more often, most often, less often, least often, as often, often
enough, too often.
Although the adverb enough is placed after the head adverb, we shall consider it as a modifier as we do with
adjectives, since it can itself be submodified by an adverb placed before the head# not ,uite often enough .7not ,uite
enough often0.
)O!!E6AT49E #O!M$
The constructions formed by the more . . . the more .or 5er . . . 5er0, the less . . . the less, the more . . . the less can be
used correlatively to indicate a progressive increase, or decrease, of the ,uality or process described!
1oth adjectives and adverbs can occur in this construction#
The bigger they are, the harder they fall, dont they& .ad$8adv0
The sooner you forget the whole incident, the better. .adv8adv0
Its funny, the more painting you do, the more you realise you dont know.
The more closely I look at the problem, the less clearly I see a solution. .adv8adv0
4(TE($4#:4(G THE A&9E!B4A6 MEA(4(G
High 4ntensification
"ery soon, quite recently, right now, high up, just then, far back, soon after, close by
Medium 4ntensification
fairly well pretty easily, rather badly
The coordinated comparative adverbs indicate a progressively high degree of the ,uality e"pressed#
"e drove faster and faster along the motorway.
"er paintings are selling more and more successfully every day.
-eduplicative adverbs have an intensifying effect#
"ery "ery fast, much much better, ne"er e"er, through and through, o"er and o"er, up and up, again and again,
round and round
Attenuation
a bit harshly, ind of hesitantly, almost never, somewhat casually, sort of sarcastically, hardly ever
Quantification
This refers mainly to circumstantial adverbs of space and time and may be either e"act, or non4measurable#
Exact, 8ur houses are only two streets apart! I saw her a moment ago!
The focusing modifier, only
7nly is a restrictive focusing adverb which can modify different units#
I wanted only one piece of toast.
We go there only once a year.
There is a tendency in spo&en .nglish to front the adverb to a position before the verb#
I only wanted one piece of toast.
We only go there once a year.
(on+measurable, ,uantity is e"pressed by modifiers such as# soon after, long before, quite near, shortly afterwards!
These circumstantial adverbs can be ,uestioned by how G adj2adv#
!ow long have you been waiting< ot long!
!ow far is it to the railway station< ot far!
&escription
Adverbs of space or time are often preceded by other adverbs of space or time which reinforce or describe them more
e"plicitly#
straight ahead, bac home, up above, early today, out there, late yesterday, down below, in here
%e may note the emotive modification of adverbs by swear words such as damn(ed), as in
ou behaved damn foolishly.
Though less common in adverbial groups than in adjectival groups, modifiers can be found submodified, or even sub4
submodified, especially in spo&en .nglish# rather less fluently, "ery much, more profitably
)OM"6EME(TAT4O( O# A&9E!B$
The wh4items when, where, why, how and their compounds (somewhere, anywhere, etc!) have nominal as well as
circumstantial value, as is shown in their post4modification by Adj>s (somewhere more e"otic), ((s (everywhere in the
world), non4fin cl (nowhere to sleep) and the adverb else#
where else< = in what other place<
when else< = at what other time<
how else< = in what other way<
why else< = for what other reason<
The forms somewhere, anywhere, nowhere are often replaced in informal Am. by someplace, anyplace, no
place, though not in wh4,uestions, e!g! someplace else, anyplace else, no place else
'ircumstantial adverbs are sometimes ,ualified by others of a similar type, so that it is not always clear which is
the head and which the modifier#
Well be meeting them sometime soon.
I need a drink. There must be a pub somewhere near.
In clauses li&e the following, the Adv> realising the Adjunct is composed of two apposed adverbs# Well meet
tomorrow 3unday!
In informal speech, intensification and reinforcement of circumstantial adverbs may be e"pressed by post4
modifiers, such as the following#
The train will be arriving now any minute/any minute now.
It always arrives punctually on the dot . 6 on time0.
$tance adverbs are sometimes modified by enough, in the sense of intensification rather than sufficiency#
;uriously enough, he doesnt seem to mind criticism.
The police never found out, oddly enough, who stole the $ewels.
Adverbs ta%ing direct complements
8nly a few adverbs, all ending in 4ly, ta&e direct complements in this way! The preposition or clausal complement
associated with an adjective is in most cases not e"tended to the adverb# mad about music, safe to drink, but not 7madly
about music or 7safely to drink. 8nly a few prepositions complementing adjectives are also found with an adverb!
These include# similarly to, independently of, separately from and differently from. Apart from these, lucily,
fortunately, when used as stance adjuncts, can be complemented by for G >
6ucily/ fortunately for us another coach came along shortly afterwards
The adverbs long (= a long time) and far (=a great distance), ta&e a to4infinitive and tend to occur in negative,
interrogative#
We didnt have long to wait.
Do you have far to go&