Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Rehabilitation,
Dizziness, Balance,
and Associated
Issues in Physical
Therapy
Independent Study Course 17.3.3
Cervicogenic Dizziness and
Differential Diagnosis of
Dizziness in the Orthopaedic
Physical Therapy Setting
An Independent Study Course Designed
for Individual Continuing Education
Peter A. Huijbregts, PT, MSc, MHSc, DPT, OCS, MTC, CSCS,
FAAOMPT, FCAMT
University of St Augustine for Health Sciences
St Augustine, Florida
The Journal of Manual and Manipulative Therapy
Forest Grove, Oregon
Shelbourne Physiotherapy Clinic
Victoria, British Columbia
Dynamic Physical Therapy
Cadillac, Michigan
Paul G. Vidal, PT, MHSc, DPT, OCS, MTC, FAAOMPT
Mercy Rehab Associates
Darby, Pennsylvania
Specialized Physical Therapy, LLC
Cherry Hill, New Jersey
University of St Augustine for Health Sciences
St Augustine, Florida
University of the Sciences in Philadelphia
Philadelphia, Pennsylvania
Dear Colleague,
I am pleased to welcome you to Cervicogenic Dizziness and Differential Diagnosis of Dizziness in
the Orthopaedic Physical Therapy Setting, authored by Peter A. Huijbregts, PT, MSc, MHSc, DPT,
OCS, MTC, CSCS, FAAOMPT, FCAMT, and Paul G. Vidal, PT, MHSc, DPT, OCS, MTC, FAAOMPT,
as part of the Independent Study Course entitled Vestibular Rehabilitation, Dizziness, Balance, and
Associated Issues in Physical Therapy.
Dr Peter A. Huijbregts received a diploma in physiotherapy from the Hogeschool Eindhoven in
1990, an MSc degree in manual therapy from the Vrije Universiteit Brussel in 1994, an MHSc
degree in physical therapy from the University of Indianapolis in 1997, and a DPT degree in 2001
from the University of St Augustine for Health Sciences in St Augustine, Florida. He is currently
clinically employed as a consultant physiotherapist at Shelbourne Physiotherapy Clinic in Victoria,
British Columbia, and is assistant professor of online education at the University of St Augustine
for Health Sciences. He is also Editor-in-Chief of The Journal of Manual and Manipulative Therapy
and serves as a manuscript reviewer for Physiotherapy Canada. He is a member of the scientic
board of the Rehabilitacja Medyczna Journal and also serves as a consulting editor for Jones
and Bartlett Publishers in Sudbury, Massachusetts. He has been a previous author of many other
independent study course monographs for the Orthopaedic Section.
Dr Paul G. Vidal received his MPT degree from Philadelphia College of Pharmacy and Science
and his DPT degree from the University of St Augustine for Health Sciences. His areas of expertise
include orthopaedics, manual physical therapy, and vestibular rehabilitation. He is owner of
Specialized Physical Therapy, LLC, in Cherry Hill, New Jersey, and also is employed at Mercy Rehab
Associates, in Darby, Pennsylvania. He has been a frequent presenter at national conferences on
the topic of physical therapy management of cervicogenic dizziness. He has also published in the
peer-reviewed publications Journal of Orthopaedic and Sports Physical Therapy and Journal of
Manual and Manipulative Therapy.
The authors present a thorough review of the physiology and etiology of cervicogenic dizziness and
other pathologies potentially causing dizziness and present an evaluation scheme that applies a 4-
category diagnostic classication system and leads to the management of cervicogenic dizziness
and other types of dizziness amenable to physical therapy management. The classication system
facilitates proper diagnosis and helps the clinician distinguish between those patients who can
benet from physical therapy intervention and those who require medical-surgical referral.
The authors also discuss performance, scoring, and interpretation of tests and measures used in
evaluating dizziness. Vertigo, presyncope, and dysequilibrium are specically dened according
to the structures affected and the presentation of the patients symptoms.
After reviewing the monograph, I am sure you will nd the information practical and readily
applicable to effectively evaluating and treating your patients who present with dizziness as a
symptom.
Sincerely,
Christopher Hughes PT, PhD, OCS, CSCS
Editor
Vestibular Rehabilitation, Dizziness, Balance,
and Associated Issues in Physical Therapy
Christopher Hughes, PT, PhD, OCSEditor
2920 East Avenue South, Suite 200 | La Crosse, WI 54601
Ofce 608-788-3982 | Toll Free 800-444-3982 | Fax 608-788-3965
TABLE OF CONTENTS
LEARNING OBJECTIVES ..................................................................................................................................................1
CERVICOGENIC DIZZINESS ...........................................................................................................................................1
Dizziness Originating in the Cervical Spine ............................................................................................................1
Cervicogenic Dizziness...........................................................................................................................................2
Diagnostic Criteria and Differential Diagnosis.........................................................................................................2
Physical Therapy Management of Cervicogenic Dizziness .......................................................................................3
DIAGNOSTIC CLASSIFICATION SYSTEM ........................................................................................................................4
Vertigo ....................................................................................................................................................................4
Presyncope .............................................................................................................................................................4
Dysequilibrium .......................................................................................................................................................4
Other Dizziness ......................................................................................................................................................5
Challenges to the Diagnostic Classication System .................................................................................................5
VERTIGO ........................................................................................................................................................................5
Peripheral Vestibular Disorders ...............................................................................................................................5
Benign paroxysmal positional vertigo ...............................................................................................................5
Mnire disease ...............................................................................................................................................6
Acute peripheral vestibulopathy .......................................................................................................................6
Otosclerosis .....................................................................................................................................................6
Head trauma ....................................................................................................................................................7
Cerebellopontine angle tumor ..........................................................................................................................7
Toxic vestibulopathies ......................................................................................................................................7
Acoustic neuropathy .........................................................................................................................................7
Perilymphatic stula .........................................................................................................................................7
Autoimmune disease of the inner ear................................................................................................................7
Central Vestibular Disorders ....................................................................................................................................7
Drug intoxication .............................................................................................................................................7
Wernicke encephalopathy ................................................................................................................................8
Inammatory disorders .....................................................................................................................................8
Multiple sclerosis .............................................................................................................................................8
Alcoholic cerebellar degeneration ....................................................................................................................8
Phenytoin-induced cerebellar degeneration ......................................................................................................9
Hypothyroidism ................................................................................................................................................9
Paraneoplastic cerebellar degeneration .............................................................................................................9
Hereditary spinocerebellar degenerations .........................................................................................................9
Ataxia-telangiectasia ........................................................................................................................................9
Wilson disease .................................................................................................................................................9
Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease .................................................................................................................................9
Posterior fossa tumors .......................................................................................................................................9
Posterior fossa malformations ...........................................................................................................................9
Familial paroxysmal ataxia .............................................................................................................................10
PRESYNCOPE ................................................................................................................................................................10
Pancerebral Hypoperfusion ...................................................................................................................................10
Vasovagal presyncope ....................................................................................................................................10
Cardiovascular presyncope .............................................................................................................................10
Migraine .........................................................................................................................................................10
Benign paroxysmal vertigo of childhood .........................................................................................................11
Takayasu disease ............................................................................................................................................11
Carotid sinus syndrome ..................................................................................................................................11
Orthostatic hypotension .................................................................................................................................11
Hyperventilation ............................................................................................................................................11
Cough-related syncope ...................................................................................................................................11
Micturition syncope .......................................................................................................................................11
Glossopharyngeal neuralgia ...........................................................................................................................12
Hypoglycemia ................................................................................................................................................12
Brainstem Hypoperfusion ......................................................................................................................................12
Vertebrobasilar insufciency...........................................................................................................................12
Vertebrobasilar infarction ...............................................................................................................................13
Basilar-type migraine ......................................................................................................................................14
Vertebrobasilar migraine ................................................................................................................................14
Vestibular migraine ........................................................................................................................................14
Subclavian steal syndrome .............................................................................................................................14
DYSEQUILIBRIUM ........................................................................................................................................................14
Visual Impairment.................................................................................................................................................15
Somatosensory Impairment ...................................................................................................................................15
Myelopathy ....................................................................................................................................................15
Landsickness and mal de debarquement syndrome ........................................................................................15
Musculoskeletal Impairment .................................................................................................................................16
Basal Ganglia Impairment .....................................................................................................................................16
OTHER DIZZINESS .......................................................................................................................................................16
Psychogenic Dizziness ..........................................................................................................................................16
Panic disorder .................................................................................................................................................16
Phobic postural vertigo ...................................................................................................................................16
Tilting of the Environment .....................................................................................................................................17
PHYSICAL THERAPY VERSUS MEDICAL DIFFERENTIAL DIAGNOSIS ...........................................................................17
HISTORY .......................................................................................................................................................................19
Symptoms .............................................................................................................................................................20
Symptom description ......................................................................................................................................20
Symptom behavior .........................................................................................................................................28
Pertinent Past and Present Medical History ............................................................................................................29
Patient demographics .....................................................................................................................................29
Medical history ..............................................................................................................................................29
Family history .................................................................................................................................................30
Medication history .........................................................................................................................................30
PHYSICAL EXAMINATION ............................................................................................................................................30
Observation ..........................................................................................................................................................30
Skin ................................................................................................................................................................30
Posture ...........................................................................................................................................................31
Eyes ................................................................................................................................................................31
Vital Signs .............................................................................................................................................................32
Blood pressure ...............................................................................................................................................32
Heart rate .......................................................................................................................................................32
Auscultation ...................................................................................................................................................32
Gait Assessment ....................................................................................................................................................32
Vestibulospinal Examination .................................................................................................................................33
Single-leg stance ............................................................................................................................................33
Romberg and sharpened Romberg ..................................................................................................................33
Modied Clinical Test of Sensory Integration of Balance .................................................................................33
Fukuda step test ..............................................................................................................................................34
Cranial Nerve Examination ...................................................................................................................................34
Oculomotor Examination ......................................................................................................................................34
Observation for spontaneous nystagmus .........................................................................................................35
Saccadic eye movements ................................................................................................................................35
Smooth pursuit testing ....................................................................................................................................35
Hearing Examination ............................................................................................................................................36
Weber test ......................................................................................................................................................36
Rinne test .......................................................................................................................................................36
Active Range-of-motion Tests ................................................................................................................................36
Limb Ataxia Tests ..................................................................................................................................................36
Passive Range-of-motion Tests ...............................................................................................................................37
Strength Tests ........................................................................................................................................................37
Reex Tests ...........................................................................................................................................................38
Sensation Tests ......................................................................................................................................................38
Vertebrobasilar Insufciency Tests .........................................................................................................................38
De Kleyn-Nieuwenhuyse test .........................................................................................................................38
Sustained cervical rotation test .......................................................................................................................39
Hautant test ....................................................................................................................................................39
Vestibulo-ocular Tests ............................................................................................................................................39
Dynamic visual acuity ....................................................................................................................................39
Autorotation test .............................................................................................................................................40
Dolls head test ...............................................................................................................................................40
Head-shaking nystagmus test ..........................................................................................................................40
Head-thrust test ..............................................................................................................................................40
Benign Paroxysmal Positional Vertigo Tests ............................................................................................................40
Opinions expressed by the authors are their own and do not necessarily reect the views of the Orthopaedic Section.
The publishers have made every effort to trace the copyright holders for borrowed material.
If we have inadvertently overlooked any, we would be willing to correct the situation at the rst opportunity.
2007, Orthopaedic Section, APTA, Inc.
Course content is not intended for use by participants outside the scope of their license or regulations. Subsequent use of
management is physical therapy only when performed by a PT or a PTA in accordance with Association policies, posi-
tions, guidelines, standards, and ethical principals and standards.
Hallpike-Dix maneuver ..................................................................................................................................40
Straight head-hanging test ..............................................................................................................................41
Roll test ..........................................................................................................................................................41
Walk-rotate-walk test ......................................................................................................................................41
Cervicogenic Dizziness Testing .............................................................................................................................41
Breathing-related Tests ..........................................................................................................................................42
Hyperventilation test ......................................................................................................................................42
Valsalva test....................................................................................................................................................42
HISTORY AND PHYSICAL EXAMINATION ...................................................................................................................42
CASE STUDIES ..............................................................................................................................................................42
Case Study 1 .........................................................................................................................................................42
Subjective information ....................................................................................................................................42
Objective ndings ..........................................................................................................................................43
Physical therapy diagnosis ..............................................................................................................................43
Guide to Physical Therapist Practice diagnosis ................................................................................................44
Physical therapy management and outcomes..................................................................................................44
Case Study 2 .........................................................................................................................................................44
Subjective information ....................................................................................................................................44
Objective ndings ..........................................................................................................................................45
Physical therapy diagnosis ..............................................................................................................................45
Guide to Physical Therapist Practice diagnosis ................................................................................................46
Physical therapy management and outcomes..................................................................................................46
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ...............................................................................................................................................47
REFERENCES .................................................................................................................................................................47
REVIEW QUESTIONS ....................................................................................................................................................56
1
Cervicogenic Dizziness and Differential
Diagnosis of Dizziness in the Orthopaedic
Physical Therapy Setting
Peter A. Huijbregts, PT, MSc, MHSc, DPT, OCS, MTC,
CSCS, FAAOMPT, FCAMT
University of St Augustine for Health Sciences
St Augustine, Fla
The Journal of Manual and Manipulative Therapy
Forest Grove, Ore
Shelbourne Physiotherapy Clinic
Victoria, British Columbia
Dynamic Physical Therapy
Cadillac, Mich
Paul G. Vidal, PT, MHSc, DPT, OCS, MTC, FAAOMPT
Mercy Rehab Associates
Darby, Pa
Specialized Physical Therapy, LLC
Cherry Hill, NJ
University of St Augustine for Health Sciences
St Augustine, Fla
University of the Sciences in Philadelphia
Philadelphia, Pa
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
Upon completion of this monograph, the course par-
ticipant will be able to discuss:
1. The underlying pathophysiology, diagnostic criteria,
and physical therapy management of cervicogenic
dizziness.
2. A 4-category diagnostic classication system for the
differential diagnosis of patients complaining of dizzi-
ness.
3. Pathologies organized to conform to this diagnostic
classication system potentially responsible for a pa-
tient report of dizziness.
4. The performance, scoring, and interpretation of tests
and measures used in the history and physical exami-
nation of patients complaining of dizziness.
5. The characteristics of patients that may respond to
conservative interventions within the physical therapy
scope of practice versus patients that require medical-
surgical referral for medical differential diagnosis and
medical-surgical management.
CERVICOGENIC DIZZINESS
Dizziness Originating in the Cervical Spine
Multiple different dysfunctions or diseases of the
cervical spine can result in a patient report of dizziness.
Three pathophysiologic mechanisms have been proposed
for dizziness originating in the cervical spine
1-3
:
1. Ischemic processes affecting the vertebrobasilar sys-
tem.
2. Vasomotor changes caused by irritation of the cervical
sympathetic nervous system.
3. Altered proprioceptive input from the upper cervical
region.
Mechanical compression, tension, dissection, or steno-
sis of one or both vertebral arteries as they course through
the cervical spine will cause decreased vertebrobasilar
blood ow and may cause hindbrain and brainstem isch-
emia resulting in dizziness. Faulty head and neck posture,
congenital cervical deformities, cervical thrust manipula-
tion, and traumatic or degenerative instabilities are among
the causes that have been implicated for the mechanical
compromise leading to vertebrobasilar ischemia.
1,2,4-6
The previous monograph has discussed vertebral artery
compromise in detail.
The cervical sympathetic ganglia are located along-
side the blood vessels and muscles anterolateral to the
vertebral bodies. The superior cervical ganglion, located
at the level of C2-C3, is the largest of the cervical sympa-
thetic ganglia. It is formed by coalescence of the cranial
4 sympathetic ganglia.
7
Upper cervical dysfunction has
been hypothesized to negatively impact this ganglion.
1,2
This might affect the sympathetic innervations of both the
vertebral and internal carotid arteries with subsequent
hypoperfusion of the brain resulting in a report of dizzi-
ness.
7,8
However, Bogduk et al
9
noted no effect of electri-
cal stimulation of the cervical sympathetic trunk and the
vertebral nerve on vertebral artery blood ow in monkeys.
Likewise, Brandt and Bronstein
10
discounted this proposed
pathophysiologic mechanism and reported that there is no
scientic support for this proposed cervical sympathetic
irritation in the etiology of cervicogenic dizziness.
There are extensive efferent and afferent connections
between especially the upper cervical spine and other
structures involved in balance control.
11
The vestibulocer-
vical reex counteracts angular rotation of the head by
reexively producing opposite head and neck rotation.
12
The hair cells in the semicircular canals (SCCs) provide
afferent information for the vestibulocervical reex to the
neck and proximal trunk muscles.
12
The otolithic maculae
may also contribute to this vestibulocervical reex by
supplying afferent information to the sternocleidomastoid
muscle.
13
The upper cervical spine contains a great den-
sity of muscle and joint mechanoreceptors with a role in
postural control.
14,15
Muscle spindle density is especially
high in the deep, short intervertebral neck muscles.
10
Af-
ferent input from these mechanoreceptors into the central
vestibular system and integration with vestibular (and
visual) afferent information allows for a true perception
of head and trunk position in space.
10
Abnormal stimu-
lation of these proprioceptors due to cervical whiplash
trauma, spondylosis, disk herniations, and head trauma
has been hypothesized to lead to a sensory mismatch at
the level of the central vestibular apparatus of the cervi-
cal proprioceptive with the vestibular and visual input.
6
Ryan and Cope
16
also implicated iatrogenic injury in the
form of cervical traction. Muscle spasms and active trig-
ger points in the neck muscles, specically in the sterno-
cleidomastoid muscles, have also been suggested in the
etiology of proprioceptive cervicogenic dizziness.
9,11,17
2
The sensory mismatch discussed above may result in a
conscious awareness of balance and thereby a feeling
of dysequilibrium.
6
It is this proprioceptive cervicogenic
dizziness, dened by Furman and Cass
18
as a nonspecic
sensation of altered orientation in space and dysequilib-
rium originating from abnormal afferent activity from the
neck, that is the topic of this monograph.
Cervicogenic Dizziness
The rationale for implicating aberrant information from
cervical mechanoreceptors in the etiology of cervicogenic
dizziness is based on the anatomical connections between
the cervical spine and the balance control systems, on
studies on experimentally induced cervicogenic dizzi-
ness, and on proposed clinical evidence.
10
We described
above the anatomical connections and their possible
etiologic role in producing cervicogenic dizziness.
There is also research evidence linking the upper
cervical region to a patient report of dizziness. Injection
of a local anesthetic agent in the upper cervical spine of
humans created a strong sensation of imbalance and of
being pulled to the same side as the injection, as well
as a postinjection gait ataxia.
19
Similar experiments have
produced transient increased ipsilateral and decreased
contralateral extensor muscle tone, a tendency to fall, gait
deviation, and past pointing toward the injected side.
10
Application of a unilateral electrical or vibratory stimulus
to neck muscles resulted in a modication of the visual
vertical orientation as perceived by the test subjects.
10
These experiments would seem to support a role for aber-
rant afferent proprioceptive cervical information in the
etiology of cervicogenic dizziness.
There is also some clinical support for this proposed
proprioceptive cervicogenic dizziness. Dizziness, vertigo,
and dysequilibrium are symptoms in 20% to 58% of indi-
viduals that have sustained a whiplash-type injury of the
cervical spine or a closed head injury.
17
Between 40%
and 70% of patients with chronic whiplash-associated
disorder (WAD) complain of dizziness and unsteadiness
often resulting in loss of balance and falls.
20
Treleaven et
al
20
reported signicantly greater cervical joint reposi-
tioning errors in subjects with WAD when compared to
asymptomatic controls. These authors also found a signi-
cantly greater joint repositioning errors in right rotation
(P = 0.006) and a near-signicant difference in left rota-
tion (P = 0.06) when comparing subjects with WAD and
complaints of dizziness to those not reporting dizziness.
They implicated cervical mechanoreceptor dysfunction as
the likely cause for cervicogenic dizziness. Heikkil and
Wenngren
21
also reported signicantly greater cervical
joint repositioning errors in patients with WAD as com-
pared to healthy controls. They also found signicantly
greater cervical joint repositioning errors in patients with
WAD and dizziness as compared to those patients with
WAD who did not report dizziness. They also noted a
signicant correlation between joint repositioning errors
and abnormalities in smooth pursuit and saccadic eye
movements, and suggested that restricted cervical range
of motion and altered proprioceptive afferent input might
affect oculomotor function. Abnormal visual as well as
proprioceptive input would seem to have an even greater
potential to produce a sensory mismatch, as discussed
above, and subsequent complaints of dizziness. Ernst et
al
22
reported dizziness, tinnitus, and hearing loss in pa-
tients with neck and closed head injury. Information on
the prevalence of dizziness in patients with other types of
neck dysfunction is limited to case reports.
17
However, we have to question the value of these
clinical ndings in linking dizziness after neck trauma
to cervical proprioceptive dysfunction. Head trauma
and whiplash injury can, of course, also affect structures
other than the cervical spine including the brain, the
brainstem and the cranial nerve nuclei located there,
and the peripheral vestibular apparatus.
10,22
In their case
series of patients with dizziness after neck and closed
head injury, Ernst et al
22
reported both peripheral and
central vestibular dysfunction. Grimm
23
described either
a damaged peripheral labyrinth or cochlea in 90% and
both in 69% of a cohort of 227 patients with whiplash
presenting for a neurology evaluation. Of these patients,
92% met the diagnostic criteria for inner ear contusion.
Of this subgroup, 63% were diagnosed with benign
paroxysmal positional vertigo (BPPV), 64% with second-
ary endolymphatic hydrops, and 21% with unilateral
or bilateral perilymphatic stulae. Oostendorp et al
24
reported a 25% prevalence of BPPV in 273 consecutive
patients with rear-end impact whiplash injury without
head injury. Cervical joint repositioning errors as tested
by Treleaven et al
20
and Heikkil et al
21
might, of course,
also have been affected by injuries to structures other
than the cervical mechanoreceptors. Other studies have
reported abnormalities in saccadic and smooth pursuit
eye movements in patients with chronic WAD but have
either linked these oculomotor abnormalities to prefron-
tal cortical dysfunction
25
or have found no relationship
with cervical positioning, making a proprioceptive origin
for these oculomotor abnormalities less likely.
26
Diagnostic Criteria and Differential Diagnosis
There is no gold standard test for cervicogenic dizzi-
ness, making it a diagnosis of exclusion.
6
As discussed
above, a clinician might suspect cervicogenic dizziness if
the patient history includes a report of cervical whiplash
trauma, spondylosis, disk herniations, head trauma, or
cervical traction treatment.
Signs and symptoms proposed as indicative of cervi-
cogenic dizziness include
1,3,10,17
:
Cervical region pain or discomfort, especially follow-
ing trauma
Dizziness described as lightheadedness or oating
unsteadiness
Dizziness provoked by certain head positions or
movements
Dizziness of short duration and decreasing intensity
Persistent occipital headache
Limited cervical range of motion
3
Temporomandibular pain
Radicular symptoms in the arm
Episodic or persistent slight ataxia of stance and gait
Hearing loss associated with neck pain
Earache
Although seemingly the most relevant, dizziness
provoked by certain head positions or movements has
only limited value as a diagnostic criterion specic for
cervicogenic dizziness. The cervical spine contains
structures providing afferent input to the balance control
system (cervical joint and muscle mechanoreceptors) but
also structures that are part of the output portion of this
system (spinal cord, nerve roots, and muscles). The neck
also has structures relevant to cardiovascular control
(carotid barosensors) and vascular structures (carotid and
vertebral arteries). In addition, neck movements invari-
ably produce head movements, thereby involving the
vestibular and visual systems.
10
The clinician should also consider that dizziness has a
high prevalence. Dizziness accounts for 7% of physician
visits for patients over the age of 45;
27
for adults over 65,
it is the number one reason to visit a physician.
28
Diz-
ziness is more common in women than in men,
29
and
the prevalence of dizziness increases with increasing
age.
30
However, only some of the 15% to 30% of people
experiencing dizziness will seek medical attention.
30
The
complaint of dizziness that brought the patient to seek
treatment after a recent trauma or other etiology linked to
cervicogenic dizziness may have been, at least to some
extent, preexisting but not previously reported and related
to another pathology capable of causing dizziness.
To further complicate matters, patients reporting diz-
ziness may mean lightheadedness, blurry vision, loss of
balance, or a feeling of weakness in the legs. Dizziness is
also used for various sensations of body orientation and
position that are often difcult for patients to describe.
31
In summary, there are no history items or physical ex-
amination tests and measures specic for the diagnosis of
cervicogenic dizziness. Neck movements have an effect
not only on cervical joint and muscle systems but also
on the vestibular, visual, vascular, and cardiovascular
systems.
10
Dizziness is highly prevalent among the gen-
eral population and may be, to some extent, a preexist-
ing complaint that, therefore, may have a multifactorial
etiology that needs to be explored during the differential
diagnostic process. Finally, most patients have great dif-
culty expressing their problem in terms helpful to the
clinicians effort at differential diagnosis. This indicates
the need for a comprehensive differential diagnostic
process for every patient presenting with a complaint of
dizziness.
Physical Therapy Management of Cervicogenic
Dizziness
Historically, physical therapy interventions for patients
with cervicogenic dizziness have included thrust and
nonthrust manipulation, mechanical traction, physical
modalities, posture reeducation, active range-of-motion
(AROM) exercises, massage, balance retraining, trig-
ger point treatment, and the use of a soft collar during
the acute phase.
17
However, perhaps as a result of the
absence of specic diagnostic criteria for cervicogenic
dizziness, the research on the physical therapy manage-
ment is limited.
Karlberg et al
32
reported on 17 patients with suspected
cervicogenic dizziness. Noncervical causes of dizziness
had been excluded in all patients. Patients were random-
ized into 2 groups: immediate and delayed (2 months)
treatment. Outcome measures included body sway mea-
sured by way of posturography, neck pain and dizziness
intensity, and dizziness frequency. There were no pretest
between-group differences and all patients demonstrated
signicantly poorer postural control as compared to a
healthy population (P < 0.05). Treatment consisted of soft
tissue and joint manipulation, cervical spine stabilization
exercises, relaxation techniques, home exercises, and
ergonomic changes at work. Treatment signicantly im-
proved postural performance (P < 0.05) and signicantly
reduced neck pain intensity and dizziness intensity and
frequency (P < 0.01).
Galm et al
33
reported on 50 patients with cervicogenic
dizziness. The diagnosis was established by exclusion of
otorhinolaryngologic and otoneurologic pathology. Of
these patients, 31 had cervical segmental restrictions and
were treated with manipulation and unspecied physi-
cal therapy; 19 patients had no evidence of segmental
dysfunction and received only physical therapy. A signi-
cantly greater number of the patients in the manipulation
group reported improvement in dizziness symptoms (P =
0.0005).
Bracher et al
34
reported on 15 patients with cervico-
genic dizziness. A negative otorhinolaryngologic and
otoneurologic medical examination, the presence of a
rotary cervical nystagmus, and the presence of signs and
symptoms suggestive of cervical dysfunction were used
to establish the diagnosis. Treatment consisted of soft tis-
sue and joint manipulation, electrical modalities for pain
control, labyrinth-sedating medication, biofeedback, and
upper quadrant range-of-motion exercises. After a mean
number of 5 visits (range 3 to 10) over a median of 41
days (range 15 to 77 days), 9 patients reported complete
resolution, 3 reported consistent improvement, and 3
reported no change.
Reid and Rivett
35
performed a systematic review of the
literature on the outcomes with manual therapy treatment
of patients with cervicogenic dizziness. They identied 1
randomized clinical trial and 8 nonrandomized clinical
trial studies including the 3 studies above. They noted
that all studies of manual therapy intervention in patients
complaining of cervicogenic dizziness resulted in signi-
cant posttreatment improvements in signs and symptoms
of dizziness. However, they also noted that all studies
reviewed were of low methodological quality.
Exercises to strengthen the upper cervical deep exor
muscles may be indicated for the treatment of patients
with cervicogenic headache.
36-38
Jull et al
37
demon-
4
strated consistently poor endurance of these muscles in
patients with cervicogenic headache. In these patients,
this decreased deep exor muscular endurance was
often associated with increased upper trapezius, leva-
tor scapulae, and scalenes recruitment.
37,38
Jull
39
also
showed this decreased activity of the deep neck exors
and increased activity in more global neck exors such
as the sternocleidomastoid in patients with WAD. A study
comparing various combinations of orthopaedic manual
physical therapy and an exercise program consisting of
deep cervical exor endurance training, scapular retrac-
tion exercises, postural education, and low-load cervical
exion and extension resistive exercises in 200 patients
with cervicogenic headache showed that the 3 active
treatments (orthopaedic manual physical therapy, exer-
cise therapy, and orthopaedic manual physical therapy
combined with exercise) reduced headache frequency
and intensity more than the control therapy immediately
after intervention and after 12 months.
36
The combined
treatment showed clinically but not statistically relevant
increased effect sizes over the other 2 treatment groups
at 12 months.
The research above
36-39
involved patients with cervico-
genic headache. However, deep cervical exor exercises
may also be indicated for patients with cervicogenic
dizziness. Hypertonicity of the sternocleidomastoid and
upper trapezius muscles has been implicated in the etiol-
ogy of cervicogenic dizziness.
6,17
By way of reciprocal
inhibition, deep cervical exor exercises may play a
role in decreasing this global neck exor and suboc-
cipital muscle hypertonicity. In addition, these exercises
involve voluntary contraction and holding of the deep
neck exors that are heavily lined with mechanorecep-
tors. This may improve mechanoreceptor function and
thereby positively affect the complaints of proprioceptive
dysfunction hypothesized to be the cause of cervicogenic
dizziness. However, it should be noted that, at this time,
the appropriateness of cervical spine stabilization exer-
cises for patients with cervicogenic dizziness is based
solely on a pathophysiologic rationale.
Treatment for cervicogenic dizziness may also need to
include kinesthetic exercises for the cervical spine. We
discussed the greater cervical joint repositioning errors
in subjects with WAD when compared to asymptomatic
controls and also in subjects with WAD and complaints of
dizziness as compared to those with WAD not reporting
dizziness.
20
This nding contrasts with the nonsignicant
differences found
40
between patients with nontraumatic
cervical pain and asymptomatic controls, and would
seem to indicate the need for a different management
for patients with cervicogenic dizziness of traumatic and
nontraumatic origin.
Based on a pathophysiologic rationale, the clinician
could choose interventions to affect cervical range of
motion, upper quadrant muscle length and tone, and
posture. One could consider soft tissue and joint manipu-
lation, trigger point techniques, exercise interventions,
modalities, ergonomic advice and modication, and pa-
tient education. Some authors
1,17
have also suggested that
a combination of these treatment options with vestibular
rehabilitation techniques would provide for a superior
outcome. However, it is clear that the research basis for
management of patients with cervicogenic dizziness is
at present very limited and that the clinician still has to
heavily depend upon a pathophysiologic rationale when
it comes to treatment of these patients.
DIAGNOSTIC CLASSIFICATION SYSTEM
We explained above the need for a comprehensive
differential diagnosis for every patient presenting with a
complaint of dizziness. To enable the clinician to per-
form this necessary differential diagnostic process, we
need to discuss in detail not only the history and physical
examination for a patient presenting with dizziness with
an interpretation of the ndings on all our tests and mea-
sures, but we also need to review in sufcient detail the
pathologies that may be responsible for a patient report
of dizziness. Dizziness can have an extremely varied
etiology. The consistent use of a diagnostic classica-
tion system may serve to minimize confusion regarding
a patients dizziness symptoms and possible causative
pathologies. Patients with complaints of dizziness can be
classied into 4 subtypes: vertigo, presyncope, dysequi-
librium, and other dizziness.
31,41
Vertigo
Vertigo is a false sensation of movement of either the
body or the environment, usually described as spinning,
which suggests vestibular system dysfunction.
29,30,42,43
It is
usually episodic with an abrupt onset and often associ-
ated with nausea or vomiting.
41
The causative dysfunc-
tion can be located in the peripheral or central vestibular
system.
42,44
Peripheral vestibulopathies account for about
35% to 55% of all cases of dizziness.
30
Central vestibular
disorders are less frequent and are responsible for only
about 5% of cases of dizziness.
30
Presyncope
Presyncope is described as a sensation of an impend-
ing faint or loss of consciousness and is not associated
with an illusion of movement.
29,41,43
It may begin with
diminished vision or a roaring sensation in the ears.
41
This
subtype of dizziness results from conditions that compro-
mise the brains supply of blood, oxygen, or glucose.
43
The frequency reported for presyncopal dizziness varied
from 2% in a dizziness clinic to 16% in an emergency
room.
45,46
This type of dizziness may be accompanied by
transient neurological signs (eg, dysarthria, visual distur-
bances, and extremity weakness).
47,48
Dysequilibrium
Dysequilibrium is a sense of imbalance without ver-
tigo that is generally attributed to neuromuscular prob-
lems.
29
This condition is also characterized by the feeling
that a fall is imminent.
41
The unsteadiness or imbalance
occurs only when erect and disappears when lying or
5
sitting.
41
This subtype of dizziness may result from visual
impairment, peripheral neuropathy, and musculoskel-
etal disturbances, and may include ataxia. Prevalence of
dysequilibrium among patients complaining of dizziness
varies from 1% to 15%.
29
Other Dizziness
Other dizziness is dizziness described as a vague
or oating sensation with the patient having difculty
relating the specic feeling to the clinician.
29
It includes
descriptions of vague lightheadedness, heavy-headed-
ness, or wooziness and cannot be classied as any of the
3 previous subtypes.
41
Psychiatric disorders are the main
cause for this subtype and account for about 10% to 25%
of dizziness cases.
29,31
Anxiety, depression, and hyperven-
tilation are often at the root of this dizziness.
29,49
Changes
in vision and tilting of the environment are included in
the subtype of other dizziness, as is psychogenic or psy-
chosomatic dizziness due to panic disorder.
29,50
Challenges to the Diagnostic Classication System
The classication of dizziness into these 4 subtypes
attempts to differentiate complaints of dizziness by symp-
toms and pathophysiology. The clinician should note that
this classication system is challenged when an individual
complains about more than 1 subtype of dizziness. Diz-
ziness may result from disorders in the musculoskeletal,
vestibular, cardiovascular, neurological, and metabolic
systems as well as from psychiatric disorders.
30
The term
geriatric syndrome was proposed to describe dizziness in
older adults occurring as a result of multisystem impair-
ment.
51
The problem with this term, however, is that it
suggests that dizziness is due to old age. In contrast, re-
cent studies have demonstrated that dizziness is prevalent
in all adult populations.
29,31
The system is also challenged
by symptoms of ataxia, a dyscoordination or clumsiness
of movement not associated with muscular weakness.
Ataxia can be the result of neuromuscular or peripheral
proprioceptive disorders, but also of cerebellar and ves-
tibular disorders with these latter 2 groups of disorders
potentially occurring with or without symptoms of ver-
tigo.
43
Using the above classication system, we will now
dene and discuss pathologies that may be responsible
for a patient who reports dizziness.
VERTIGO
As previously noted, vertigo is the misperception of
movement of the body or of the environment.
43
Vertigo is
often accompanied by other signs and symptoms, includ-
ing
27,43
:
Impulsion (ie, the sensation that the body is being
hurled or pulled in space)
Oscillopsia (ie, the visual illusion of moving back and
forth or up and down)
Nystagmus (ie, the rhythmic oscillation of the eye-
balls)
Gait ataxia (ie, dyscoordinated gait not resulting from
muscle weakness)
Nausea
Vomiting
Together, these symptoms are highly indicative of a
peripheral or central vestibular dysfunction as discussed
below. Table 1 summarizes the general differential
diagnostic criteria for central and peripheral vestibular
lesions.
Peripheral Vestibular Disorders
Benign paroxysmal positional vertigo
Benign paroxysmal positional vertigo is considered
the most common peripheral vestibular disorder.
52,53
Annual incidence in the general US population has
been estimated at 64 per 100 000. Benign paroxysmal
positional vertigo accounts for 17% to 30% of all new
patients presenting to vestibular clinics. It is generally
seen in people over the age of 40 and is rare in people
under 20.
53
Idiopathic BPPV has a peak incidence of on-
set in the sixth decade of life.
54
Nonidiopathic BPPV has
been associated with head trauma, insult to the labyrinth,
surgical stapedectomy, chronic suppurative otitis media,
and degeneration of the inner ear.
52,53,55
Two pathophysiological theories have been proposed
to explain the etiology of BPPV: cupulolithiasis and
Table 1. Differential Diagnostic Characteristics of Central Versus Peripheral Vertigo*
Central Lesions Peripheral Lesions
Vertigo Often constant
Less severe
Often intermittent
Severe
Nystagmus Sometimes absent
Unidirectional or multidirectional
May be vertical
Always present
Unidirectional
Never vertical
Hearing Loss or Tinnitus Rarely present Often present
Brainstem Signs
22
m Visual abnormalities___________________________________________________________________________
m Loss of color vision
m Visual eld decits
m Constant diplopia
m Tilt illusion
m Mental and psychological status_________________________________________________________________
m Decreased cognition
m Acute confusion
m Memory decits
m Other________________________________________________________________________________________
m Diaphoresis
m Hot ushed skin
m Myoclonus
m Muscular twitching
m Spastic bladder
m Discharge from the ear
m Thirst
m Polyuria
m Polyphagia
m Unexplained weight loss
m Palpitations
m Shortness of breath
Current history_____________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________________
Diagnostic tests____________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________________
Occupation________________________________________________________________________________________
Leisure time________________________________________________________________________________________
Social history N/A __________________________________________________________________________________
General health Unexplained weight loss +/- Night pain +/- Consistent pattern of night pain +/- Loss of appetite +/-
Other_____________________________________________________________________________________________
* Reprinted with permission from Vidal P, Huijbregts P. Dizziness in orthopaedic physical therapy practice: history
and physical examination. J Man Manipulative Ther. 2005;13:222251. Copyright 2005, Journal of Manual and
Manipulative Therapy.
24
OCULOMOTOR EXAMINATION
Spontaneous nystagmus central gaze +/-________________________________________________________
m Jerk
m Pendular
m Horizontal m L m R
m Vertical m Up-beating m Down-beating
m Torsional
Spontaneous nystagmus eccentric gaze +/-________________________________________________
m Increased with looking towards fast phase
m Horizontal nystagmus
Saccadic eye movements +/-______________________________________________________________
m Hypometria
m Hypermetria
m Horizontal saccades with vertical test
Smooth pursuit testing +/-________________________________________________________________
HEARING EXAMINATION
Weber test m Midline m L m R
Rinne test m Bone conduction > air conduction m Bone conduction air conduction
ACTIVE RANGE-OF-MOTION EXAMINATION Asterixis +/- Myoclonus +/- Chorea +/-______________________
_________________________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________________________
LIMB ATAXIA EXAMINATION
Finger-to-nose test m Intention tremor L+/R+/- m Overshooting L+/R+/-
Finger-to-nger-test m Horizontal overshooting L+/R+/- m Vertical overshooting L+/R+/-
Heel-to-shin test m Intention tremor L+/R+/- m Overshooting L+/R+/-
Toe-to-nger test m Intention tremor L+/R+/- m Overshooting L+/R+/-
Dysdiadochokinesia m Finger tapping +/- m Pronation-supination +/- m Toe tapping +/-
Barre test L+/R+/-________________________________________________________________________________
PASSIVE RANGE-OF-MOTION EXAMINATION Hypotonia +/- Rigidity +/- Spasticity +/- Clonus +/-
_______________________________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________________________
Stability tests____________________________________________________________________________________
PPIVM/PAIVM__________________________________________________________________________________
STRENGTH EXAMINATION ______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________________________
REFLEX EXAMINATION Hoffman reex L+/R+/- Babinski sign L+/R+/- DTR______________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________________________
SENSATION TESTS______________________________________________________________________________
m Joint position sense__________________________________________________________________________
m Vibration sense_____________________________________________________________________________
VERTEBROBASILAR EXAMINATION
De Kleyn-Nieuwenhuyse test L+/R+/-______________________________________________________
m Latency 0 _____sec m >60 sec
m Duration 0 ____ sec m Nonaccommodating
m Fatigable Y/N
m Horizontal nystagmus
m Torsional nystagmus
m Skew
m Alternating m Periodic m Irregular
m Suppressed with visual xation m Yes m No
m Suppressed by convergence
m Increased by xation
m Provoked on lateral or upward gaze
m Small, unsustained eye movements at end range
m Saccades during xation on target
m Oscillating horizontal saccades with gaze shift
m Vertical down-beating nystagmus
m Other nystagmus
m Geotropic
m Apogeotropic
Table 15. Continued.
25
Sustained cervical rotation test L+/R+/-___________________________________________________________
m Latency 0 _____sec m >60 sec
m Duration 0 ____ sec m Nonaccommodating
m Fatigable Y/N
m Horizontal nystagmus
m Torsional nystagmus
Hautant test m Midrange +/- m Extension-rotation L+/R+/- m Latency with + extension-rotation position Y/N
VESTIBULO-OCULAR EXAMINATION
Dynamic visual acuity Decrease by 2 lines on Snellen chart +/-____________________________________
Autorotation test Inability to continue for 60 sec +/- <100 oscillations in 60 sec +/-____________________
Dolls head test Catch-up saccades toward xation target +/-________________________________________
Head-shaking nystagmus test +/ - m Nystagmus toward side of lesion m Nystagmus away from side of lesion
m Nonhorizontal nystagmus
Head thrust test +/- m Corrective saccade on head moving right m Corrective saccade on head moving left
BPPV EXAMINATION
Hallpike-Dix L+/R+/-___________________________________________________________________________
m Positive bilateral m L < R m L > R
m Latency 0 _____sec m >60 sec
m Duration 0 ____ sec m Nonaccommodating
m Fatigable Y/N
m Horizontal nystagmus
Straight head-hanging test +/-___________________________________________________________________
m Latency m _____sec m >60 sec
m Duration m ____ sec m Nonaccommodating
m Fatigable Y/N
m Horizontal nystagmus
Roll test +/-_________________________________________________________________________________
m L < R
m L > R
m Latency 0 _____sec
m Duration 0 ____ sec
m Fatigable Y/N
m Horizontal nystagmus
Walk-rotate-walk test L+/R+/-_________________________________________________________________
CERVICOGENIC DIZZINESS EXAMINATION
Neck torsion test L+/R+/-________________________________________________________________
m Latency m Immediate m_____sec
m Duration m ____ sec
m Fatigable Y/N
m Horizontal nystagmus
BREATHING-RELATED TESTS
Hyperventilation test m Dizziness +/- m Nystagmus +/- m Minimal latency +/- Latency _____sec
Valsalva test m Dizziness +/- m Nystagmus +/- m Minimal latency +/- Latency _____sec
Cough test m Dizziness +/-
* Reprinted with permission from Vidal P, Huijbregts P. Dizziness in orthopaedic physical therapy practice: history
and physical examination. J Man Manipulative Ther. 2005;13:222251. Copyright 2005, Journal of Manual and
Manipulative Therapy.