Med Florida Beukesaction Plan

MANAGING THE EFFECTS OF MULTI-GRADE TEACHING ON LEARNER
PERFORMANCE IN NAMIBIA

by

FLORIDA C G BEUKES

DISSERTATION

Submitted in fulfilment of the requirements for the degree

MAGISTER EDUCATIONIS
in
EDUCATION MANAGEMENT
in the

FACULTY OF EDUCATION
at the

UNIVERSITY OF JOHANNESBURG

Supervisor: Prof CF Loock
Co-Supervisor: Dr P Du Plessis

JUNE 2006

ii

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I would like to acknowledge the efforts of a number of people who made this work
possible.

The support of the Namibian ministry of education is greatly appreciated and will
always be remembered. Special thanks to the University of Namibia for financial
assistance and in particular to Dr Haaveshe Nekongo-Nielsen and my colleagues
at the Centre for External Studies for their support.

I was fortunate to have Prof CF Loock as supervisor. With the assistance of
Dr Du Plessis and Lucia Viljoen they did not only provide excellent guidance, but
also motivated me throughout this study. Thank you to you all.

Lastly, thanks to God for numerous blessings, including an extremely supportive
husband, Patric and three wonderful daughters, Natania, Cindy and Cheryl who
sacrificed a lot the past couple of months. Your noble support kept me focussed.
Thanks!

To all the above mentioned: The Lord bless you and keep you, the Lord make
his face shine upon you and be gracious to you; the Lord turn his face towards
you and give you peace (Numbers 6:24-26).

Florida Beukes

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SYNOPSIS

Data presented in 2004 at a national conference on multi-grade teaching in
Namibia revealed some significant negative effects on achievement associated
with multi-grade instruction. In addition, the data indicated that teachers lack
management and organisational strategies for multi-grade teaching. The purpose
of this study was to explore the views and perceptions of educators on the
managing of multi-grade classes in Namibia.

Chapter one describes the background to the study, focussing on the history of
education in Namibia and the history of multi-grade education. It became clear at
this stage already that teachers need to be well trained, well resourced and hold
positive attitudes towards multi-grade teaching if children are to learn effectively
in multi-grade environments. In addition, parents should have input into
significant instructional and assessment decisions concerning their children.

The Literature survey in chapter two provides a theoretical framework on the
concept of the management of multi-grade classrooms and the need for
appropriate management and teaching skills. Effective multi-grade teaching
involves the use of a range of organisational strategies in the classroom.
Curriculum, learning materials, teacher education and assessment are necessary
components of an integrated strategy for teaching and learning. Surrounding
these strategies is the need for national policies (for curriculum, materials,
teacher education and assessment) that recognise, legitimate and support
learners and teachers in multi-grade settings.

Chapter three identified the tools and processes of conducting the study with
reference to previous and new developments in multi-grade teaching. The
assumption guiding the study is that a strong case can be made by using an
approach that combines qualitative and quantitative elements. By using different
methods at various points in the research process, the researcher could build on

iv
the strength of each type of data collection and minimise the weaknesses of any
single approach.

Data was therefore collected simultaneously and involved both numeric
information (on structured questionnaires) and text information (on focus group
interviews and observations) so that the final database represents both qualitative
and quantitative information. Five educational regions in Namibia were randomly
selected to participate in this study.

Literature suggests five key areas that are normally the focus of concern in multi-
grade teaching environments and should be included in any training programme.
These include classroom management, instructional strategies, curriculum,
instructional materials and community involvement. These five key areas were
also used as a conceptual framework through which the observations, focus
group interviews and questionnaires were rendered comprehensible in the
analysis and interpretation of data as discussed in chapter four.

It should be emphasised that education is inevitably underpinned by educational
philosophies whether acknowledged or not. Multi-grade teaching too has
particular philosophical bases, which emerge from the literature. Multi-grade
practices recognise that there is an overlap of abilities amongst learners but also
that levels of difficulty have to be taken into account. The philosophy of teaching
is therefore an important consideration in multi-grade teaching.

The findings of the study are discussed in chapter five. One of the most
important findings is most probably the need for a national policy that recognises,
legitimate and support learners and teachers in multi-grade settings.

The study concludes with recommendations and suggestions for further research.

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TABLE OF CONTENT

1. ORIENTATION

1.1. Background To The Study 1
1.1.1. The History Of Education In Namibia 1
1.1.2. The History Of Multi-Grade Education 4

1.2. Problem Statement 6

1.3. Aims and Objectives 8

1.4. Methodology 9
1.4.1. Literature Survey 9
1.4.2. Structured Questionnaires 10
1.4.3. Focus Group Interviews 11
1.4.4. Observations 11
1.4.5. Sampling 11

1.5. Clarification of Concepts 12
1.5.1. Multi-grade Teaching 12
1.5.2. Mono-grade Teaching 12
1.5.3. Education For All 13
1.5.4. Trained Teachers 13
1.5.5. Teaching Time 13
1.5.6. Educational Regions 13
1.5.7. Classroom Management and Discipline 14
1.5.8. Assessment 14

1.6. Ethics 15

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1.7. Planning 16

1.8. Summary 16

2. LITERATURE SURVEY

2.1. Introduction 17

2.2. Multi-grade Teaching: Concept and Status 18

2.3. International Experiences of Multi-grade Teaching 27

2.4. The status of Multi-grade Teaching in Namibia 33

2.5. Classroom Management and Orgaisation in
Multi-grade classes 35
2.5.1. The Management of Multi-grade classes
in Namibia 38

2.6. The benefits and challenges of multi-grade teaching 43
2.6.1. The Debate about Multi-grade Teaching 43
2.6.2. Benefits for Learners 50
2.6.3. Challenges for Teachers 51

2.7. Conclusion 55

2.8. Summary 59

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RESEARCH DESIGN

3.1.1. Qualitative Research 61
3.1.2. Quantitative Research 61

3.2. Qualitative Research 62
3.2.1. Definition 62
3.2.2. Characteristics 62
3.2.3. Reliability and Validity in Qualitative Research 63
3.2.4. Advantages and Disadvantages of Qualitative Research 64
3.2.5. Focus Group Interviews 64
3.2.5.1. Hardap Region 66
(i) Classroom Management 67
(ii) Instructional Strategies 68
(iii) Curriculum 69
(iv) Instructional Materials 71
(v) Community Involvement 71

3.2.5.2. Karas Region 72
(iii) Curriculum 75

3.2.5.3. Conclusion 77

3.2.6. Observations 78
3.2.6.1. School A 79

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(iii) Curriculum 80

3.2.6.2. School B 81
(iii) Curriculum 82

3.2.6.3. School C 83
(iii) Curriculum 84

3.2.6.4. School D 85
(iii) Curriculum 86

3.2.6.5. School E 87
(iii) Curriculum 88

ix
3.3. Quantitative Research 89
3.3.1. Definition 89
3.3.2. Characteristics 89
3.3.3. Advantages and Disadvantages of
Quantitative Research 90
3.3.4. Reliability and Validity in Quantitative Research 90
3.3.5. Questionnaires 91
3.3.5.1. Definition 91
3.3.5.2. The structured questionnaire as an
instrument of data collection 92
3.3.5.3. Population and Sample 93
3.3.5.4. Advantages and Disadvantages of
Questionnaires 94
3.3.5.5. Data recorded of questionnaires
administered to managers in education 95
3.3.5.6. Data recorded of questionnaires
administered to multi-grade teachers 106

3.4. Summary 114

4. ANALYSIS AND INTERPRETATION OF DATA


4.2. Framework of data analysis qualitative and
quantitative data 116
4.2.1. Description 116
4.2.2. Classification 117
4.2.3. Making connections and establishing relationships 118

4.3. Data analysis 118
4.3.1. Statistical Information 119

x
4.3.2. Classroom Management 120
4.3.3. Instructional Strategies 122
4.3.4. Curriculum 123
4.3.5. Instructional Material 124
4.3.6. Community Involvement 124
4.3.7. The effect of Multi-grade Teaching on
Learner Performance 125
4.3.8. Conclusion 131

5. SUMMARY, FINDINGS AND RECOMMENDATIONS

5.1. Summary 133
5.1.4. Instructional Materials 143

5.2. Findings 147

5.3. Recommendations 150
5.3.4. Instructional Materials 160

5.4. Conclusion 163

5.5. Suggestions for Further Research 165
5.5.1. National Level 165

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5.5.2. Regional level 167
5.5.3. Classroom Level 169
5.5.4. Conclusion 170

REFERENCE LIST 172

APPENDIX A: Questionnaire 184

LIST OF TABLES

1.1. Learner-teacher ratios in Namibian schools in 1988. 2

2.1. Numbers of teachers and learners, by country, in
multi-grade schools in 1959. 20

2.2. Occurrence of multi-grade schools, teachers and
learners 1980-1990. 22

2.3. International experiences of multi-grade teaching 27

2.4. Multi-grade teaching in Namibia: 2004 statistics. 33

2.5. The management of multi-grade classes in Namibia. 39

3.1. Advantages and disadvantages of focus group interviews. 65

3.2. Advantages and challenges of multi-grade teaching in the
Hardap Region, Namibia. 68

3.3. A weekly plan for a language lesson in a multi-grade class

xii
in the Hardap Region, Namibia. 70

3.4. Extract: Multi-grade teaching in Namibia: 2004 statistics 72

3.5. Advantages and challenges of multi-grade teaching in the
Karas Region, Namibia. 74

3.6. An example of a weekly lesson plan for a multi-grade class
in the Karas Region, Namibia. 75

3.7. Advantages and disadvantages of questionnaires 94

3.8. Data from questionnaires administered to Managers
in Education

3.8A Items associated with Classroom management 98

3.8B Items associated with instructional strategies 99

3.8C Items associated with curriculum 102

3.8D Items associated with instructional materials 104

3.8E Items associated with community involvement 105

3.9 Biographical information: Teachers in multi-grade schools 106

3.10 Data from questionnaires administered to teachers in
multi-grade schools.

3.10A Items associated with Classroom management 109

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3.10B Items associated with instructional strategies 110

3.10C Items associated with curriculum 112

3.10D Items associated with instructional materials 113

3.10E Items associated with community involvement 114

4.1. Data from focus group discussions and interviews. 121

4.2. Extract from analysis of questionnaires administered
to teachers on the degree of teacher stress. 126

4.3. Cross tabulation on experience of multi-grade teachers. 127

4.4. Extract: Data on the number of teachers who had
training on multi-grade instruction. 128

4.5. Data on the availability of specialised materials
for multi-grade teachers. 128

4.6. Data on the training needs of multi-grade teachers. 131

5. Integration of the curriculum for environmental education. 156

LIST OF FIGURES

1.1. Map of the educational regions in Namibia. 14

xiv
3.1. Seat plan for a multi-grade class in the
Hardap region, Namibia. 67

3.2. Seat plan for a multi-grade class in the
Karas region, Namibia. 73

3.3. Flash cards for a multi-grade class. 76

5.1. Whole-class planning form. 140

5.2. Language activities in a self-instructional guide 1. 145

5.3. Language activities in a self-instructional guide 2. 146

5.4. Seat plan for a multi-grade class. 151

5.5. A framework for improving the multi-grade curriculum. 159

1
CHAPTER 1

ORIENTATION

1.1. BACKGROUND TO THE STUDY

1.1.1 The History of Education in Namibia

Prior to Namibias independence in 1990, the education system was
characterised by acute disparities, inequities and tensions (MEC, 1993:19).
Some schools had highly qualified teachers, extensive equipment and relatively
small classes. At the same time, other schools had teachers who had limited
training and classrooms that were overcrowded and poorly equipped. At
Independence, the new Ministry of Education faced the formidable problem of
how to address this unfortunate heritage.

The period after 1990 highlighted the demand to redress the unequal allocation
and social disadvantages in education (MEC, 1993:21). The five major goals of
education, namely access, equity, equality, democracy and lifelong learning
called for the rationalisation of the then eleven ethnic education authorities into
one, non-racial education system. The Government started with a fundamental
promise to expand and improve schools and to extend education activities
beyond the school walls. Confronting that promise was the unexpressed demand
for access to the education system and too little time to develop detailed plans
before the new system had to begin functioning (MEC, 1993:30).

Namibia also came to Independence with several different systems for preparing
teachers. Within the country, teacher education was inadequate in both quality
and quantity. In 1980, there were a total of 12 525 teachers in the country. Of
these, 29% were professionally unqualified and only 25% had attained a

2
Standard 10 plus professional qualifications (Cohen, 1994:165). Fifty four
percent of the total teaching force was in the Caprivi, Kavango and Owambo
regions. Of these teachers, only seven percent had qualifications higher than
Standard 10, while 30% had qualifications lower than Standard 8 (Cohen,
1994:164).

The 1988 statistics of the South West Africa Department of Economic Affairs
indicates the disparities between ethnic groups in the ratio of learners to qualified
teachers (Table1.1).

Table 1.1 Learner-teacher ratios in Namibian schools in 1988

Ethnic Group
Learner: Qualified Teacher
(Std 10 + teacher training)

Caprivian

85:1

Coloured

35:1

Damara

78:1

Herero

176:1

Kavango

306:1

Nama

61:1

Ovambo

207:1

Rehoboth Baster

36:1

Tswana

34:1

White

14:1
(Source: Adapted from South West Africa Department of Economic Affairs, 1988:39-49).

Table 1.1 clearly indicates the great need and the limited human resources.
Education is an expensive exercise though and if we measure efficiency in terms
of learners per teacher that would indeed be so. After all, if a teachers salary is

3
the same whether the class has 40 or 100 learners, then it is more efficient to
have the larger class. However, if having large classes of 100 learners, means
that little or no learning takes place, then increasing class size to that level is very
insufficient.

Effective learning, however, is more than simply gathering and memorising
information and requires teachers who are not only competent in their subjects,
but who can also respond creatively to new situations. Choosing effective inputs
is the first step toward improving learning, but managing them well at school level
is also necessary (Lockheed, 1991:40).

The objective of each primary school should be to increase the number and
quality of its graduates by increasing the probability that learners will stay in
school and be promoted to the next grade level on time. Teaching quality and
teaching time are therefore key determinants of academic achievement.
Teaching time is largely determined by teacher motivation, while the fundamental
prerequisites for proficient teaching are:

(i) knowledge of the subjects to be taught, of the skills to be developed,
and of the curricula arrangements;

(ii) knowledge of general and subject-specific methods for teaching and for
evaluating student learning; and

(iii) knowledge of human development.

Yet the teaching force in many developing countries is neither motivated nor
trained. Most prospective teachers lack adequate general academic preparation,
both new and experienced teachers lack many pedagogical skills, and motivation
and professional commitment to teaching is low (Lockheed, 1991:90).

4
The challenge in Namibia was even more daunting. Not only had the
Government to recruit new teachers and upgrade the skills of those serving, but
also helped them learn to use those skills in radically changed settings. For
Education for All to become a reality, teachers had to develop new visions, new
understandings and new commitments. In addition, for schools to change,
teachers must become both agents and facilitators of change. One of the most
overwhelming changes was most probably the creation for multi-grade classes.

1.1.2. The History of Multi-grade Education

Multi-grade teaching occurs within a graded system of education when a single
class contains two or more learner grade levels. It is contrasted with the usual
pattern of classroom organisation in graded systems where a single classroom
contains learners of only one grade level. In many graded systems, age and
grade are congruent, so a grade is also equivalent to a particular age group of
learners. There are three important reasons why multi-grade teaching may occur
in both developed and developing countries.

First, multi-grade teaching is often associated with small schools in remote and
sparsely populated areas. In such schools, there may be only one, two or three
teachers, yet they offer a complete cycle of primary education. If that cycle
consists of eight grade levels, then each of these teachers must deal with multi-
grade classes.

Second, multi-grade teaching is also common in larger urban and suburban
schools. In some countries, it is a response to uneven learner enrolment where
schools combine grade levels to make up class sizes.

Thirdly, multi-grade teaching may be a deliberate response to educational
problems. Several commentators take the view that multi-grade classes are
potentially a cost effective way of providing education in difficult to reach areas.

5

Although rural, small schools may combine grades to save money in the guise of
the un-graded classroom, multi-grade organisation has also been a feature of
urban and suburban districts (Miller, 1991:6). In the 1960s and 1970s, open
education and individualised instruction became influential curriculum and
instructional models. Such models were commonly implemented with multi-grade
classrooms. Energised by developmental theories of learning, a large influx in
federal money, and learner-centred models of instruction, open education
became a major education innovation. As a result, multi-grade classrooms
received new attention (Miller, 1991:7).

Multi-grade teaching has actually been around for a very long time; much longer
than the graded classroom. The early Jews developed schools for boys from
ages six to thirteen and taught them in synagogues.

In ancient Greece, young boys, ages 7-18 were taught together to receive
physical and mental training. In medieval trade guilds, learners studied with their
teachers until they were ready to be on their own. Some would finish their
apprenticeship soon, while others may take longer. Each was however
considered as good as the artisan who taught them. In the monasteries of the
1500s, a sixteen year old and a six year old were likely to be seated side by side
in the same class (Longstreet & Shane, 1993:58).

The earliest American schools were multi-aged. They included all children of the
village, from ages 6 to 16. Even the rural schoolrooms of 25 to 50 years ago
contained learners of a wide variety of ages with just one teacher (Moen, 1999:5).

In much of Africa, a major rationale for multi-grade education is probably its
potential to increase access to the full cycle of primary education in areas where
this is currently not available. Multi-grade classes were created in Namibia to
give children living in isolated areas access to a school located in or near a
village and to obtain higher returns from the school system by changing the

6
learner/teacher ratio to a more equitable and affordable national ratio of 35
learners per teacher.

Statistics presented at a national conference in August 2004 in Swakopmund,
Namibia, indicated that 31, 7% of 1150 schools, 17 113 learners and about 600
teachers are affected by multi-grade instruction (IECD, 2004:8).

The research problem will now be discussed, bearing the above-mentioned in
mind.

1.2. PROBLEM STATEMENT

For children to learn effectively in multi-grade environments, teachers need to be
well trained, well resourced and hold positive attitudes towards multi-grade
teaching. However, many teachers in multi-grade schools are either untrained or
trained in single grade pedagogy. Their knowledge of teaching methods is based
on whole-class and small group instruction. These small groups are often formed
on the basis of ability or achievement levels.

Veenman (1995:379) concluded in his research that there were no significant
differences between multi-grade and single grade classes in cognitive or
achievement effects. Subsequently, Mason and Burns (1996:311) challenged
Veenmans conclusions, claiming that multi-grade classes have at least a small
negative effect on achievement, as well as teacher motivation.

In common with those in many other locations, Mulchany (1993:28) found that the
concerns of multi-grade teachers in Newfoundland and Labrador received little
attention. He suggests that this may be due partly to their being considered as a
temporary anomaly, and partly to the belief that a multi-grade classroom is
essentially the same as a single-grade classroom, and needs no special
attention. However, parents, teachers and learners all dislike multi-grade

7
classrooms and Mulchany argues that this is a consequence of a lack of concern
for the pedagogical and curricular attention to their particular demands. He also
calls for effective training of teachers to deal with multi-grade classrooms and for
modified or distinctive curricula responsive to multi-grade organisation.

Analysis from data presented in 2004 at a national conference on multi-grade
teaching in Namibia revealed some significant negative effects on achievement
associated with multi-grade instruction (IECD, 2004:9). In addition, the data
clearly indicated that, in Namibia:

(i) teachers lack management and organisational strategies for multi-
grade teaching,

(ii) there is a direct relationship between increased class size and the
quality of teaching, and

(iii) there is a total lack of support to multi-grade teaching.

Against the background of the above discussion, the research problems are
highlighted by the following questions:

(i) How can multi-grade classes be managed effectively?

(ii) How can the minimum resources that are available be managed
to produce better quality results in multi-grade schools?

(iii) What are the levels of achievement / performance of learners in multi-
grade classes?

8
(iv) How can the parents be involved more actively and effectively in the
education of the learners to improve the academic performance in
multi-grade classes?

Having discussed the research problems, the aim of this research will now be
explained.

1.3. AIMS AND OBJECTIVES

The general aim of this study is to explore educators views and perceptions on
managing multi-grade classes in Namibia.

In order to accomplish this aim, the following specific objectives need to be
achieved:

1.3.1. To investigate how multi-grade teaching is managed in Namibia.

1.3.2. To explore the perceptions of teachers on the management of multi-
grade classes in Namibia.

1.3.3. To describe the effect of multi-grade teaching on learner
performance.

1.3.4. To make recommendations on teacher training and preparation for
the effective management of multi-grade teaching.

The methods that will be use to collect data will be discussed next.

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1.4. METHODOLOGY

Recognising that all methods have limitations, researchers felt that biases
inherent in any single method could neutralise or cancel the biases of other
methods. Triangulating data sources, a means of seeking convergence across
qualitative and quantitative methods, were born (Creswell, 2003:15). As a result,
a more comprehensive analysis of the research problem can be provided.
Alternatively, the results from one method can help develop or inform the other
method.

A quantitative approach employs strategies of inquiry such as surveys and
experiments and collects data on predetermined instruments that yield statistical
data (Cresswell, 2003:18). Alternatively, a qualitative approach collects open-
ended emerging data with the primary intent of developing themes from the data.

In this study, data will be collected simultaneously and will involve both numeric
information (on structured questionnaires) and text information (on focus group
interviews and observations) so that the final database represents both
quantitative and qualitative information.

In addition, past work should be reviewed as a signpost into subsequent work,
the latter building upon and extending the former. A careful examination of major
studies may suggest a number of directions worth pursuing in order to help
interpret prior findings to choose between alternative explanations.

The following explains how the methods will be used to collect data:

1.4.1. Literature survey

All social research has relevant literature and no research takes place in a
vacuum (Keith, 1989: 42). The literature is an extremely valuable resource and an

10
important store house of knowledge and thinking about a topic or area. It includes
previous research reports and their findings, theories and reflections about any
other documentary material (Keith, 1989: 43).

A literature study is aimed at contributing towards a clever understanding of the
nature and the meaning of the problem that has been identified (De Vos &
Fouche, 1998: 64). A literature study is essential in the sense that,

(i) it may disclose whether someone has already performed essentially
the same research

(ii) it provides a substantially better insight into the dimensions and
complexity of the problem

(iii) it equips the investigator with a complete and thorough justification for
the subsequent steps, as well as with a sense of the importance of the
understanding (De Vos & Fouche, 1998: 65).

A literature survey provides a framework for establishing the importance of the
study, as well as a benchmark for comparing the results with other findings
(Cresswell, 1994:21). In this study, the literature survey will be used to determine
other peoples perceptions on multi-grade teaching, take advantage of what is
already known and to build upon the knowledge of others.

1.4.2. Structured questionnaires

A structured questionnaire will be compiled using the literature survey as basis.
The respondents will be given a choice of predetermined responses from which
they chose the answer that best describes their views on multi-grade teaching.
The answers are standard and can be compared from person to person.

11
1.4.3. Focus group interviews

Focused group interviews will be used since the attitudes and opinions of many
educators are desired. More data can be collected from the group as they focus
on the topic in a short period of time. The researcher hopes that, by discussing
the issue of multi-grade instruction, some agreement on the management of
multi-grade classes can be reached. The interviews will involve unstructured and
generally open-ended questions that are few in number and according to
Cresswell (2003:188) intend to elicit views and opinions from the participants.

1.4.4. Observations

During observations in qualitative research, the researcher takes field notes on
the behaviour and activities of individuals at the research site (Cresswll,
2003:189). The purpose of observations in this study is to give the researcher
direct, first-hand experiences with the phenomena under study. The researcher
will observe without participating and record information as it is revealed. Bogdan
and Biklen (1982:74) describe data collection during observations as the
mainstay of qualitative research and a written account of what the researcher
hears, sees, experiences and thinks in the course of collecting and reflecting on
the data.

1.4.5. Sampling

The qualitative approach uses small, information-rich samples selected
purposefully to allow the researcher to focus in depth on issues important to the
study (Lincoln and Guba, 1985:201). Convenience sampling saves time, money
and effort, but at the expense of information and credibility (Cresswell, 1998:118).
Multi-grade schools are common in isolated, rural areas; therefore the researcher

12
will concentrate on rural schools in the Hardap, Karas, Khomas, Erongo and
Otjizondjupa Educational Regions in Namibia.

1.5. CLARIFICATION OF CONCEPTS

1.5.1. Multi-grade Teaching

Multi-grade teaching refers to the teaching of more than one grade in the same
classroom. A multitude of terms has been used, sometimes confusingly, in
literature pertaining to multi-grade teaching, like mixed-age grouping, multi-age
classes, family grouping, non-graded or un-graded education, and continuous
progress model (Katz, 1995:11). For consistency and clarity, the term multi-
grade teaching will be used throughout this study.

1.5.2. Mono-grade teaching

Most systems of education worldwide are predicated on the notion that learners
enter, progress through and exit from grades alongside a group of peers.
Learners who fail to be promoted from grade to grade become grade repeaters
and join a group of learners in the previous grade. Grades correspond closely
with the age of the learner and usually comprise learners who share birthdays
within one calendar year. In systems where, for various reasons, the age of entry
of learners varies by more than one year, learners move through the system with
peers who entered the first grade within the same calendar year. Each grade
group comprises one or more classes of learners, depending on the number of
learners. A single teacher usually teaches each class at any given time.

13
1.5.3. Education for All

Education for All is a policy document, which translates the Namibian
philosophy on education into concrete government policies. In addition,
Education for All in Namibia means expanded access, the elimination of
inequalities and fair treatment throughout the education system, improved quality
of instruction and learning and learning about democracy by practicing it (MEC,
1993:44).

1.5.4. Trained Teachers

In Namibia, basic foreign qualifications are not recognised by the Ministry of
Education as a first qualification. Teachers are evaluated as trained when they
have completed the Basic Education Teachers Diploma (BETD) offered by the
Colleges of Education for school leavers and by the National Institute for
Educational Development (NIED) for un- or under qualified practicing teachers.

1.5.5. Teaching Time

Teaching time in Namibia is 40 minutes per lesson for primary and secondary
learners.

1.5.6. Educational Regions

A great deal of work is required in schools and communities to improve the
education system and to upgrade the quality of schools. To achieve that, and to
maximise local contributions to the education system, both responsibility and
authority were decentralised. Namibia is currently divided into thirteen
educational regions, as shown in the map below.

14

Key:
1. Caprivi
2. Erongo
3. Hardap
4. Karas
5. Kavango
6. Khomas
7. Kunene
8. Ohangwena
9. Omaheke
10. Omusati
11. Oshana
12. Oshikoto
13. Otjozondjupa
Figure 1.1. Educational regions in Namibia
Retrieved from "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Regions_of_Namibia"

1.5.7. Classroom Management and Discipline

For the purpose of this study classroom management and discipline will include
classroom schedules and routines that promote clear, predictable instructional
patterns.

1.5.8. Assessment

The main purpose of assessment in Basic Education will be to develop a reliable
picture of each individual learners progress and level of achievement in relation
to minimum competencies specified in subject syllabi.

Assessment has a formative role and should:

(i) motivate learners to extend their knowledge and skills and to
establish sound values;

15

(ii) promote good study habits;

(iii) help build a positive and realistic self image; and

(iv) improve teaching methods and learning materials.

1.6. ETHICS

1.6.1. The purpose and procedure of the study will be made known to all
Participants.

1.6.2. Participants will have the right to participate voluntarily and withdraw at
any time.

1.6.3. All participants anonymity shall be guaranteed.

1.6.4. The research findings will be made known to the participants.

1.6.5. The researcher will ensure clear communication in order to avoid any
misconceptions.

1.6.6. The researcher will ensure that permission is granted from the Ministry of
Education in Namibia to conduct this study.

16
1.7. PLANNING

The following is an outline of the study to be pursued:

Chapter 1: The problem statement and methodology

Chapter 2: The literature survey

Chapter 3: The research methods

Chapter 4: Analysis and interpretation of data

Chapter 5: Summary, Findings and Recommendations

1.8. SUMMARY

This chapter highlighted the background to the study. The research problem was
put into context with regard to multi-grade teaching. For children to learn
effectively in multi-grade environments, teachers need to be well trained, well
resourced and hold positive attitudes towards multi-grade teaching. In addition,
parents should have input into significant instructional and assessment decisions
concerning their children.

The next chapter will focus on the literature survey in order to fill in gaps and
extend previous studies. The literature survey will also provide a framework for
establishing the importance of the study as well as a benchmark for comparing
the results of the study with other findings.

17
CHAPTER 2

LITERATURE SURVEY

2.1. INTRODUCTION

Multi-grade classrooms utilise an organisational structure in which learners of
different ages (at least a two year span), and ability levels are grouped together,
without dividing them or the curriculum into steps labelled by grade designation
(Gaustad, 1994:4).

The adequate implementation of a multi-grade approach to education however
extends beyond simply mixing learners of different grades together. The multi-
grade classroom is labour intensive and requires more planning, collaboration
and professional development than the conventional graded classroom
(Cushman, 1993:26; Gaustad, 1995:3; Miller, 1994:17).

Sufficient planning time must be available to meet the needs of both teacher and
learner. Insufficient planning, staff development, materials, support and
assessment procedures will have an impact on the success of the multi-grade
program (Fox, 1997:17; Miller, 1994:19; Nye, 1995:12). However, many
teachers, administrators and parents continue to question the optimal learning
opportunities that multi-grade teaching claim to offer.

The aim of this study is to explore teachers views on managing multi-grade
classes in Namibia in order to determine what effect multi-grade instruction has
on learner performance and what kind of preparation or training is needed to
manage a multi-grade classroom effectively.

18
This chapter aims at reviewing literature on related studies all over the world and
is organised in the following manner:

2.2 Multi-grade teaching: Concept and status

2.3. International Experiences of Multi-grade teaching

2.4. The status of Multi-grade teaching in Namibia

2.5. Classroom Management and Organisation in Multi-grade
classes

2.6. The benefits and challenges of Multi-grade teaching

2.7. Conclusion

2.8. Summary

2.2. MULTI-GRADE TEACHING: CONCEPT AND STATUS

Multi-grade classes can be defined as an organisational structure in which
teachers instruct learners from two or more grades for most or all of the school
day. These unusual structures, embedded within a graded system of schooling,
have resulted from imbalanced or inadequate enrolments (Knight, 1983:11; Miller,
1989:103).

The multi-grade classroom has traditionally been an important and necessary
organisational pattern of education in the United States, notes Miller (1993:32).
Multi-grade education dates back to the one-room schools that were the norm in
the United States until they were phased out in the early part of the1900s
(Cohen, 1989:14; Miller, 1993:32).

19
Minimal learner enrolment necessitated the arrangement and economics helped
the multi-grade configuration, in which small agricultural communities required the
aid of children during planting and harvest. Furthermore, teachers and facilities
were scarce and expensive; formal education was not generally perceived as
necessary for day-to-day existence and survival (Daniel, 1995:148).

The multi-grade reality has characterised hundreds of thousands of schools
throughout the twentieth century. The United Nations Educational Scientific and
Cultural Organisation (UNESCO) collected the following data on the extent of
multi-grade teaching in 1959 (table 2.1).

20
Table 2.1: Numbers of teachers and learners, by country, in multi-grade schools
in 1959.

COUNTRY

Teachers
in
Primary
Schools

Teachers
in Multi-
grade
classes
%
Teachers
in multi-
grade
classes

Learners in
Primary
Schools

Learners
in multi-
grade
classes
%
Learners
in multi-
grade
classes

Afghanistan

2 818

606

21.5

123 117

26 761

21.7

Albania

6 110

1 194

19.5

174 332

37 400

21.5

Australia

36 724

3 262

8.9

1 203 949

71 938

6

Austria

16 401

967

5.9

611 710

24 905

4.1

Bulgaria

22 011

1 132

5.1

1 000 000

26 000

2.6

Chile

21 468

1 141

5.3

726 763

62 676

8.6

Denmark

14 146

673

4.8

357 334

21 636

6.1

Ethiopia

3 100

129

4.2

141 777

9 144

6.4

France

218 488

43 490

19.9

6 840 000

1 017 400

14.9

Hungary

56 449

171

0.3

1 314 432

3 428

0.3

India

710 139

116 263

16.4

26 964 808

4 221 601

15.7

Iran

27 716

3 627

13.1

978 810

133 161

13.6

Italy

184 724

11 617

6.3

4 704 168

210 616

4.5

Netherlands

42 104

76

0.2

1 476 492

1 200

0.1

Nicaragua

3 770

1 487

39.4

162 783

62 887

32.5

Norway

16 081

468

2.9

439 000

4 144

0.9

U.S.S.R

162 400

22 300

13.7

2 949 600

442 000

15

Vietnam

17 819

1 169

6.6

1 001 767

76 679

7.7
(Source: International Bureau of Education, UNESCO, 1961. Cited in Little 1995:6)

21
Table 2.1 indicates the large number and proportion of teachers who were
teaching in multi-grade schools in the late 1950s - some 21% in Afghanistan,
19% in Albania, 19% in France, 16% in India and 39% in Nicaragua. Comparable
data for the late 1980s and early 1990s could not be found. Data on multi-grade
teachers and schools do not appear to be collected systematically by national
and international agencies.

Table 2.2 synthesises available information from a wide variety of sources on the
current status of multi-grade teaching. It expresses the occurrence of multi-grade
teaching in different countries in the years of which the most recent data is
available.

22
Table 2.2: Occurrence of Multi-grade schools, teachers and learners 1980-1990.

Country

Year
Schools
with MG
classes
Teachers
who teach
MG
Learners
in MG
classes

Australia

1988

40%

China

1986

12%

Cook Islands

1990

50%

Fiji

1990

50%

25%

28%

France

1987/8

22%

India

1986

61%

Kiribati

1990

60%

50%

Korea

1980s

2%

Malaysia

1980s

950

Marshall Islands

1990

90%

60%

Mexico

1980s

22%

Philippines

1980s

8%

Scotland

1981

2.5%

Peru

1988

39%

Sweden

1987/8

35%

Wales

1976

30%

Zambia

1984

26%

(Sources: NCERT 1992; Tovar 1989; Welsh Office 1978; Scottish Education
Department 1981; GOP 1993; Collingwood 1991; APEID 1989; Abhayadewa 1989;
Veenman et al 1989; Pratt 1986; Thomas and Shaw 1992.)

23
Table 2.2 suggests that in Peru the percentage of multi-grade schools in 1988
was almost 40%. These schools were located in rural areas, predominantly in
the Andean and Amazon regions of the country (Little, 2005:11). It seems that
multi-grade classes are common in rural areas of industrialised countries. In
Australia 40% of schools have multi-grade classes. The comparable figure for
France is 22% and Sweden 35%.

Multi-grade teaching is probably more common than we realise or care to admit.
However, the Northwest Regional Educational Laboratory in the United States
found that many teachers in multi-grade environments are either untrained or
trained in the mono-grade pedagogy; have few, if any, teaching/learning
resources; and regard the multi-grade classroom as a poor relation to the better-
resourced single grade classrooms found in large, urban schools and staffed by
trained teachers.

Multi-grade teaching arises in one or more of the following conditions:

(i) Schools in areas of low population density where schools are widely
scattered and inaccessible and enrolments low. Schools may have only
one or two teachers responsible for all grades.

(ii) Schools that comprise a cluster of classrooms spread across in different
locations, in which some classes are multi-grade for the same reasons as
(i), and some are mono-grade. Some teachers within the same school will
spend most of their time with multi-grade classes, some with mono-grade
classes.

(iii) Schools in areas of where the learner and teacher numbers are declining,
and where previously there was mono-graded teaching.

24
(iv) Schools in areas of population growth and school expansion, where
enrolments in the expanding upper grades remain small and teacher
numbers few.

(v) Schools in areas where parents send their children to more popular
schools within reasonable travel distance, leading to a decline in the
potential population of students and teachers in the less popular school.

(vi) Schools in which the number of learners admitted to a class exceed official
norms on class size, necessitating the combination of some learners from
one class grade with learners from another grade.

(vii) Mobile schools in which one or more teacher moves with nomadic learners
spanning a wide range of ages and grades.

(viii) Schools in which teacher absenteeism is high and supplementary teacher
arrangements are non-effectual or non-existent.

(ix) A school in which the official number of teachers deployed is sufficient to
support mono-grade teaching but where the actual number deployed is
less (for a variety of reasons).

(x) Schools in which learners are organised in multi-grade rather than mono-
grade groups, for pedagogic reasons, often as part of a more general
curriculum and pedagogic reform of the education system

Condition (x) underlines a distinction between multi-grade teaching that arises
through necessity and choice. Conditions (i ix) above arise through necessity.
The necessity arises from the characteristics of learners (i vii) or teachers (viii
ix). Condition (x) is of a different nature altogether and reflects a choice made by
policymakers and/or teachers about how to change and improve the quality of
pedagogy.

25

Descriptions of multi-grade teaching settings often fail to indicate whether they
have arisen through necessity or choice. This is unfortunate since the conditions
that give rise to learning and teaching in multi-grade settings will themselves have
an impact on the quality of the teaching and learning. For example, if the
numbers of learners per class group is very large and teacher numbers few,
parents and teacher demands will, understandably be for more teachers. In such
conditions it is unlikely that a multi-grade pedagogy will be effective since it is not
the pedagogy of choice. If, however, a multi-grade pedagogy has been chosen
by the teachers of a school, in consultation with parents, and if the class size is
perceived to be reasonable, then the quality of teaching and learning within the
classroom are likely to be more effective.

Classroom teachers vents concerns about multi-grade teaching since this
environment requires more planning and monitoring than a mono-grade
classroom (Grant, 1993:17). In a significant finding concerning teachers
assigned to teach in a classroom whose structure they did not choose, and were
not prepared to teach, 40% of the respondents felt ill prepared for multi-grade
teaching and received no training to deal with the situation (Veenman, 1995:321).

The result of untrained and inappropriately trained teachers, as well as the lack of
appropriate teaching and learning materials, is that learners in multi-grade
classrooms spend much of their time learning material they already know or sit
idle and boxed (Wolff & Garcia, 2001:6).

Hale (1999:21) is of the opinion that the multi-grade classroom exists for the
benefit of the learner, not student numbers or school finances. According to Hale
a teacher is often confronted with a class with widely diversified strengths,
weaknesses, interests and abilities. It is not beneficial to give these learners all
the same work. They need to experience suitable activities for their capabilities.

26
According to Thomas and Shaw (1992:36) multi-grade schools is a cost-effective
way of providing a complete educational cycle in sparsely populated areas and
for maintaining services in areas with declining populations. If properly
implemented, multi-grade schools can offer considerable scope for reducing unit
costs while maintaining or even improving quality. It seems, however, that the
knowledge required for effective multi-grade teaching is rendered illegitimate by
those with a responsibility for training and supporting teachers in their work.
Table 2.3 in the second part of this chapter summarises the experiences of a few
countries on multi-grade teaching around the world.

27
2.3. INTERNATIONAL EXPERIENCES OF MULTI-GRADE TEACHING

Table 2.3.: International Experiences of Multi-grade Teaching

EXPERIENCES

SUCCESSES

CHALLENGES

BANGKOK

Multi-grade teaching is seen
as an appropriate
methodology for delivering
quality instruction and
learning.
The Second International
Multi-grade Teaching
Conference in Bangkok
(2004) concluded that
multi-grade teaching has
been in practice for
centuries, yet as a modern
teaching/learning
methodology, it has
remained relatively
neglected.
BARNWELL
ELEMENTARY SCHOOL,
ALPHARETTA, GEORGIA

Multi-grade teaching was
effectively introduced with
120 learners, using a unit or
theme approach.

The units vary from one
to six weeks and
provide learning
activities for all areas of
the curriculum (Wall;
1994:69).

BRAZIL
Increase efficiency through
class size increases
(Harbison, 1992:202)

Segregating by
achievement level had
no effect on teaching or
learning

28

EXPERIENCES

SUCCESSES

CHALLENGES

BREIDABLIK
ELEMENTARY SCHOOL,
USA
Building trust relationships
becomes the means in
which teachers and learners
accommodate diversity and
celebrate different learning
styles as resources, rather
than detriments to academic
achievement (Hoffman;
2003:19).

Learners were more
interested in their work.

BUCKMAN ELEMENTARY
SCHOOL, PORTLAND,
OREGON

Learners spend three years
in one class.
Teachers are of the
opinion that this is one
classroom with lots of
different learning styles
and developmental
levels and its our job to
see where the learners
are and help them
move
forward(Johnson,1998:
11)

Teachers need training.
FINLAND

Multi-grade classes created
for demographic reasons
(Laukkanen, 1978:9)

The production of
suitable instructional
materials.

29

EXPERIENCES

SUCCESSES

CHALLENGES

ETHIOPIA
Small multi-grade schools
situated close to parents
homes play an important
role in ensuring that all
children get the opportunity
to receive full primary
education (Leka, 1999:17).

IICBA
1
helped with the
improvement of
textbooks to make
them more interactive
for learner-controlled
learning.

Teachers require additional
training as well as basic
resources to enable them
to cope with learners of
different ages and at
different levels of
achievement

GAMBIA

Multi-grade teaching is
viewed as an effective
strategy to expand access
through efficient use of
existing facilities.

Only two grades are
combined and the
combined class should
not exceed 40 learners
(Gambia Education
Policy; 2004-2015: 46).

Teachers require training
in multi-grade teaching
strategies.

GYANDOOT, DHAR
DISTICT

Most rural primary schools
function with only one or two
teachers.

After implemented
class monitors as
academic assistants to
teachers, there was an
increase of 19,5% in
the overall competency
attainment rate for all
subjects
(Gyandoot.net:4.06/05).

1
International Institute for Capacity Building in Africa

30

EXPERIENCES

SUCCESSES

CHALLENGES

INDIA

Multi-grade teaching is a
normal situation rather than
an exceptional one.
Teachers are compelled to
stick to grades that specify
how much each learner is
expected to learn in a year,
with no scope for enabling
individual and varying
paces of learning (Shukla,
1999:2)

KENTUCKY

Teams of teachers are
responsible for learners for
multiple years. Programmes
are based on a constructivist
philosophy (Molentyre;
1999:47)

Learners reading
And writing scores
improved.

It is hard work on the
teachers part.

LABRADOR
Teachers in rural schools
attempted one of three
approaches, teaching each
grade separately, cover the
different grade specific
curricula in alternative years
or cover the prescribed
objectives and content for
the two or three years by
linking them thematically
(Mulcahy; 1993:25).

31

EXPERIENCES

SUCCESSES

CHALLENGES

MACK ELEMENTARY,
BELLEVUE CHRISTIAN
SCHOOL, WASHINGTON

Multi-grade classes were
introduced to save money.
One of the challenges of
managing a multi-grade
class is the task of
ensuring every learner
receives the entire
prescribed curriculum
regardless of how the
learner moves through the
grades (Ribera; 1999: 8)

MADANG
INTERNATIONAL, PAPUA
NEW GUINEA

Physical environments foster
and support collaboration.

Use a diverse range of
resources and offer
learners a multiplicity of
authentic learning tasks
(Hales; 2004:8)
According to Shukla
(1999:2) the major difficulty
confronting teachers is that
they are compelled to stick
to grades that specify how
much each learner is
expected to learn in a year,
with no scope for enabling
individual and varying
paces of learning.
MARYVILLE MIDDLE
SCHOOL
Teachers, teacher
assistants, learners and
technology with an
integrated learning system
make this multi-grade
programme successful.
(http://www.ci.maryville.tn.us)

Focus is on the needs
of individual learners

32

EXPERIENCES

SUCCESSES

CHALLENGES

NEW ZEALAND

A large number of multi-
grade classes exists in New
Zealand (Ewing, 1970:54)
Preparation for
teachers in multi-grade
schools has been part
of the teacher-training
programme for a long
time.

SRI LANKA
Use multi-grade strategies in
all grades, even where there
is one teacher per grade
(Abhayadeva, 1989:44)

A wide range of
competencies in
language and
mathematics.

Include multi-grade
teaching strategies in both
initial and in-service
teacher education.

SWEDEN
formed for educational
reasons, rather than
because of learner or
resource shortages
(Malmros, 1984:176).

Teachers expressed an
interest in multi-grade
approaches

ZAMBIA
created as a way of
extending full primary
education opportunities to
sparsely populated areas
(Lungwangwa, 1989:47).

Improved achievement,
reduced attrition rates
and a more positive
attitude among
learners.

The multi-grade approach
is demanding for teachers

33
From the discussion in table 2.3 above one can conclude that multi-grade schools
are probably the most neglected part of the education system and generally have
untrained teachers. It is clear that a strong need exists for training in how to work
effectively in multi-grade schools to improve learning. Most teachers have been
trained to work in mono-grade classrooms. Their knowledge of teaching is based
on whole-class instruction and small-group instruction. Working in multi-grade
schools requires serious, ongoing teacher training and a commitment to hard
work.

While the goals of education remain intact, the means of achieving these goals
are changing. Rather than simply applying curricula and instructional strategies
of the mono-grade classroom, teachers have to be knowledgeable about
alternative teaching and learning strategies while taking advantage of the
features of the multi-grade classroom.

Teachers, as they remain in the same classroom for more than one year, become
better acquainted with learners and can adapt individualised instruction. They
must, however, be trained in delivering an integrated curriculum that applies to
learners at different developmental stages (Stone; 1996:21). If educational
outputs are not reduced by multi-grade instruction, the system can be a cost-
effective way of increasing primary coverage in rural areas (McEwan; 1993:12).

As in most other countries, the largest number of multi-grade schools in Namibia
is found in the far remote areas of the Country and has generally un- or under-
qualified teachers. The status of multi-grade teaching in Namibia will be
discussed next.

2.4. THE STATUS OF MULTI-GRADE TEACHING IN NAMIBIA

The following table, table 2.3, summarises the statistical information on multi-
grade teaching in Namibia as presented by the Regional Directors and Inspectors

34
of Education at a national Conference on Multi-grade Teaching in Namibia in
September 2004:

Table 2.4: Multi-grade teaching in Namibia: 2004 Statistics.
REGION
2
Schools
In
Region
M/G
3

Schools
Learners
In
Region
Learners
In M/G
classes
Teachers
In
Region
Teachers
In M/G
Classes

Karas

41

22

12 038

3 484

348

108

Hardap

42

22

12 503

1 784

397

110

Kunene

52
18 +
27 units
4

14 624

3 128

554

86

Ohangwena

222

25

Caprivi

94

42

1 953

Oshana

129

21

53 009

1 032

1700

23

Erongo

57

6

24 396

354

844

12

Otjozondjupa

59

14

1 199

41

Omaheke

43

5

500

Khomas

81

8

85 000

439

1733

17

Kavango

330

185

3000

5

Source: IECD Multi-grade Conference Document, Swakopmund, Namibia, September2004.

2
Refer to Educational Regions
3
Multi-grade Schools
4
Refer to Mobile School Units with large classes.
5
No information available to fill the grey areas.

35
The figures clearly indicate that 31, 7% of 1150 schools, 17 113 learners and
about 600 teachers are affected by multi-grade instruction (IECD, 2004:8).
Despite the national ratio of 35 learners per teacher, some multi-grade schools
have up to 100 learners in one class (IECD, 2004:21). Multi-grade teaching was
addressed in Namibia in the Kavango and Caprivi Regions in 2003 for the first
time. Teachers however still question the effectiveness of multi-grade instruction.

It must be understood that multi-grade classes are not likely to disappear. In
Namibia, it is not an experiment or an educational trend, but a necessity imposed
in part by economic, political and geographic conditions. In many areas, if
parents choose not to place their child in a multi-grade class, the child will remain
uneducated.

There are many rewards for teaching in the multi-grade classroom, but there are
challenges, too. Instruction and classroom organisation and management are
complex and demanding. A teacher cannot ignore developmental differences in
learners, nor be ill prepared for a days instruction. Demands on teacher time
require well-developed organisational skills, as will be discussed in the next
section.

2.5. CLASSROOM MANAGEMENT AND ORGANISATION IN MULTI-GRADE
CLASSES
Placing learners of varying ages together within one classroom does not
automatically bring about success (Lodish, 1992:17). The qualities of the learning
experiences that occur, as well as the classroom environment, play a
fundamental role in the outcomes of multi-age classrooms (Lodish, 1992:17).
Teachers need to re-examine the strategies that they are using, often opting to
incorporate new methods within their daily teachings. Every aspect of planning in
the multi-grade classroom is geared toward strategies that teach and encourage
learners towards a high level of independence (Daniel and Terry, 1995: 31).

36
Using a process approach to teaching, moving from all-knowing to a facilitator of
learning, integrating areas of the curriculum, as well as ensuring flexible grouping
within the classroom are four pertinent strategies that require consideration within
a multi-grade classroom.
Stone (1994:103) suggests that successful multi-grade teachers are sometimes
required to shift their philosophical view of how to teach children. A multi-grade
classroom requires educators to see the learners as individuals on a continuum
of learning (Stone, 1994:103). She adds that the learner, then, moves as the
focus of the teaching/learning experience, not the curriculum itself. Those who
attempt to teach grade-specific curriculum to multiple grades within a class may
become bewildered and desire the return to a mono-grade classroom (Stone,
1994:107).
Stone (1994:109) continues to note that a key teaching strategy for prospering
within a multi-grade setting is to use a process approach to teaching. She adds
that individual learners are treated as unique persons with varying developmental
and learning rates and styles. The focus, then, moves from teaching discrete
skills in a prescribed curriculum to developing social skills and investigating broad
academic subjects that reflect a developmental process. Teachers must work
conscientiously in designing open-ended, divergent experiences in preparation
for the vast range of developmental abilities (Gaustad, 1995:98; Stone,
1994:105). Learners, then, learn to read and write by becoming actively and
meaningfully involved in these contexts.
Within a multi-grade classroom, teachers often choose to integrate the curriculum
creating a holistic approach for the process of learning (Daniel and Terry,
1995:12; Gorrell, 1998:90; Mackey, Johnson, and Wood, 1995:33; Stone,
1994:105; Wall, 1994:70). Themes are often selected with, and often by, the
learners, and curriculum areas are taught through these all-encompassing
themes (Bingham et al., 1995:34; Stone, 1994:105).

37
In addition to being considered a very sophisticated approach to learning,
thematic studies are much broader and often take longer for learners to intricately
investigate and explore. Once the curriculum is cleverly integrated within themes,
learners, regardless of age and ability, can work together in cooperative groups,
as well as individually. Removing the traditional, rigid boundaries of a graded
structuring of instructional time enhances creativity of teachers who are
empowered to develop curriculum innovations and teach to each learners
individual rate of learning (Mackey, Johnson, and Wood, 1995:50).
Pro-social behaviours, including sharing, taking turns, and helping are more
apparent within multi-grade classes (Katz et al., 1993:22; Stone, 1998:106).
These behaviours facilitate interaction within a group structure and encourage
socialisation. Learners who have opportunities to help and learn from one another
promote the desired feeling that differences are the norm and not the exception,
thus creating a tremendous self-esteem boost to all learners. Also, because of
the natural structure of a multi-grade classroom, teachers are more likely to ask
learners to help one another, than in mono-grade classes (McClellan and Kinsey,
1997:12). Katz, et al.(1993:66) add that with the increase of cooperative
behaviours, discipline issues, that are often inherent within competitive situations,
are often considerably reduced.
Very poor communities cannot make the best use of the educational opportunities
provided unless other factors in the environment - especially poverty and health -
are also addressed at the same time. Multi-grade teaching can help to address
poverty through training teachers who are multi-skilled persons with enhanced
competencies in health promotion, agriculture and micro finance. Such teachers
would clearly meet the perceived needs of the parents and learners who
repeatedly said they wanted schools to teach about taking care of health,
improved methods of farming and how to manage the finances of small families.
Teachers, however, lack the necessary training and support to be innovative and
creative with the local resources at hand. Training needs to relate to the needs of
teachers in the classrooms and the contextual constraints and resources, which

38
they face in their everyday work. It also needs to link theory with practice to allow
trainees to learn from their own experiences, and from their own trial and error.
The most highly qualified teachers are selected for training that means that the
weakest teachers, who need most help, are least likely to receive it. Organising
in-service training will support them in dealing with real issues.
Multi-grade teaching is seen as producing children who are independent learners
and who learn actively and in collaboration with each other through group work.
To encourage children to become independent and active learners, teachers
need to understand and practice this approach to learning themselves and be
collaborative, innovative and flexible teachers.
Consequently multi-grade teaching implies more than a set of skills for classroom
management. It also implies learning and practising a new approach to teaching
and learning, and new relationships within the classroom and between teachers
and trainers.

2.5.1. The management of multi-grade classes in Namibia
In Namibia, the vast majority of multi-grade schools and classrooms are under-
resourced and often lack not only support materials but also basic infrastructure
(walls and weatherproof roofs). The teachers are generally negative about multi-
grade schools and in the absence of training or guidelines, have more frustrations
than pleasure in teaching. Teachers need to be able to utilise locally available
resources rather than wait for government to provide published or manufactured
items. This involves recognising the resources that exist: the material resources,
the human resources and teachers' own resources. Training in using local
resources and making low cost materials needs to start at the pre-service stage.
Table 2.4 indicates how multi-grade classes are managed in Namibia.
Since more time should be spent in organising and planning for instruction in a
multi-grade classroom, extra material and strategies must be developed so that

39
the learners will be meaningfully engaged. The teacher cannot be everywhere or
with each learner simultaneously, therefore, shares instructional responsibilities
with the learners. A context of clear rules and routines make such shared
responsibility productive.

Table 2.5 The Management of Multi-grade classes in Namibia

ERONGO
REGION

Grades combined: 1&2; 3 & 4; 5 & 6 & 7
Teachers attend to one group at a time, which means
teaching time is divided among the two or three groups. No
special attention is given to any learner. In addition to
grades, two languages are also taught in the same class in
one of the schools. The teaching of non-examinations
subjects is neglected.

KUNENE
REGION

Grades combined: 2&3; 4 & 5; 6 & 7
Enrol grade one learners every other year. Timetable is
flexible because of the inconsistent attendance of learners.
The school feeding programme secures attendance in many
schools. Teachers seldom complete the curriculum for a
grade in one calendar year, especially when dealing with the
mobile school units.

OSHANA
REGION

Grades combined: 1 4; 2 & 3; 1 & 2; 5 & 6
All learners are taught the same content. Assessment differs
for different grades, although difficult to plan. Teachers focus
on mastering of the most basic competencies.

40

KARAS
REGION
Grades combined: 1 & 2; 3 & 4; 5 & 6 & 7
Teaching time is divided among the groups. In some schools
themes are taught with different assessment activities.

OTJOZOND
JUPA
REGION

Grades combined: 1 3; 1 & 2; 2 & 3; 3 & 4; 5 & 6
The majority of learners in multi-grade classes are from the
Juhoansi and !khung San communities. These learners
move with their parents from one place to the other and
attend school irregularly. Teachers focus on mastering of the
most basic competencies and seldom complete the
curriculum per grade in one calendar year.

OHANG
WENA
REGION

Grades combined: 1 & 2 & 3; 1 & 2; 2 & 3; 3 & 4
Teachers see effective teaching as impossible. In some
cases the curriculum of the two or three grades is spread over
the two or three years, while other teachers teach one group
while the others are busy with self-activities.

HARDAP
REGION

Grades combined: 1 3; 4 & 5; 6 & 7
Subjects like Religious Education and Physical Education are
taught to the bigger group. Teachers try not to combine
groups for Mathematics and Science subjects. In most cases,
themes are taught to the whole class, but assessment tasks
are set on developmental levels.

KAVANGO
REGION

Grades combined: 1 & 2; 1 3; 1 4
Grade groups are taught separately, in some cases 3 4
groups in one class. Teaching time is divided among the
groups, which means that in a class of 4 grade groups, each
group will have the teachers attention for 10 minutes only.

41

CAPRIVI
REGION
Grades combined: 1 & 2; 3 & 4; 5 & 6 & 7
All learners are taught the same content. Assessment differs
for different grades, although difficult to plan. Teachers focus
on mastering of the most basic competencies.

KHOMAS
REGION

Grades combined: 1 & 2; 3 & 4; 5 & 6; 5 7
In some cases the curriculum of the two or three grades is
spread over the two or three years, while other teachers
teach one group while the others are busy with self-activities.

OMAHEKE
REGION

Grades combined: 1 & 2; 3 & 4; 5 & 6 & 7
Teachers attend to one group at a time, which means
teaching time is divided among the two or three groups. No
special attention is given to any learner. The teaching of non-
examinations subjects is neglected.
(Source: Institute for Education Career Development, Multi-grade Teaching Conference
Document, 2004)
From the discussion in table 2.4 one can conclude the following:
(i) There are no clear guidelines for the combination of grades.
(ii) Mother tongue influences grouping (Learners in grades 1 3 are taught in
their mother tongue)
(iii) Learner attendance many times is inconsistent.
(iv) Time management in multi-grade classes is very difficult.
(v) Teachers lack classroom management skills.

42
Teaching in multi-grade settings requires more preparation on the part of the
teacher. It is difficult to maintain track of the needs of learners of more than one
grade. No wonder multi-grade teaching is generally seen as a major problem.
The skills needed to teach well in the multi-grade and the mono-grade classroom
appears to be quite similar. The differences between the two sorts of classrooms
may be more a product of socialisation and expectation than fact. Clearly, if a
teacher in either sort of classroom fails to addresses differences among learners,
the effectiveness of instruction suffers. Likewise, teachers are harmed when they
have not been adequately prepared to teach learners with varying ages and
abilities, no matter what sort of classroom they work in (Miller, 1991:3).
The quality of teaching and the nature of teaching strategies in multi-grade
classes are critical issues. Where there is agreement in the literature that greater
demands are placed on teachers in multi-grade as opposed to mono-grade
teaching (Veenman, 1995:331; Veenman, 1996:98; Veenman & Raemaekers,
1995:112; Mason & Burns, 1996:310; Mason & Doepner, 1998:163), there is no
agreement about whether this affects the quality of teaching.
Unfortunately, in most studies of multi-grade classes the teaching strategies used
are not described and as a result poorly understood.
One can however conclude from previous studies that teachers lack relevant
training, appropriate resource materials, time for individual attention and
remediation, and must cope with parental concerns about the effects of multi-
grade placement.
Teachers entering into a multi-grade classroom for the first time need to have an
awareness of exactly what can beneficially be gained from teaching multi-grade
classes. Similarly, a central understanding of the many hurdles that one is up
against with regards to literature and past research is critical. It is only when
teachers have this knowledge, that they have a means to overcome these
challenges and take full advantage of the benefits of multi-grade teaching.

43

The next section will focus on the benefits and challenges of multi-grade
teaching.

2.5. THE BENEFITS AND CHALLENGES OF MULTI-GRADE TEACHING

2.6.1. The debate about multi-grade teaching
The debate about multi-grade classrooms focuses on two areas: benefits or harm
to learners academic and social development, and teachers capacity to teach
effectively while managing more than one grade level. Of these two, more
attention in the research has been given to the effects on learners. Veenman
(1995:332; 1996:17) argues that there is no empirical evidence for the
assumption that student learning may suffer in multi-grade classrooms. Mason
and Burns (1996:313) challenged Veenman and suggest that he may simply be
wrong. The debate articulated in these papers provides the best consideration of
this issue from the available literature.
Veenmans 1995 paper reviewed 56 studies from 12 countries. Veenman
examined the findings of these studies to compare cognitive and non-cognitive
effects between multi-grade and mono-grade classrooms. The cognitive focus
included subject-area breakdowns, while the non-cognitive focus considered
personal and social adjustment, self-concept, attitudes towards school, and
motivation. For cognitive effects, the study considered:
(i) Nine matched studies (where mono- and multi-grade classrooms that
appeared comparable were the subjects of the study).
(ii) Sixteen random sample studies, in which the effects of mono- and multi-
grade could be isolated and compared from a larger body of data.

44
(iii) Thirteen studies where mono- and multi-grade classes were compared but
with no evidence of compatibility in areas such as learner academic levels.

For non-cognitive effects, seventeen studies were reviewed.
In reporting his findings, Veenman separates 45 multi-grade classes
(administrative device to cope with uneven class size/falling enrolment) and 11
multi-age classes (deliberate grouping of learners of different ages for
educational reasons). Of the 45 multi-grade classes, no consistent differences in
achievement were found with respect to reading, mathematics, language, or
composite scores. Of the studies looking at overall achievement, 28 of 38 found
no overall effects. In four studies, significant and positive effects were found
favoring multi-grade classes, and six studies favored mono-grade classes.
Of the seventeen studies reviewed for non-cognitive effects, five of these
reported significant non-cognitive differences in favor of multi-grade classes, but
these did not translate into higher achievement, and in general there were no
significant differences between mono- and multi-grade classes.
Veenman (1996:21) identifies four factors that he believes are the reasons for
minimal differences in learning between mono- and multi-grade classes:
(i) Grouping alone is unlikely to influence outcomes, as organisational
factors are less important than instructional practices.

(ii) Conscious criteria may be used in selecting learners, so that learners,
who can work independently and have fewer behavioural difficulties,
may be selected.

45
(iii) Teachers receive no additional training for multi-grade teaching, and
may be negative about teaching multi-grade classes. (This implies that
with such training, learners in multi-grade classes would perform better
than those in mono-grade classes, and has been interpreted by Mason
and Burns to infer bias in favour of multi-grade arrangements.)

(iv) If teaching multi-grade classes involves more preparation time and a
greater workload for teachers, teachers use most of their energy
ensuring their learners achieve at a level they would manage in a
mono-grade class.

Veenman (1996:34) also reported findings linked to:
(i) Optimal class size, with 20-25 reported as preferable for multi-grade
classes, and with one study (Gayfer, 1991:11) reporting significantly
higher achievement scores for Grade 6 learners in mono-grade classes
larger than 26 students when compared to similarly sized multi-grade
classes.

(ii) Optimal combinations of grade levels, with considerable uncertainty
about which combinations work best, as there exists minimal research
into this area.

(iii) Reported positive learner achievement effects from combining grades
within one subject area, usually reading (Gutierrez and Slavin,
1992:17).

46
(iv) Six key variables identified by Miller (1991:11) for successful multi-
grade teaching: classroom organisation, classroom management and
discipline, instructional organisation and curriculum, instructional
delivery and grouping, self-directed learning and peer tutoring.

The Mason and Burns (1996) paper argues that while multi-grade classes are
good for some learners, they are potentially difficult for most, and increase
teacher stress. While they do not dispute Veenmans findings that there are no
significant differences in achievement between learners in mono- and multi-grade
classrooms, they challenge both the interpretation and explanation of his findings.
Multi-grade classrooms, they argue, are selectively formed and offer lower quality
instruction than mono-grade classes.
Selection is likely to increase learner achievement, while lower quality instruction
is likely to reduce it. They argue that the two cancel each other out, thereby
causing no achievement differences. In contrast, they state that Veenman claims
no selection bias and no difference in the quality of instruction, leading to no
achievement differences.
Mason and Burns (1996:320) find evidence in the literature that:
"Principals, in an effort to reduce the burden on multi-grade teachers,
place more able, more independent, and more co-operative learners in
multi-grade classes."
They argue that by selectively placing such learners in multi-grade classrooms, a
negative effect on achievement is likely in any mono-grade classroom in the
same school, as these classes must necessarily contain comparatively less able,
less independent, and less co-operative learners.
If same-school mono-grade learners achievement scores were compared with
the multi-grade classes in that school in a research project, the findings of the

47
research would therefore reflect this. Mason and Burns believe that comparisons
could be best made (but rarely are) between two sets of learners who are
randomly placed in both mono- and multi-grade classrooms, rather than randomly
selecting from learners who are selectively placed (as they claim is more
common in the research).
The claim of selection was challenged by Veenman (1996:97) in a paper
responding to Mason and Burns, in which he stated that selection of the nature
indicated by Mason and Burns was only found in four of fifty-one studies.
The second key argument made by Mason and Burns (1996:314) focuses on the
quality of instruction, which they claim is lower in multi-grade classrooms. Their
case is not that teachers in such classes are inferior, but that the demanding
nature of multi-grade teaching reduces the quality of instruction.
They identify two areas in which demands are greater: increased workload (more
preparation/grouped instruction/teaching time) and more complex class
organisation (less instructional time, less individual attention, and greater
management demands). They claim that:
teachers are therefore faced with delivering two different curricula to
learners of twice the age range in the same amount of time factors which
make these two structures drastically different. The two curricula that are
part and parcel of these classes require more preparation, more grouped
instruction, and more teaching time on the part of the teachers. Teacher
stress is exacerbated, and curriculum coverage and adaptive assistance
are diminished, with negative outcomes." Mason and Burns (1996:316)

Veenman acknowledges the increased stress on teachers in multi-grade
classrooms in his 1996 response, where he shared findings from interviews with
teachers in Holland:

48
"Interview data showed the teachers in the multi-grade classes to be less
satisfied with their jobs than their counterparts in mono-grade classes as a
result of the heavy teaching load and demands for classroom
management." Veenman (1996:98)
Mason and Burns (1996:318) argue that the data concerning teacher satisfaction
indicate that extra support appear necessary to effectively manage multi-grade
classrooms:
" teachers will require considerable support and will need to expend
considerable effort to obtain rewards from these classrooms. Lacking such
support, most teachers find multi-grade classes to be difficult classroom
environments to manage, and they cope with the two grade levels and
curricula as best they can." (page 47)

Both sides of this debate have something to offer, though Veenmans evidence is
more substantial, with a very wide-ranging international review of the literature on
this issue. His views are supported by research completed after his review, in
particular the work of Trusty and Beckenstein (1996) and Gorrell (1998). Both
Veenman and Mason and Burns essentially agree that there are no significant
differences in learners academic achievement. They also agree that the teaching
load is heavier in multi-grade classes, causing reduced satisfaction and increased
stress for teachers.
A report by Gomulchuk and Piland (1995:78) found that rural elementary teachers
in northern British Columbia were more positive in their attitudes towards multi-
grade classrooms than were urban teachers. This result perhaps links more to
the sustaining of community in such areas than to the pedagogical and
organisational issues discussed by most of the researchers on this subject.
The Australian study by Russell, Rowe, and Hill (1998:76) provides evidence of
significant and negative differences in terms of learner achievement caused by

49
the single variable of learners being in multi-grade classrooms. They found some
significant negative effects on achievement associated with multi-grade classes,
and some non-significant effects. However, different results were found in two
different years of data collection, and between literacy and numeracy. In one
year, the data collected for learner progress in literacy revealed, among other
things, a strong, direct negative effect of being in a multi-grade class. The
following years data again showed negative effects, but these were not
significant. Differences in mathematics showed negative effects for multi-grade
classrooms, but these were not statistically significant.
In the research conducted by Russell et al (1998:80), teachers and administrators
identified nine contextual factors that were seen to have the power to worsen or
moderate the level of difficulty in multi-grade classrooms, and were:
(i ) The choice of teacher, teacher ability, and teacher skills in
organisation and planning.
(i i ) Class size.
(i i i ) Balance in size of year-level sub-groups.
(i v) Number of learners with challenging behavioural problems.
(v) Range of learner abilities, achievement, and styles of learning,
especially independence.
(vi ) Arrangements for learners to mix with their year-level peers in other
classes for activities such as sports and excursions.
(vi i ) Organisation of a two-year curriculum, so that learners do not miss
out on curriculum coverage.
(vi i i ) Time taken to deal with additional parent pressure.
(i x) Additional time and pressure from the demands of ongoing school-
level changes.
Successful learning depends on a range of pedagogical and organisational
factors within different classroom, school, and community contexts, all of which
exist within the wider context of district or provincial policies. The promotion or

50
consideration of any single variable or program should always be made with local
factors and contexts in mind. Veenman (1996:100) provided a useful caution:
"The purpose of my review was not to encourage policy makers and
practitioners to adopt the multi-graded form of classroom organisation
more frequently. Policymakers and practitioners should always proceed
with caution in the application of research findings, and should not base
policy decisions on research findings alone."

2.6.2. Benefits for learners

In addition, several studies focus on teachers perceptions of the benefits for
learners of learning in multi-grade settings. A UNESCO/APEID study (1989:5)
collated perceptions about the benefits of multi-grade teaching from educators in
twelve countries in the Asia and Pacific Region. These included:

(i) Learners develop self-study skills.

(ii) Learners cooperate across age groups, resulting in collective ethics,
concern and responsibility.

(iii) Learners help each other.

(iv) Teachers can organise both remediation and enrichment activities for
low and high achievers respectively more discreetly than in mono-
grade classes.

A study of 47 multi-grade teachers and head teachers in an inner city area of
London, England, reported a number of positive opportunities presented by the
multi-grade classroom (Berry and Little, 1999:11). The most commonly
mentioned was the opportunity for cognitive stretching of the younger, less able

51
and lower achieving learners, expressed variously by teachers as stretching,
modelling, moving on and developing, extending, looking up and emulating.

The second most commonly mentioned was the opportunity for the use of peer
tutoring learning strategies. While such strategies are not unique to multi-grade
classes, the strategy appears to work particularly well in the multi-grade class.
Unlike cognitive stretching, which was considered a benefit mainly for the less
able, the lower achieving and the younger learner, peer tutoring was perceived to
benefit all learners, cognitively, socially and personally. More able, higher
achieving and older learners strengthen their learning through teaching and
helping others. The less able, lower achieving and younger learners look up to
and learn from others.

A third commonly mentioned opportunity was behaviour stretching, or the
opportunity for younger learners to learn appropriate social behaviours from the
role models offered by older learners.

2.6.3. Challenges for teachers

Alongside the perceived benefits for learners must be noted the perceived
challenges posed by the multi-grade classroom for teachers. In the study of multi-
grade teachers in London these included:

(i) The multi-graded structure has the National Curriculum and the
associated expectations of curriculum coverage and
assessment/achievement targets.

(ii) The range of ability of learners in those multi-grade classes where
learners have been assigned on criteria other than ability homogeneity.

52
(iii) The pressure to prepare one group of learners within the multi-grade
class for critical public assessments.

Recent studies of teachers in developing countries highlight their generally
negative perceptions of multi-grade classes and multi-grade teaching. In a study
of teachers in the Nuwakot and Kavre districts of Nepal, most teachers with
experience of multi-grade teaching think that multi-grade teaching presents them
with more difficulties than mono-grade teaching (Suzuki 2004:21).
In the Peruvian Amazon multi-grade teachers perceive the mono-grade class as
the desirable norm and the multi-grade as the second class necessity. Teachers
feel unprepared to work in multi-grade classrooms, judge that learners dont get
the same as in mono-grade classrooms and report that they have insufficient
educational materials to support learning in the multi-grade classroom. The
isolated and isolating conditions of work and the poverty of the communities
served by multi-grade schools reinforce teachers negative attitude to the school
(Ames, 2004:91).
In Sri Lanka attitudes of multi-grade teachers to multi-grade teaching are also
generally negative. A recent piece of action research suggests that teachers
attitudes to multi-grade teaching become more positive once they realise that
there are strategies that can be used to improve learner achievement outcomes
and lessen the teachers burden of intensive lesson planning for several
grades (Vithanapathirana, 2003:17).

In the Turks and Caicos Islands, teachers reserved their most negative
comments for the burden of lesson planning imposed by the multi-grade
classroom (Berry, 2001:22).

53
Earlier studies (UNESCO/APEID 1989, Birch and Lally, 1995) referred to several
other challenges faced by teachers, most of which are related to the remoteness
of the contexts in which multi-grade schools are located:

(i) The non-filling of vacancies in multi-grade schools in rural areas.

(ii) The absence of teacher accountability in remote multi-grade schools.

(iii) The inattentiveness of education officers to the needs of multi-grade
teachers and schools (UNESCO/APEID 1989: 9-11).

(iv) Lack of financial incentives for teachers to teach in remote multi-grade
schools.

(v) Inadequate provision for housing, employment for spouses and
childrens education.

(vi) Absence of promotion incentives.

(vii) Restricted opportunities for in-service training.

Given the negative attitudes held by many teachers towards teaching in multi-
grade classrooms, several conditions need to be met in order to make learning
and teaching in multi-grade settings beneficial for learners (Little, 2004:15).

The active involvement of administrators and school board members is essential
in creating support and providing ongoing professional development for multi-
grade practice. At least a full year of planning, reading, discussion and
observation of successful multi-grade programmes, prior to implementation, is
strongly recommended (Miller, 1996:136; Nye, 1993:109; Grant, 1993:98;
Gaustad, 1992:89).

54
The following, commonly noted benefits of good quality multi-grade teaching
helped compiled the questionnaires that were distributed to teachers in Namibia
to get their views on the management of multi-grade classrooms:

(i) Learners progress at their own pace.

(ii) Learners take responsibility for their own learning.

(iii) Learners have a great sense of self-confidence.

(iv) Teachers work with small groups or individuals.

(v) The educational atmosphere is conducive to academic progress and
social growth.

(vi) Multi-grade teaching emphasises building upon strengths.

(vii) Multi-grade classrooms can be seen as assets that promote quality
learning.

(viii) Competition among learners is minimised.

(ix) Learners learn to set personal learning goals.

(x) Teachers can plan instruction at the learners level of development.

(xi) Learners are more aware of the uniqueness of themselves and others.

(xii) Traditions and memories are built.

(xiii) Learners have several years to develop and see themselves as
progressive and successful.

55

(xiv) Learners are not labelled according to their abilities.

(xv) Younger learners raise their language skills when associated with older
learners.

2.7. CONCLUSION

Many educational policymakers, planners, professional support staff and the
public at large, are unaware of the extent and the nature of the needs of multi-
grade classes. Since curriculum, educational materials, teacher preparation and
assessment systems are predicated on mono-graded schools and classes, it is
hardly surprising that many teachers hold negative attitudes towards their role in
the multi-grade class.

Policymakers need to be aware of the multi-grade reality and then develop
resource, planning, curriculum, materials, teacher preparation and assessment
strategies, in collaboration with teachers. Multi-grade teachers should not be
expected to adapt the general system to their specific multi-grade circumstance,
alone. In most education systems mono-grade teachers are not expected to
exercise such levels of adaptive professional autonomy (and indeed are often
discouraged from doing so). Why should so much more be expected from the
multi-grade teacher?

Curricula premised on a mono-graded structure need to be adapted to meet the
needs of the multi-grade classroom. This adaptation should be undertaken jointly
between teachers, guided or supported by curriculum experts working at National
level. The adapted curriculum must be endorsed and validated by the highest
authority.

56
Four curriculum adaptation strategies have been shown to be effective in multi-
grade classrooms:

(i) Multi-year curriculum spans.
In this strategy units of curriculum content are spread across 2-3
grades rather than one. All learners work through common topics and
activities (Daniel, 1988:21; Berry and Little, 2004:11)

(ii) Differentiated curricula.
In this strategy the same general topic/theme is covered with all
learners. Learners in each grade group engage in learning tasks
appropriate to his/her level of learning (Vithanapathirana, 2003:21; Son
et al., 2002:41; Son and Pridmore, 2001:81)

(iii) Quasi mono-grade.
In this strategy, the teacher teaches grade groups, in turn, as if they
were mono-graded. Learners follow the same or a different subject at
the same time. Teachers may divide their time equally between grade
groups. Or they may deliberately divide their time unequally, choosing
subjects or tasks within subjects that require different levels of teacher
contact.

(iv) Learner and materials-centred.
The fourth strategy depends more on the learner and learning materials
than on teacher input. The curriculum is translated into self-study
graded learning guides. Learners work through these at their own
speed with support from the teacher and structured assessment tasks.
Learning is constructed as involving a relationship between learner,
learning materials and teacher (Colbert, Chiappe and Arboleda,
1993:61).

57
A more radical approach to curriculum is premised on a shift in philosophies of
learning and teaching, from one that emphasises learner homogeneity and
standardisation of teacher inputs to one that acknowledges the diversity of
learners and the need for a differentiation of inputs. This approach recognises
that multi-grade teaching is, in principle, if not always in practice, a desirable
teaching strategy in all classes, all schools and all countries. Like multi-grade
classes, mono-grade classes comprise a diversity of learner abilities, interests,
backgrounds, ages and school attendance (Little, 2001:483; Croft, 2002:12).

Differentiation refers to how the same teacher organises learning for different
individuals and/or groups of learners. It can refer variously to difference of subject
taught, difference of input, difference of activities undertaken by learners and
difference of outcomes expected. While each type of differentiation can be
observed in multi-grade and many mono-grade classes, they are not generally
built into the fabric of national curricula.

This approach to curriculum does not undermine the value of whole class
teaching. Rather it teachers to develop a range of teaching approaches, from the
standardised to the differentiated and a range of support for learners, from
materials, to peer learning, group learning and self study.

The notions of diversity and differentiation challenge deep-seated cultures of
teaching and learning in which the teacher is the main arbiter of knowledge,
classroom activity is teacher-led, whole class teaching is dominant and in which
all learners (notwithstanding high rates of learner absenteeism in many systems)
are expected to progress through the curriculum at the same pace.

Deep-seated cultures of teaching and learning pose the greatest obstacle to
enduring reforms designed to meet the needs of the multi-grade classroom,
though, as Croft (2002:14) points out, differentiation based on groups may be
more acceptable in collectivist cultures than differentiation based on individuals.

58
On the other hand, there may be ways in which curriculum reform might be
undertaken to satisfy the needs of learners in multi-grade settings, even within
teacher-led pedagogies. Experimental work on the reorganisation of national
curriculum subjects built around the grading of activities in relation to core
concepts or skills and differentiated activities and outcomes across the entire
primary school curriculum is currently being undertaken in Nepal and Sri Lanka
(LATIMS, 2003:163). The general idea is the creation of curricula that meet the
needs of learners and teachers in multi-graded settings and reduce the daily
curriculum-planning burden on the teacher.

Most researchers and practitioners agree that successful strategies for multi-
grade teaching depend on adequate supplies of learning materials to support
individual and group-based learning. This enables teachers to spend time with
some groups of learners while other learners work alone, in pairs or in small
groups.

The Escuela Nueva programme, in which study guides for individual learners
were developed for each of the core curriculum subjects, is the best-known
example of this principle. But the mere existence of materials does not guarantee
quality of learning. Self-study materials must be of the highest quality and
relevance, and must be used by teachers as part of an integrated teaching
strategy, in which teachers continue to play a vital part. The availability of self-
study materials must not be viewed by the teacher as a substitute for his/her
teaching.

Conventional school textbooks are another learning resource deserving attention.
Textbooks are usually written on the assumption that lessons are teacher-led. Is
there scope for development-work on the production of school texts, written with
the self-studying learner as a main audience? Are there any lessons to be
learned from the authors of examination crammers? How do they reach their
audience the learner so effectively?

59
Effective multi-grade teaching involves the use of a range of organisational
strategies in the classroom. These will include the use of whole class teaching,
small group, paired and self-learning. They also include the involvement of
learners in the general management of the classroom, the school and its learning
resources (e.g. the use of monitors, the distribution of responsibilities for a range
of class and school tasks, the use of class and school decision-making bodies)

Pre-service and in-service training for teachers on the needs of the multi-grade
class is vital. In some countries (e.g. Finland) multi-grade teaching is already
embedded in teacher education curricula. In England multi-grade teachers
express the desire for in-service training and curricula support for the multi-grade
class, but generally have to rely on their training in the principles of diversity and
differentiation in coping with the demands of the multi-grade class (Berry and
Little, 2004:21).

There are many examples worldwide of ad hoc teaching training programmes to
meet the needs of the multi-grade teacher, many of them supported by
multilateral organisations
(e.g. see www.ioe.ac.uk/multigrade.). Many in-service training programmes in
multi-grade teaching adopt a cascade model of dissemination and, hence, are
subject to many of the effectiveness issues that face cascade training
programmes more generally.

components of an integrated strategy for learning and teaching in multi-grade
settings. Implementation of a single strategy is unlikely to lead to significant
improvements in the effectiveness of learning and teaching in multi-grade
settings. Surrounding these strategies is the need for national policies (for
curriculum, materials, teacher education and assessment) that recognise,
legitimate and support learners and teachers in multi-grade settings.

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2.8. SUMMARY

The literature survey was done with a view to provide a theoretical framework on
the concept of managing the effect of multi-grade teaching on learner
performance. The concept of managing multi-grade classrooms was elucidated,
so was the need for appropriate management and teaching skills. It became clear
that the acquisition of such skills would, to a large extent, enable teachers to
manage multi-grade classrooms more effectively. By so doing they will be in a
position to create a conducive environment for learning and hence improve
learner performance.
In the next chapter the research design and methodology will be discussed.

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CHAPTER 3

RESEARCH DESIGN

3.1. INTRODUCTION

Research design is the plan and structure of the investigation used to obtain
evidence to answer research questions. The design describes the procedures of
conducting the study to enable the researcher to anticipate what the appropriate
research decisions should be in order to maximise the validity of the eventual
results.

3.1.1. Qualitative Research

Qualitative research is concerned with non-statistical methods of inquiry and
analysis of social phenomena. It draws on an inductive process in which themes
and categories emerge through analysis of data collected by techniques such as
interviews and observations. Samples are usually small and are often purposely
selected. Qualitative research uses detailed descriptions from the perspective of
the research participants themselves as a means of examining specific issues
and problems under study (McRoy, 1988:4)

3.1.2. Quantitative Research

Quantitative research is characterized by the use of large samples, standardised
measures, a deductive approach, and highly structured interview instruments to
collect data for hypothesis testing (Marlow, 1993:103). Easily quantifiable
categories are typically generated before the study and statistical techniques are

62
used to analyse the data collected. Since both qualitative and quantitative
research is designed to build knowledge, they can be used as complementary
strategies.

The assumption guiding this study is that a strong case can be made by using an
approach that combines quantitative and qualitative elements. The reason for
this assumption is that it is most fruitful to use a variety of data collection methods
when investigating human behaviour and attitudes (Patton, 1990:31). By using
different methods at various points in the research process, the researcher can
build on the strength of each type of data collection and minimise the
weaknesses of any single approach. A mixed-method approach can increase
both the validity and reliability of the data.

Brief discussions to elucidate the merits of the different methods now follow.

3.2. QUALITATIVE RESEARCH

3.2.1. Definition

Qualitative research is referred to as naturalistic research into everyday living.
Direct observations are made of human behaviour in everyday life (Taylor,
1975:121). The word quality usually relates to value and is associated with
research with small numbers of people, but more detailed, valuable, in-depth
information is collected.

3.2.2. Characteristics

Qualitative research attempts to understand human experiences from the

perspective of those who experience them and has the following characteristics:

63

(i) Qualitative research is admittedly subjective.

(ii) Seeks to understand, rather than explain.

(iii) Reliance on inductive logic and thus reason from concrete
experience to abstract theory.

(iv) Seeks to generate hypotheses, not test them.

(v) Data is processed as received.

(vi) The researcher is the data collection instrument.

3.2.3. Reliability and validity in qualitative research

Among the most cited criticisms of qualitative research are the presumed lack of
reliability and validity of its findings. With regard to field research, critics question
the ability of qualitative research to replicate observations (reliability) or to obtain
correct answers or correct impressions of the phenomenon under study (validity)
(Kirk & Miller, 1986: 176). Other criticisms concern the reactive effects of the
observers or the interviewers presence on the situation being studied and
selective perception or bias on the side of the researcher.

The issues of reliability and validity were addressed in this study by the addition
of structured questionnaires to approach the same topic of investigation.

3.2.4. Advantages and disadvantages of qualitative research

64

The following are a few general advantages to using qualitative research:

(i) qualitative research tends to be more flexible since there are no set
questions or answers and the researcher can change questions as
the data collection progresses;

(ii) data collection is more spontaneous and more in its natural
environment or context;

(iii) qualitative research tends to allow for more in-depth data collection.

The disadvantages of qualitative research are:

(i) qualitative data collection tends to take more time;

(ii) qualitative data collection tends to cost more money.

As already mentioned in chapter one, data in this study is collected
simultaneously and involve both numeric information (on structured
questionnaires) and text information (on focus group interviews and observations)
so that the final database represents both quantitative and qualitative information.

The following qualitative methods were used to collect data:

3.2.5. Focus group interviews

The focus group interview is a research method that is qualitative in nature since
the data collected will not be statistically analysed. Focus groups refer to an
interview technique where the researcher gathers together a group of people who
are similar in some way and have a specialised knowledge about the research

65
topic. Once a group of people are together, the researcher leads the group with
directed questions that focus on a specific topic and members of the group take
turns answering and discussing the questions among themselves.

The purpose of a focus group interview is to collect data from the group as they
focus on the topic. There are of course several advantages and disadvantages
associated with focus group interviews. They are:

Table 3.1: Advantages and disadvantages of Focus group interviews.
ADVANTAGES DISADVANTAGES
The researcher is able to collect a lot of
information about a topic in a relatively
short period of time
One member of the group can
control others, or some members can
start arguing with others.

You have the ability to hear how group
members discuss the topic among
themselves because of group
interaction.

Since each member of the group can
hear the other members responses,
some members of the group could be
influenced to agree with other
members, even though they do not
believe in the answers given.

The researcher has the chance to
collect information that cannot be
recorded through non-verbal cues such
as hand gestures, facial expression
and body language.

Organisation of the group can be a
problem since it is not always easy to
get a group to meet a certain time and
place.

This research method is fairly flexible in
that the group can move from subject
to subject, at their own pace.

Since the group must cover a range of
topics in a relatively short period of
time, there is less depth of knowledge
than with other interview methods.

66
Focused group interviews were used in this study because the attitudes and
opinions of teachers, managers and parents were desired and with the hope that
some agreement on the management of multi-grade classes could be reached.
These opinions could help inform a national training programme on multi-grade
instruction.

Literature suggests five key areas that are generally the focus of concern in multi-
grade environments and should be included in any training programme. These
will be used as topics for discussions in the focus groups and cover classroom
management, instructional strategies, curriculum, instructional materials and
community involvement.

Focus group interviews were held in the following two of the five educational
regions in the sample:

3.2.5.1. Hardap Region

Focus Group Members:
1 Advisory Teacher
1 Principal
1 Union Member
5 Teachers

The group was generally negative about multi-grade teaching in the beginning.
As discussions went on, they became more positive as they realise that multi-
grade teaching can work if you put your mind to it. The following summarises
the discussions:

67
(i) Classroom Management

The following seat plan is commonly used:

Figure 3.1: Seat plan for a multi-grade class in the Hardap region, Namibia.

Learners work in groups of 4, sitting in such a way that all can see the
chalkboard. Arrangement should be functional with enough space to move
around. Class rules are essential. The following advantages and challenges
were listed:

Teacher Table
Door Chalkboard

Learner Table

Learner Table

Learner Table

Learner Table
Grade 2
Grade 3
Reading corner

Rug For
Story telling

68
Table 3.2: Advantages and challenges of multi-grade teaching in the Hardap
Region, Namibia.

ADVANTAGES

CHALLENGES

Learners get the opportunity
demonstrate helpfulness and
leadership

Overcrowded classes without
enough furniture.

Learners develop independence

Lack of teaching and learning
material

Learners stay with the same teacher
for multiple years.

Teachers need to plan carefully

(ii) Instructional Strategies
The teacher teaches one group, while the other group work on their own.
Learners are grouped according to ability levels.
OR
The teacher teaches a theme to the whole class, but assess learners at their
ability levels.
Assessment should be just another teaching strategy. The teacher design
methods of assessment that will assess how well learners can:
Handle knowledge and information
Perform skills they have learnt

69
Think about feelings and attitudes
Understand issues
Work with other learners in groups
Solve problems
Think creatively
The advantage is that learners are encouraged to take responsibility for their own
learning, but there are challenges too.
These challenges include:
The gifted learners get bored easily and need tasks that challenge
their minds.
Teaching time is divided and non-promotion subjects suffer.
Grade 7 learners write an external examination at the end of the
year.
Teachers find it difficult to complete the curriculum in time.

(iii) Curriculum
The group agreed that teachers look for similarities in the curricula of the different
grades and apply theme teaching. Learners are allowed to approach the learning
content as a project instead of merely explaining it. The following is an example
of a weekly plan for a language lesson:

70
Table 3.3: Weekly plan for a language lesson in a multi-grade class.

DAY

ACTIVITY

MONDAY

- Introduce a new topic
- Display new vocabulary on flash cards.

TUESDAY

- Speaking: rotate groups for oral conversations.
- Sentence Construction
- Creative Writing

WEDNESDAY
& THURSDAY

- Reading: Group and individual activity
- Use games as teaching strategy
- Formal writing activities

FRIDAY

- Compensatory teaching and enrichment
- More structured assessment

Grammar, phonics and assessment are integrated daily. In addition, a variety of
activities are planned at the learners levels of development.
The advantage is that learners perform at their developmental levels. Teachers
are however challenged to be creative when planning across grade level
objectives.

71
(iv) Instructional Materials
Teachers have neither the resources, nor the expertise to develop instructional
materials for multi-grade teaching, but doing the best they can. The group
however felt the development of instructional material is the responsibility of the
Ministry of Education. The biggest challenge teachers face at the moment is to
cope with the limited resources available in schools.

(v) Community Involvement
The group was fairly negative about the involvement of the community. The
general feeling was that we have to cope with the frustrations of multi-grade
teaching, we cant cope with the challenges of socio-economic problems as well.

The group is of the opinion that the following grades should not be combined with
any other grade:

Grade 1, because there is a compulsory ten-week school readiness programme
that forms part of the grade 1 curriculum.

Grade 4, because learners are taught in their mother tongue up to grade 3 and in
English from grade 4 onwards.

Grade 7, because learners write an external examination at the end of the year
and teachers are afraid that they might not have been completed the curriculum
by then.
In addition, subjects like Religious Education and Physical Education can be
taught to a larger group of learners, but teachers should try not to combine
groups for Mathematics and Science subjects.

72
3.2.5.2. Karas Region

Focus Group Members:
1 Advisory Teacher
1 Inspector of Education
1 Principal
1 Union Member
5 Teachers

The group was as negative as the group in the Hardap Region. They have a lot
more learners in multi-grade classes (see extract from statistics in chapter 2). In
addition to multi-grade, they are also challenged with multi-lingual teaching.

Table 3.4: Extract: Multi-grade teaching in Namibia: 2004 Statistics.
REGION
6

Schools
In
Region
M/G
7

Schools

Learners
In
Region

Learners
In M/G
classes
Teachers
In
Region
Teachers
In M/G
Classes
Karas 41 22 12 038 3 484 348 108
Hardap 42 22 12 503 1 784 397 110
(Source: IECD Multi-grade Conference Document, Swakopmund, Namibia, September
2004).

Learners in Namibia are taught in their mother tongue from grades 1 3. The
Karas Region has smaller communities with Afrikaans and Nama speaking
learners in one class.


The following seat plan was suggested:

6
Refer to Educational Regions
7
Multi-grade Schools

73
Figure 3.2: Seat plan for a multi-grade class in the Karas region, Namibia.

Learners work in groups of 6, sitting in such a way that all can see the black
board. Arrangement should be functional with enough space to move around.
Each leaner has a shelve at the back of the room for his/her books and other
belongings. The following advantages and challenges were listed:

Door
Black Board

Reading Corner

Teacher
Table

Grade 1

Grade 2

Learners with
Special Needs

Learners Books Shelves

74
Table 3.5: Advantages and challenges of multi-grade teaching in the Karas
region, Namibia.
ADVANTAGES CHALLENGES

Learners get the opportunity
leadership

Overcrowded classes and lack of
teaching and learning material

Learners develop independence
Teachers need to plan carefully,
especially where two languages are
taught.

(ii) INSTRUCTIONAL STRATEGIES
Teaching time is divided among the different groups in the classroom. Teachers
cover small quantities of work at a time. The learners are assessed at ability
levels. Teachers identify learners with special needs and group them separately.

The advantage is that learners perform at their level of development, but teachers
are challenged with:
Gifted learners
Teaching time
Grade 7 external examination
Completion of the Curriculum

75
(iii) Curriculum
Teachers work with one group while the others are busy with either self-activities
or reading.
The following is an example of a weekly plan for a teacher with three groups
(grade 2, grade 3 and the special needs group).

Table 3.6: An example of a weekly plan for a multi-grade class in the Karas Region,
Namibia.

ENGLISH

Monday

Tuesday

Wednesday

Thursday

Friday

Grade 2
Introduce
new topic
Display new
vocabulary
on flash
cards.

Revise new
vocabulary
on flash
cards.

Sentence
Construction

Sentence
Construction

Creative
Writing

Grade 3
Introduce a
new topic
Display new
vocabulary
on flash
cards.

Sentence
Construction

Sentence
Construction

Creative
Writing

Creative
Writing

SEN
8

Group
Introduce a
new topic
Display new
vocabulary
on flash
cards.

Revise new
vocabulary
on flash
cards.

Sentence
Construction

Sentence
Construction

Creative
Writing

8
Group with Special Educational Needs

76
Assessment is integrated daily. In addition, a variety of activities are planned at
the learners levels of development.
The advantage is that learners perform at their developmental levels. Teachers
are however challenged to be creative when planning across grade level
objectives. Flash cards, for example, look differently for the different groups:
Figure 3.3. Flash cards for a multi-grade class

A picture for the SEN group

A word for grade 2

Letters for grade 3 to build the word.

g i r l

g

i

l r

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Teachers develop their own material, most of the time with waste material. The
biggest challenge teachers face at the moment is to cope with the limited
resources available in schools.

Parents are allowed to serve on the school board.

The teachers in the Karas Region describe multi-grade teaching as a cry for
help and not without reason. The number of learners per teacher in some
schools varies from 36 52. The inspector of Education recommended that
teachers play around with the timetable and focus on the needs of the learners.
Teachers however focus on the completion of the curriculum and learners
sometimes move from one grade to the next without mastering the most basic
competencies.

3.2.5.3. Conclusion

The 2003/2004 annual report of the Ministry of Basic Education, Sport and
Culture in Namibia notes that the learner-teacher ratio seems to do more harm
than good (MEC, 2004:68). The report further notes, We increased our
economic efficiency on the one hand, but lost a considerable degree of quality on
the other. The teachers, although very negative about multi-grade teaching,
realise that they are not effective and need training and support. Some of these
teachers have very good and workable ideas that could be explored more.

78
3.2.6. OBSERVATIONS

Observation involves watching people, events, situations or phenomena and
obtaining first hand information relating to particular aspects of such people,
events situations or phenomena (Oyedele, 2003:149). Information relating to
certain aspects of human behaviour can only be obtained in the particular
settings where such behaviours are exhibited. The major aim of observation is to
see and describe human behaviour the way it is in nature. By directly observing
operations and activities, the observer can develop a holistic perspective, i.e. an
understanding of the context within which the project operates.

ADVANTAGES OF OBSERVATIONS:
Observations:

provide direct information about the behaviour of individuals and groups,

provide good opportunities for identifying unanticipated outcomes,

exist in natural settings and

allow the observer to enter into and understand the situation.

Observations are however expensive and time consuming and may affect the
participants.

In this study, the researcher observed without participating and recorded
information as it was revealed. The advantage was firsthand experience with
participants. The five key areas that were used to guide the focus group
discussions, were also used as a framework for the observations.

79
Observations were done in five different schools in one of the educational regions
in the sample and the following recorded:

3.2.6.1. School A

GRADES COMBINED:
Grades 1 & 2 36 learners

CLASS VISITED:
Grades 3 & 4

OBSERVATIONS RECORDED

Learners are seated in groups and in such a way that they can easily look at the
blackboard without loosing direct eye contact to their peers. The teacher uses
two small black boards on stands. Both boards are too low for her and should be
lifted to a more comfortable height.

There is enough space in the classroom for the learners to move around,
although movement is not encouraged.

80
The main focus is on the activity where one group work on its own whiles the
teacher is busy with the other group. A regular transition of teacher focus from
one grade to the other all the time keeping in mind that there is a limitation on the
time learners can work independently was also observed.
Learners communicate on invitation from the teacher. No academic
independence was observed.

(iii) Curriculum
The teacher had clear formulated lesson objectives that can be tested at the end
of the lesson.
Every lesson can be measured up against the Scheme of Work and the Syllabus,
thus ensuring that the teaching progress is in line with the curriculum
requirements.

The teacher used quite stimulating teaching aids, but could not succeed in
reaching the lesson objective, because too many new elements were introduced
orally. The teacher assesses work regularly. Emphasis is on correctness of
content.

None observed.

CONCLUSION
There are a few easily changeable factors that can be focused on to improve the
quality of education. These factors include the classroom layout, lesson

81
preparation and the constant attention to the expansion of learner skills, such as
communication and handwriting, asking for help and the ability to work
independently.

3.2.6.2. School B

GRADES COMBINED:

CLASS VISITED:
Both classes.
The two teachers plan together.
Similarities are noted.

Existing space and resources are under-utilised in both classes. Learners sit in
pairs facing the blackboard. Groups of 4-6 can be formed with a little creativity.
The arrangement of furniture in the classroom makes it very busy and no
provision is made for independent study areas.

The lessons observed were fairly successful because of the following:
A clear separation between the two grades

A joint start for both grades before separating them into two groups

82

A healthy mixture between do, write and think activities for learners

The formulation of expected lesson outcomes for each grade

Clear short descriptions of learner and teacher activities

Frequent transition of the teacher from one grade to the other

(iii) Curriculum
The teachers plan together. They look for themes that can cover topics in both
grades and apply mono-grade teaching. Activities are planned differently for
different grade levels. They are few in number though, because teaching time is
reduced by at least 40%. If teaching and learning occur at this pace, learners will
have to spend two calendar years in one grade.

Learner participation is not really encouraged. They work individually and
communicate to the teacher only. Movement in the classroom is limited. There
were books and well-prepared teaching aids in both classrooms that were not
used or referred to.

None observed.

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CONCLUSION
Many local parents have lost confidence in the school and enrolled their children
elsewhere. Learners are behind and too much time is invested in the completion
of previous work. Teachers will have to:

Formulate lesson objectives with greater care

Plan board work carefully

Make sure lessons presented are in line with the scheme of work and
the syllabus

Practise basic reading, writing and arithmetic skills a lot more.

3.2.6.3. School C

GRADES COMBINED:

Grades 1 & 2 & 3 23 learners

CLASSES VISITED:

Grades 1, 2 and 3.
Grades 4 & 5

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Existing space and resources are under-utilised in both classes. Learners sit in
pairs facing the blackboard. The low number of learners would make it possible
to create different stimulating activity zones in the class.

Grade groups are taught separately, thus dividing teaching time. Learners lack
basic competencies in reading and mathematics. Not much written work has
been done.

(iii) Curriculum
The teachers seemed negative and frustrated, but try to get acquainted to the
demands of multi-grade instruction. Mono-grade instruction focusing on the
syllabus of the highest grade is perceived as a way out of a multi-grade dilemma.
Learners are assessed individually, but sit in groups. The learners in grade 1 are
confused and spend most of their time drawing irrelevant objects.

The teacher uses textbooks and one blackboard for all the groups. Every time
the teacher starts with a new group, the board is cleaned. Learners struggle to
work independently. Peer teaching is not encouraged.

None observed.

85

CONCLUSION
The teachers complained heavily about the difficulty to teach multi-grade classes
and the lack of training thereto. They concentrate on promotion subjects only and
realise they are not effective.

3.2.6.4. School D

GRADES COMBINED:
Grades 1,2 and 3 23 learners
Grades 4 and 5 23 learners
Grades 6 and 7 20 learners

CLASSES VISITED:
Grades 1,2 and 3
Grades 6 and 7


Learners in both classes sit in groups, facing the blackboard. Educational
material and teaching aids are displayed on the walls. Learners are to some
extend involve in housekeeping issues.

The medium of instruction is Afrikaans, although there are Nama-speaking
learners as well. Teachers practice a variety of instructional strategies,

86
depending on the subject and topic. During a Natural Science class, all learners
in the grades 6 and 7 group were involve in the same activities. They had to
study the properties of alcohol. The class was presented in a mono-grade
format.

The following horizontal learning processes were observed:

Free, but task directed learner communication

The offering of help as well as asking for help

The sharing of educational outcomes

Self directed and self motivated learning.

For a Mathematics lesson the learners were divided in grade groups and worked
on different activities.

The learners in the grade 1, 2 and 3 group are taught in grade groups and
assessed by means of worksheets. The teacher spends about 10 minutes with
each group for a specific subject.

(iii) Curriculum
The teachers focus on promotion subjects and the completion of the curriculum
for all grade levels.
The teacher, in the form of a signature and a date, acknowledges written work of
the learners. Not much care is given to correctness and feedback.

87
Textbooks and worksheets were used for all groups. A small resource corner
keeps learners busy when the teacher is elsewhere. Learners are encouraged to
move around in class, but are not necessarily constructively busy.

None observed.

CONCLUSION
One of the main challenges teachers face is avoiding language interference,
while at the same time developing language skills in two languages that are both
common place in an average Namibian Society. There are lots of space and
sufficient furniture in all classrooms, although not always fully utilised.

3.2.6.5. School E

GRADES COMBINED:
Grades 1 and 2
Grades 4 and 5
Grades 6 and 7

CLASSES VISITED:
Grades 4 and 5
Grades 6 and 7

88

The seating arrangements in both classes are of such a nature that learners can
easily work in groups, face the blackboard and communicate facing one another.
The boards in both classes are rather small and do not provide enough writing
space. There is enough space in the classroom for the learners to move around,
although movement is not encouraged.

Lesson preparation forms are used by all teachers and signed by the principal.
Teachers spend 15 minutes with one group while the other group is busy with
their own activities. The reading skills of learners in both class groups are clearly
not up to standard. Teaching is teacher-centred with little written assessment.
The learners seldom participate actively in lessons.

(iii) Curriculum
Grade groups are taught separately, thus dividing teaching time. Teachers focus
on completing the curriculum and learners are left behind. Non-promotion
subjects are not offered at all.

In the grade 4 and 5 class, a number of language and grammar mistakes are
observed on the displays in the classroom. Some of these were damaged by
water. The grade 6 and 7 class had a very beautiful map of Africa laid out of
small quartz stones. (The teacher was responsible for the layout of the map
without involving the learners).

89

A group of people from the community were cleaning the school premises after
heavy rains as part of a community project.

CONCLUSION

The teachers in both class groups are newly appointed and never taught in a
multi-grade setting before. They are both willing to learn, but clearly not prepared
for the demands of multi-grade instruction.

3.3 QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH

3.3.1. Definition

Quantitative research is about prediction, generalising a sample to a larger group
of subjects, and using numbers to prove or disprove a hypothesis (Hunt, 2000:3).
Quantitative research is also about quantifying relationships between variables.
You measure variables on a sample of subjects, which can be tissues, cells,
animals, or humans. You express the relationship between variables using effect
statistics, such as correlations, relative frequencies, or differences between
means (LeBeau, 1998:78).
Quantitative designs of research tend to produce results that can be generalised.

3.3.2. Characteristics
Quantitative research uses methods adopted from the physical sciences that are
designed to ensure objectivity, generalisability and reliability. These techniques

90
cover the ways research participants are selected randomly from the study
population in an unbiased manner, the standardised questionnaire they receive
and the statistical methods used to test predetermined hypotheses regarding the
relationships between specific variables (LeBeau, 1998:81). The researcher is
considered external to the actual research, and results are expected to be
replicable no matter who conducts the research.

3.3.3. Advantages and disadvantages of quantitative research
Quantitative data collection tends to take less time, cost less money, and can be
generalised to the entire research population. Quantitative research can however
be less flexible since there are usually set questions or answers and the
researcher cannot change questions as the data collection progresses. Data
collection is less spontaneous and not in-depth.

3.3.4. Reliability And Validity In Quantitative Research
Kirk and Miller (1986:41) identify three types of reliability referred to in
quantitative research, which relate to:

the degree to which a measurement, given repeatedly, remains the same

the stability of a measurement over time; and

the similarity of measurements within a given period of time.

Charles (1988:3) adheres to the notions that consistency with which
questionnaire items are answered or individuals scores remain relatively the
same can be determined through the test-retest method at two different times.
This attribute of the instrument is actually referred to as stability. If we are dealing

91
with a stable measure, then the results should be similar. A high degree of
stability indicates a high degree of reliability, which means the results are
repeatable.

The traditional criteria for validity find their roots in a positivist tradition, and to an
extent, positivism has been defined by a systematic theory of validity. Within the
positivist terminology, validity resided amongst, and was the result and
culmination of other empirical conceptions: universal laws, evidence, objectivity,
truth, actuality, deduction, reason, fact and mathematical data to name just a few
(Winter, 2000:4).

Joppe (2000:2) provides the following explanation of what validity is in
quantitative research:
Validity determines whether the research truly measures that
which it was intended to measure or how truthful the research
results are.

In other words, does the research instrument allow you to hit "the bulls eye" of
your research object? Researchers generally determine validity by asking a
series of questions, and will often look for the answers in the research of others,
as been done in this study.

3.3.5. Questionnaires

3.3.5.1. Definition

A questionnaire is a standardised list of questions and answers that is usually
asked of an informant and the informant is expected to choose between the
alternatives offered to him or her. Usually a questionnaire is given to a large
number of people and the data computerised and statistically analysed for
similarities and differences between respondents.

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3.3.5.2. The structured questionnaire as an instrument of data
collection

Tashakkori and Teddlie (1998:103) state that questionnaires are mainly paper-
and pencil methods of data collection. De Vaus (1996:80) posits that when using
questionnaires, it is difficult to go back to the respondents to collect additional
information that might be needed later. Therefore it is crucial to think ahead and
anticipate what information will be needed and ensure that relevant questions are
asked. In view of this, considerable attention must be given to developing clear,
unambiguous and useful questions. To do this the wording of the questions is
fundamental (De Vaus, 1996:83).

McMillan (2000:155) argues that questionnaires are used extensively because
they provide the best way of obtaining information for a wide range of research
problems, from surveys of large populations to reactions of students to different
instrumental methods. In the case of this research study a structural
questionnaire was used. It consisted of 46 closed-ended questions where the
respondents were given fixed responses to choose from.

The following graphical representation describes how the questions were to be
answered in the structural questionnaire:

Please indicate with a cross (x) the extent to which you agree or disagree
with the following statements. Keep in mind that all statements refer to
multi-grade instruction:

Combination of ages and levels exist at the same time.
Strongly Agree x Agree Disagree Strongly Disagree

93

The questions were constructed following the perceptions emanated from the
literature review conducted in Chapter two.

The items contained in the questionnaires were grouped together to form the five
key areas that literature suggests should be included in any training programme.
These five key areas, namely classroom management, instructional strategies,
curriculum, instructional materials and community involvement also formed the
basis of the analysis that will be discussed in chapter 4.

3.3.5.3. Population and Sample

Le Compte and Preissle (1993:60) describe population as a term commonly used
to refer to potential human respondents or participants in a study. McMillan
(2000:103) argues that many quantitative studies need to generalise results to a
well-defined larger group of individuals. This larger group, whether individuals,
objects or events, is called the population. This group is also referred to as the
target-population or universe.

According to Le Compte and Preissle (1993: 60) a sample is a subset of a larger
population. In addition, Le Compte and Preissle state that the term sampling
denotes extracting systematically from a larger group some smaller portion of that
group so as to represent adequately the larger group. The purpose of sampling is
to obtain a group of subjects who will be representative of a larger group of
individuals in the case of quantitative research (McMillan, 2000:102).

Five educational regions were randomly selected to participate in this study.
Questionnaires were distributed to 250 teachers and twenty education managers
in multi-grade schools in these five regions in Namibia.

94
In the final analysis 227 questionnaires out of 250 were returned and found
suitable for analysis. The completed questionnaires were then submitted to the
statistical consultation services of the University of Johannesburg for statistical
processing and analysis.

3.3.5.4. Advantages and disadvantages of questionnaires

The administration of a questionnaire is the most commonly used research
method in quantitative research and has the following advantages and
disadvantages:

Table 3.7: Advantages and Disadvantages of questionnaires.

ADVANTAGES

DISADVANTAGES

Tend to take the least amount of time
and money.

Tend to be inflexible in questions and
answers.

Data collected can be generalised to
the entire research population.

Informants may feel forced into an
answer when the answer they want is
not available to them.

There is less of a change for
researcher bias.

Data does not always give an in-
depth understanding of the problem.

A structured questionnaire, using the literature survey as basis was compiled and
administered to teachers and managers involve in multi-grade teaching. The
respondents were given a choice of predetermined responses from which they
had to choose the answer that best describes their views on multi-grade teaching.

95
A small number of questionnaires (20) were administered to managers in
education in the five Educational Regions in the sample and the following
responses received:

3.3.5.5. Data recorded of questionnaires administered to managers in
education

SECTION A
In this section six questions were asked to get some biographical information
from the respondents.

Q1 Indicate your gender.
70%
30%

Q2 What is your highest educational qualification?
1
2
5
12
0
2
4
6
8
10
12
Gr 12 Gr 12 + 1 Gr 12 + 2 Gr 12 + 3 Other

96

Q3 How many years of teaching experience do you have?
2
18
0
5
10
15
20
-1 year 1-4 years 5-9 years 10 + years

Q4 How many teaching experience do you have in a multi-grade classroom?
1
8
6
5
0
2
4
6
8
-1 year 1-4 years 5-9 years 10+ years

Q5 Have you had any training on multi-grade instruction?
4
1
15
0
5
10
15
Yes, before
1990
Yes, after 1990 No

97
Q6 Indicate your educational region.

Five questionnaires were sent to each of the Karas, Hardap, Khomas and Erongo
Regions and all were received back:

From the analysis above, one can conclude the following:

(i) The majority of education managers are male.

(ii) More than 50% is qualified above the basic qualifications, but had
no training on multi-grade instruction.

(iii) The majority has more than ten years of teaching experience, but
less than five years of experience in a multi-grade classroom.

SECTION B

The five key areas for training that was used for writing up the observations and
focus group interviews, also informed the discussions around this questionnaire.

The following tables show how the questions were grouped according to the
different areas and also the responses received from the education managers to
the different questions:

20 Questionnaires are recorded as follows:

98

Table 3.8A Items associated with Classroom Management
CLASSROOM MANAGEMENT
Questions
Strongly
Agree
Agree Disagree
Strongly
Disagree
NR Total
Co
unt
18 1 1 20
B2. Learners work in
small groups.
% 90 5 5 100
Co
unt
20 20
B3. Learners work
individually.
% 100 100
Co
unt
16 4 20
B4. Classroom rules
and procedures are
developed
collaboratively
between teachers.
% 80 20 100
Co
unt
18 2 20
B5. Time is used
flexibly in
accordance with
learners' needs.
% 90 10 100
Co
unt
8 10 2 20
B6. Learners are
encouraged to take
responsibility for
their own learning.
% 40 50 10 100
Co
unt
4 13 3 20
B26. The
educational
atmosphere is
conducive to
academic progress.
% 20 65 15 100
Co
unt
2 14 4 20
B28. The need to
discipline is less.
% 10 70 20 100

Education Managers agree that learners work either in small groups or
individually and that rules and procedures are developed collaboratively between
teachers. There was 100% disagreement on the statement that time is used
flexibly in accordance with learners needs and 90% disagreement on the
statement that the need to discipline is less.

99
The disagreement on the last two statements make sense if you keep in mind
that teachers mostly concentrate on completing the curriculum and do not
necessarily take the learners along. Disciplinary problems mostly occur when
learners are bored. Teachers need to be creative to reduce the need to
discipline.

Table 3.8B: Items associated with Instructional Strategies.

INSTRUCTIONAL STRATEGIES

Questions

Strongly
Agree
Agree Disagree
Strongly
Disagree
NR Total
Count 2 12 6 20 B7. Learners receive
personal attention.

% 10 60 30 100
Count 14 6 20 B8. Learners are
expected to develop
independence.

% 70 30 100
Count 2 14 4 20 B9. Learners learn to set
personal goals.

% 10 70 20 100
Count 20 20 B10. Learners compete
with themselves.

% 100 100
Count 2 16 2 20 B11. Older learners have
the opportunity to
demonstrate helpfulness
and leadership.

% 10 80 10 100
Count 18 2 20 B12. Learners are
encouraged to move
around in class.
% 90 10 100
Count 1 6 10 3 20 B15. The teacher shares
instructional
responsibilities with the
learners.

% 5 30 50 15 100

100
INSTRUCTIONAL
STRATEGIES
(Continue)

Strongly
Agree
Agree Disagree
Strongly
Disagree
NR Total
Count 18 2 20 B18. The teacher has to
develop a wide range of
teaching strategies.
% 90 10 100
Count 5 15 20
% 25 75 100
B42. Assessment is
ongoing.

Count 14 3 2 1 20 B21. The teacher
teaches a theme to both
groups at the same time.
% 70 15 10 5 100
Count 15 5 20
B25. Learners serve as
peer-teachers.
% 75 25 100
Count 4 6 8 2 20 B37. Teachers consider
learner differences when
planning for instruction.
% 20 30 40 10 100
Count 16 4 20 B38. Learners progress
at their own pace.

% 80 20 100
Count 3 14 2 1 20 B39. Learners are
assessed on a daily
basis.
% 15 70 10 5 100
Count 3 10 7 20 B40. Competition is
minimized in a multi-
grade classroom.
% 15 50 35 100
Count 1 18 1 20 B41. Learners assess
themselves.

% 5 90 5 100
Count 14 2 3 1 20
% 70 10 15 5 100
B20. The teacher
teaches one group while
the other group work on
its own.

Managers agree that teachers have to develop a rage of teaching strategies,
teach a theme to the whole class, that learners are continuously assessed on a
daily basis and that older learners have the opportunity to demonstrate
helpfulness and leadership.

101
They also agree that learners are not:

receiving personal attention;

setting personal goals;

competing with themselves;

assessing themselves;

progressing at their own pace; and

encourage to move around in class.

Teachers in multi-grade classes cannot always attend to learners individually,
mainly because of the large number of learners per group and the limited time
they have to finish their curricula. Learners should therefore be encouraged to
take responsibility for their own learning by setting personal goals, assessing
themselves and progressing at their own pace.

Assessment can be just another teaching strategy if correctly implemented as
one. Learners can be more involved in the teaching of their peers by assisting
the teacher with selected tasks in the classroom.

102
Table 3.8C: Items associated with Curriculum.

CURRICULUM

Strongly
Agree
Agree Disagree
Strongly
Disagree

NR

Total
Count 20 20
B1. Combinations of
ages and levels exist at
the same time.
% 100
100

Count 13 7 20 B13. More planning is
needed to teach in a
multi-grade classroom.
% 65 35 100
Count 2 12 6 20 B16. Instruction is
planned at the learners'
level of development.
% 10 60 30 100
Count 1 13 6 20 B17. Teachers prepare
activities to expand
each learner's level of
understanding.
% 5 65 30 100
Count 1 12 7 20 B19. A range of
materials and
resources are used
when teaching.
% 5 60 35 100
Count 12 8 20 B32. Teachers need to
be aware of learning
styles, multiple
intelligences and
abilities.
% 60 40 100
Count 1 1 16 2 20 B35. The conventional
school curriculum
addresses the needs of
the multi-grade class.
% 5 5 80 10 100
Count 20 20 B36. Entrance tests
are conducted to
determine the
educational level of
each learner.
% 100 100
Count 5 14 1 20 B43. Students are
assessed in multiple
ways.
% 25 70 5 100

103
On the aspect of curriculum there is agreement that a combination of ages and
levels exist at the same time in a multi-grade classroom. Teachers should
therefore be aware of multiple intelligences, abilities and learning styles. Since
learners are assessed in multiple ways, more planning is needed than for a
mono-grade classroom.

Managers strongly disagreed on the following statements:

(i) The conventional school curriculum addresses the needs of the
multi-grade class.

(ii) Entrance tests are conducted to determine the educational level of
each learner.

(iii) Instruction is planned at the learners level of development.

(iv) A range of materials and resources are used when teaching.

A combination of untrained teachers and a curriculum that does not address the
needs of a multi-grade classroom is a recipe for a disaster. Teachers need to
know how to plan across grade level objectives among other things.

104
Table 3.8D: Items associated with Instructional Materials.
INSTRUCTIONAL MATERIALS

Strongly
Agree
Agree Disagree
Strongly
Disagree
NR Total
Count 1 4 11 4 20 B14. Appropriate
teaching and
learning materials
are readily
available.
% 5 20 55 20 100
Count 2 16 2 20 B30. Teachers
make use of
specially designed
guides and
instructional
material.
% 10 80 10 100
Count 1 18 1 20 B31. Learning tasks
aim at high
standards of
performance.
% 5 90 5 100
Count 20 20 B33. Practical
guidebooks are
essential.
% 100 100
Count 1 13 6 20 B34. Teachers have
access to
specialized
materials to support
their preparation.
% 5 65 30 100

The managers agreed that practical guidebooks are essential, although teachers
do not make use of specially designed guides and instructional materials, nor
design learning tasks that aim at high standards of performance.
Instructional material is mostly in the form of grade level textbooks and designed
for the mono-grade classroom. Teachers need to be creative in developing
materials for multi-grade teaching, especially since multi-grade schools are
mostly in rural and disadvantaged areas.

105
Table 3.8E: Items associated with Community involvement.
COMMUNITY INVOLVEMENT

Strongly
Agree
Agree Disagree
Strongly
Disagree
NR Total
Count 1 6 11 2 20 B44. Parents are
involved in the
education of their
children.
% 5 30 55 10 100
Count 2 17 1 20 B45. Parental
involvement is
important for the
success of multi-
grade teaching.
% 10 85 5 100
Count 1 13 3 3 20 B46. The
community is
strongly involved in
the support and
management of this
school.
% 5 65 15 15 100

There is agreement that parental involvement is important for the success of
multi-grade teaching. Although the community is involve in the support and
management of the school, parents are not involve in the education of their
children.

Teachers should be encouraged to use parents and other community members
as resources in their teaching. Some may not have educational qualifications,
but all of them do have valuable life experiences.

106
3.3.5.6. Data recorded of questionnaires administered to multi-grade
teachers.

SECTION A
In this section six questions were asked to get some biographical information
from the 227 respondents who completed the questionnaires.

Table 3.9: Biographical Information
Q.1: Please indicate your gender.

Frequency Percent Valid Percent
Male 100 44.1 44.2
Female 126 55.5 55.8
Valid
Total 226 99.6 100.0
Missing System 1 .4
Total 227 100.0

Q.2: What is your highest educational qualification?

Frequency Percent
Valid
Percent
Cumulative
Percent
Grade 12 37 16.3 17.0 17.0
Grade 12 and one
year teacher training
50 22.0 22.9 39.9
Grade 12 and two
years teacher
training
35 15.4 16.1 56.0
Grade 12 and three
years teacher
training
73 32.2 33.5 89.4
Other 23 10.1 10.6 100.0
Valid
Total 218 96.0 100.0
Missing System 9 4.0
Total 227 100.0

107

Q.3: How many years of teaching experience do you have?

Frequency Percent
Valid
Percent
Cumulative
Percent
Less than one year 9 4.0 4.0 4.0
More than one year,
but less than five
years
26 11.5 11.5 15.5
More than five years,
but less than ten
years
71 31.3 31.4 46.9
More than 10 years 120 52.9 53.1 100.0
Valid
Total 226 99.6 100.0
Missing System 1 .4
Total 227 100.0

Q.4: How many years of teaching experience do you have in a
Multi-grade classroom?

Frequency Percent
Valid
Percent
Cumulative
Percent
Less than one year 32 14.1 14.3 14.3
More than one year,
but less than five
years
67 29.5 30.0 44.4
More than five years,
but less than ten
years
77 33.9 34.5 78.9
More than 10 years 47 20.7 21.1 100.0
Valid
Total 223 98.2 100.0
Missing System 4 1.8
Total 227 100.0

108
Q.5: Have you had any training on multi-grade instruction?

Yes, before 1990 7 3.1 3.1
Yes, after 1990 5 2.2 2.2
No 214 94.3 94.7
Valid
Total 226 99.6 100.0
Missing System 1 .4
Total 227 100.0

Q.6: Please indicate your educational region.

Frequency Percent
Valid
Percent
Cumulative
Percent
Khomas 17 7.5 7.6 7.6
Hardap 70 30.8 31.1 38.7
Karas 91 40.1 40.4 79.1
Erongo 26 11.5 11.6 90.7
Otjozondjupa 21 9.3 9.3 100.0
Valid
Total 225 99.1 100.0
Missing System 2 .9
Total 227 100.0

The majority of the respondents are female, 33.5% has a basic teacher
qualification, but 94.7% had no training on multi-grade instruction. More than half
of the respondents have more than 10 years of teaching experience, but only
21.1% in a multi-grade class.

SECTION B

109

The five key areas identified for training were used again for writing up the
responses to the questionnaires administered to 227 teachers in five different
educational regions in Namibia.
The following tables show how the questions were grouped together and also the
responses received from the teachers to the different questions:

Table 3.10A: Items associated with Classroom Management.
CLASSROOM MANAGEMENT

Questions

Strongly
Agree
Agree Disagree
Strongly
Disagree
NR Total
Co
unt
59 136 24 8 227
B2. Learners work in
small groups.
% 26.0% 59.9% 10.6% 3.5% 100.0%
Co
unt
10 74 75 66 2 227
B3. Learners work
individually.
% 4.4% 32.6% 33.0% 29.1% .9% 100.0%
Co
unt
57 119 43 8 227
B4. Classroom rules
and procedures are
developed
collaboratively
between teachers.
% 25.1% 52.4% 18.9% 3.5% 100.0%
Co
unt
7 43 121 56 227
B5. Time is used
flexibly in accordance
with learners' needs.
% 3.1% 18.9% 53.3% 24.7% 100.0%
Co
unt
14 43 123 47 227
B6. Learners are
encouraged to take
responsibility for their
own learning.
% 6.2% 18.9% 54.2% 20.7% 100.0%
Co
unt
67 75 33 50 2 227
B26. The educational
atmosphere is
conducive to
academic progress.
% 29.5% 33.0% 14.5% 22.0% .9% 100.0%
Co
unt
4 9 99 115 227
B28. The need to
discipline is less.
% 1.8% 4.0% 43.6% 50.7% 100.0%

110
Teachers agree that learners work in small groups and that the educational
atmosphere is conducive to academic progress. There is a strong need for
discipline though.

Table 3.10B: Items associated with Instructional Strategies.
INSTRUCTIONAL STRATEGIES

Questions

Strongly
Agree
Agree Disagree
Strongly
Disagree
NR Total
Count 7 22 160 38 227 B7. Learners
receive personal
attention.

% 3.1% 9.7% 70.5% 16.7% 100.0%
expected to
develop
independence.
% 21.1% 51.5% 23.3% 4.0% 100.0%
Count 9 28 107 81 2 227 B9. Learners learn
to set personal
goals.

% 4.0% 12.3% 47.1% 35.7% .9% 100.0%
Count 16 43 125 42 1 227 B10. Learners
compete with
themselves.
% 7.0% 18.9% 55.1% 18.5% .4% 100.0%
Count 47 147 26 6 1 227 B11. Older learners
have the
opportunity to
demonstrate
helpfulness and
leadership.
% 20.7% 64.8% 11.5% 2.6% .4% 100.0%
Count 13 25 117 71 1 227 B12. Learners are
encouraged to
move around in
class.

% 5.7% 11.0% 51.5% 31.3% .4% 100.0%
Count 47 68 91 21 227 B15. The teacher
shares instructional
responsibilities with
the learners.

% 20.7% 30.0% 40.1% 9.3% 100.0%

111
INSTRUCTIONAL STRATEGIES (Continue)
Questions
Strongly
Agree
Agree Disagree
Strongly
Disagree
NR Total
Count 92 91 40 3 1 227 B18. The teacher
has to develop a
wide range of
teaching strategies.
% 40.5% 40.1% 17.6% 1.3% .4% 100.0%
Count 89 133 3 2 227
B20. The teacher
teaches one group
while the other
group work on its
own
% 39.2% 58.6% 1.3% .9% 100.0%
Count 14 41 109 62 1 227 B21. The teacher
teaches a theme to
both groups at the
same time.
% 6.2% 18.1% 48.0% 27.3% .4% 100.0%
Count 49 104 65 8 1 227 B25. Learners
serve as peer-
teachers.
% 21.6% 45.8% 28.6% 3.5% .4% 100.0%
Count 81 131 11 2 2 227 B37. Teachers
consider learner
differences when
planning for
instruction.
% 35.7% 57.7% 4.8% .9% .9% 100.0%
Count 7 36 152 31 1 227 B38. Learners
progress at their
own pace.
% 3.1% 15.9% 67.0% 13.7% .4% 100.0%
assessed on a daily
basis.
% 35.2% 57.3% 6.2% 1.3% 100.0%
Count 64 89 69 5 227 B40. Competition is
minimized in a
multi-grade
classroom.
% 28.2% 39.2% 30.4% 2.2% 100.0%
Count 3 18 158 47 1 227
B41. Learners
assess themselves.
% 1.3% 7.9% 69.6% 20.7% .4% 100.0%
Count 82 137 5 3 227
B42. Assessment is
ongoing.
% 36.1% 60.4% 2.2% 1.3% 100.0%

112
The learners receive no personal attention, nor do they set personal goals, but
they are expected to develop independence. Teachers teach one group at a
time, consider learner differences when planning and assess ongoing. Learners
are however not allowed to progress at their own pace.

Table 3.10C: Items associated with Curriculum.
CURRICULUM

Questions

Strongly
Agree
Agree Disagree
Strongly
Disagree
NR Total
Count 91 113 14 6 3 227 B1. Combinations of
ages and levels exist
at the same time.
% 40.1% 49.8% 6.2% 2.6% 1.3% 100.0%
Count 103 90 20 14 227 B13. More planning is
needed to teach in a
multi-grade
classroom.
% 45.4% 39.6% 8.8% 6.2% 100.0%
Count 56 123 38 10 227 B16. Instruction is
planned at the
learners' level of
development.
% 24.7% 54.2% 16.7% 4.4% 100.0%
Count 48 119 44 16 227 B17. Teachers
prepare activities to
expand each learner's
level of
understanding.
% 21.1% 52.4% 19.4% 7.0% 100.0%
Count 15 40 146 26 227 B19. A range of
materials and
resources are used
when teaching.
% 6.6% 17.6% 64.3% 11.5% 100.0%
Count 94 124 8 1 227 B32. Teachers need
to be aware of
learning styles,
multiple intelligences
and abilities.
% 41.4% 54.6% 3.5% .4% 100.0%
Count 6 16 139 64 2 227 B35. The
conventional school
curriculum addresses
the needs of the
multi-grade class.
% 2.6% 7.0% 61.2% 28.2% .9% 100.0%

113
Curriculum
(Continue)

Strongly
Agree
Agree Disagree
Strongly
Disagree
NR Total
Count 7 27 134 59 227 B36. Entrance tests
are conducted to
determine the
educational level of
each learner.
% 3.1% 11.9% 59.0% 26.0% 100.0%
Count 63 154 8 1 1 227 B43. Students are
assessed in multiple
ways.
% 27.8% 67.8% 3.5% .4% .4% 100.0%

There is very strong disagreement on the statement that the conventional school
curriculum addresses he needs of the multi-grade class. Teachers however plan
according to learners needs, recognising that a combination of grades and levels
exist at the same time.

Table 3.10D: Items associated with Instructional Materials.
INSTRUCTIONAL MATERIALS

Questions

Strongly
Agree
Agree Disagree
Strongly
Disagree
NR Total
Count 24 50 114 39 227 B14. Appropriate
teaching and learning
materials are readily
available.
% 10.6% 22.0% 50.2% 17.2% 100.0%
Count 6 21 138 61 1 227 B30. Teachers make use
of specially designed
guides and instructional
material.
% 2.6% 9.3% 60.8% 26.9% .4% 100.0%
Count 47 134 36 9 1 227 B31. Learning tasks aim
at high standards of
performance.
% 20.7% 59.0% 15.9% 4.0% .4% 100.0%
Count 100 117 9 1 227
B33. Practical
guidebooks are essential.
% 44.1% 51.5% 4.0% .4% 100.0%
Count 10 26 130 61 227 B34. Teachers have
access to specialized
materials to support their
preparation.
% 4.4% 11.5% 57.3% 26.9% 100.0%

114
Although teachers do not have access to specialized material to support their
preparation, learning tasks aim at high standards of performance. They do
realise that practical guidebooks are essential, but they are not readily available.

Table 3.10E: Items associated with Community Involvement.
COMMUNITY INVOLVEMENT

Questions

Strongly
Agree
Agree Disagree
Strongly
Disagree
NR Total
Count 78 93 40 16 227 B44. Parents are
involved in the
education of their
children.
% 34.4% 41.0% 17.6% 7.0% 100.0%
Count 101 121 4 1 227 B45. Parental
involvement is
important for the
success of multi-
grade teaching.
% 44.5% 53.3% 1.8% .4% 100.0%
Count 66 84 60 17 227 B46. The
community is
strongly involved in
the support and
management of this
school.
% 29.1% 37.0% 26.4% 7.5% 100.0%

The majority of the teachers agree that parents are involve in the education of
their children and recognise the importance of parental involvement for multi-
grade teaching.

3.4. SUMMARY

This chapter described the procedures of conducting the study, which involved
collecting both qualitative and quantitative data. All data collected are described
and will be analysed in the next chapter.

115
CHAPTER 4

ANALYSIS AND INTERPRETATION OF DATA

4.1. INTRODUCTION

Chapter one dealt with the background to the problem. This enabled the
researcher to categorise and classify the events that have contributed to the
problem: For children to learn effectively in multi-grade environments, teachers
need to be well trained, well resourced and hold positive attitudes towards multi-
grade teaching. In addition, parents should have input into significant
instructional and assessment decisions concerning their children.

The Literature survey in chapter two provides a theoretical framework on the
concept of the management of multi-grade classrooms and the need for
appropriate management and teaching skills. Effective multi-grade teaching
involves the use of a range of organisational strategies in the classroom.
components of an integrated strategy for teaching and learning. Surrounding
these strategies is the need for national policies (for curriculum, materials,
teacher education and assessment) that recognise, legitimate and support
learners and teachers in multi-grade settings.

Chapter three identified the tools and processes of conducting the study with
reference to previous and new developments in multi-grade teaching. The
assumption guiding the study is that a strong case can be made by using an
approach that combines qualitative and quantitative elements. By using different
methods at various points in the research process, the researcher could build on
the strength of each type of data collection and minimise the weaknesses of any
single approach.

116
This chapter is concerned mainly with creating meaning from what the researcher
has heard and observed. The aim of this chapter is to investigate the perceptions
of the teachers, managers in education and community members of selected
schools in terms of quality education in multi-grade schools. The study hopes to
investigate how quality education can be evaluated (measured) and assured in
multi-grade classes.

4.2. FRAMEWORK OF DATA ANALYSIS QUALITATIVE AND
QUANTITATIVE DATA

Steps in the analysis of data entail description, classification, making connections
and establishing relationships.

4.2.1. Description

Description includes information about the context of an act, the intentions and
meanings that organise an action and its subsequent evolution
(Boaduo,1998:157).

Contexts are important as a means of situating an action and grasping its wider
social and historical importance. This requires detailed descriptions of the social
setting within which action occurs. The relevant social contexts may be a group,
organisation, society, or as in this study, a multi-grade environment (Dey,
1993:32; Boaduo, 1998:159).

The analysis is concerned with how actors define situations and explains the
motives that govern their actions (intentions of the actors involved).
In this study, intentions refer to the intentions of the stakeholders of multi-grade
schools (educators, learners and the community).

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Qualitative data is descriptive of social relationships and interchanges that unfold
in the succession of the action and events in which actors are engaged. Data
generation in itself can be conceived as an interactive process through which the
researcher struggles to elicit meaningful interpretation of social action (Dey,
1993:37). Analysis follows data generation. The results of analysis depend on
and are modified by the generation and investigation of further data.

The role of the researcher therefore becomes that of a participant in his/her own
research project, who is responsible for his/her own interpretations and action
becomes a legitimate object of subsequent analysis. Information on the
researchers behaviour and thinking, in the form of field notes, is a vital source of
data for analysis. The process therefore shifts attention from context and intention
to action and consequence (Creswell, 1994:145).

4.2.2. Classification

The interpretation and explanation of data are the responsibility of the researcher.
It is necessary to develop a meaningful and adequate account. The data merely
provide a basis for the analysis. The need arises for the development of a
conceptual framework through which the actions or events researched can be
rendered intelligible (Yin, 1994:125). To explain is to account for action.
Interpretation requires the development of conceptual tools (classification of data
into categories or themes) through which to comprehend the significance of social
action and how different actions interrelate. Interpretation therefore makes action
meaningful to others.

Classification involves the breaking up of data and then bringing the parts thereof
together again. The data lays the conceptual foundation for analysis.
Classification therefore becomes a familiar process of practical reasoning.
Categorising and retrieving data provide a basis for comparison. It should be
noted that classifying is guided by research objectives.

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4.2.3. Making connections and establishing relationships

Classification helps to produce an account of analysis. In qualitative research,
concepts are the building blocks of analysis (Dey, 1993:47). Connecting concepts
is the analytic equivalent of putting mortar between the building blocks.
Associations between different variables need to be identified. Once the data is
classified, regularities, variations and singularities can be identified (Yin,
1994:102-125).

4.3. DATA ANALYSIS

The literature survey in Chapter 2 concluded that many educational policymakers,
planners, professional staff and the public at large are unaware of the extent and
the nature of the needs of multi-grade classes. Five key areas were therefore
suggested for training, namely classroom management, instructional strategies,
curriculum, instructional materials and community involvement. These also
formed the basis of focus group interviews, observations and questionnaires that
were used to collect data for this study.

In the next section, the data is analysed, using the key areas of concern as a
conceptual framework through which the observations, focus group interviews
and questionnaires can be rendered comprehensible and is organised as follows:

4.3.1. Statistical information

4.3.2. Classroom management

4.3.3. Instructional strategies

4.3.4. Curriculum

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4.3.5. Instructional materials

4.3.6. Community involvement

4.3.7. The effect of multi-grade teaching on learner performance

4.3.8. Conclusion

4.3.1. Statistical information

Statistics presented at a national conference in August 2004 in Swakopmund,
Namibia, indicated that 31,7% of 1150 schools, more than 17 113 learners and
about 600 teachers are affected by multi-grade instruction (IECD, 2004:8).

About one third of these teachers are in the Hardap- and Karas educational
regions. This figure was convenient for sampling because the Hardap and Karas
educational regions are neighbours and time, money and effort could be saved.

The teacher-learner ratio in multi-grade classes varies from 20:1 to 68:1 and in
extreme cases up to 118:1 (IECD, 2004:21 Oshana Region).

Questionnaires were administered to 250 and 227 received back from teachers in
multi-grade schools (about 38% of all multi-grade teachers in the country). The
following summarises the biographical information of these 227 teachers:

55,5% is female

33,5 % has obtained a basic teacher qualification (grade 12 and 3 years of
teacher training).

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52,9% has more than ten years of teaching experience, although only
20,7% has more than 10 years of teaching experience in a multi-grade
classroom.

94,3% has had no training on multi-grade instruction.

A small group of 20 managers in education (inspectors and advisory teachers)
were also involved in the study.

Of these 20:

70% is male.

60% is qualified above the basic qualifications for teachers

90% has more than 10 years of teaching experience and 30% more than
10 years teaching experience in a multi-grade classroom.

75% had no training on multi-grade instruction.

4.3.2. Classroom Management

Table 4.1 summarises discussions of the two focus groups and data gathered
from classroom observations and questionnaires.

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Table 4.1. Data from focus group discussions and observations.

Data from Focus Group
Interviews
(Two groups were interviewed in
two of the five regions in the
sample)

Data from Observations

(Observations were done in five schools
in one of the regions in the sample).

- Learners work in groups of 4 6.

- Learners develop independence,
although they work mostly in
groups.

- Learners get the opportunity to
leadership.

- Classroom rules are essential
and arrangements functional.

- Learners do not take
responsibility for their own
learning.

- Learners are not involved in the
general management of the
classroom.

- Teachers find it difficult to
discipline learners in overcrowded
classrooms.

- Teaching time is reduced.

School A: Learners work in small groups.
Movement is not encouraged, although
there is enough space to move around.

School B: Learners work in pairs. Space
and resources are under-utilised.

School C: Learners work in pairs. Space
and resources are under-utilised.

School D: Learners work in small groups.
Educational materials are displayed in the
classroom. Learners are to some extent
involved in housekeeping issues.

School E: Learners work in small groups.
Movement is not encouraged, although
there is enough space to move around.

One of the seat plans that were presented during focus group discussions
separate learners with special educational needs from the other learners in the
classroom. Inclusive education is thus non-existent. Learners in Namibia are
taught in their mother tongue in grades 1 3 and in English from grade four
onwards. The implication this has for multi-grade teachers is that these teachers

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have to deal with a combination of languages, in addition to a combination of
grades and levels. Teachers lack knowledge of different ways of grouping
learners and the importance of independent study areas where learners can go
when they have finished their work. The reading corners in classrooms lack the
necessary resources to do justice to it.

Both the education managers (18 out of 20 respondents) and multi-grade
teachers (195 out of 227 respondents) agreed that learners work in small groups.
In addition, the teachers strongly felt that learners do not take responsibility for
their own learning (170 out of 227 respondents). That coincides with the strong
disagreement (80%) that time is used flexibly in accordance with learners needs
and that the need to discipline is less (85%). Despite these fairly negative
statements about classroom management, 4 out of 20 education managers and
142 out of 227 teachers agree that the educational atmosphere is conducive to
academic progress.

4.3.3. Instructional Strategies

Teaching time is divided among the different groups in the classroom. Small
quantities of work are covered at a time and learners are assessed at ability
levels. This is confirmed by data received from teachers (222 out of 227
respondents) and managers in education (16 out of 20 respondents) who agreed
that the teacher teaches one group while the other group work on its own.

Learners are however not encouraged to progress on their own (confirmed by
data from questionnaires 100% disagreement from managers and 183 out of 227
teachers disagree that learners progress at their own pace) and little academic
independence was observed in the classrooms, as indicated in literature as a
winning approach to successful multi-grade teaching. Teachers seldom make
use of cooperative group work and learners communicate on invitation from the
teacher. There is strong agreement though that teachers need to develop a wide

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range of teaching strategies (100% from managers and 80% from teachers).
Learners receive no personal attention, nor do they set personal goals. Many
learners lack basic competencies in reading and mathematics.

The group in the Hardap region had a very strong focus on assessment. They
see assessment as a teaching strategy and clearly realise the importance of well-
designed assessment. Written assessment can however receive more attention.
It is clear that teachers consider learner differences when planning (212 out of
227 teachers and 10 out of 20 managers agreed), but they do not trust learners
with self-assessment (only 31 out of 227 teachers and 1 of 20 managers agreed
that learners assess themselves).

4.3.4. Curriculum

In most schools teachers follow either the multi-year curriculum span or the
differentiated curricula strategy. In the former curriculum content is spread
across 2-3 grades rather than one, while the same general theme is covered with
all learners in the latter.

Unfortunately, the national curriculum as well as the school timetables is
produced for mono-grade classrooms. A small number, 22 out of 227 teachers
and 2 out of 20 managers agreed that the conventional school curriculum
addresses the needs of the multi-grade class. Teachers focus on completing the
curriculum and don not necessarily take the learners along. Non-promotion
subjects like physical education, and the teaching of life skills are neglected. In
some schools teachers acknowledge written work with a signature only without
given the necessary attention to correctness and feedback.

Teachers are creative when planning activities for the different grade groups.
The teachers (204 out of 227 respondents) and the managers (20 out of 20
respondents) agreed that a combination of ages and levels exist at the same

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time. Recognising that more planning is needed to teach in a multi-grade
classroom, teachers need training in how to amend the curriculum to make it
more suitable for multi-grade teaching. In addition, teachers (218 out of 227) and
all managers are of the opinion that they need to be aware of learning styles,
multiple intelligences and abilities. Entrance tests to determine the educational
level of each learner are most probably the answer to this.

4.3.5. Instructional Materials

Teachers have neither the resources nor the expertise to develop instructional
materials. Teachers (153 out of 227) and managers (15 out of 20) confirmed this
by the disagreement that appropriate teaching and learning materials are readily
available. In addition to the conventional textbooks, they make use of waste
material to supplement their teaching. Learners do extra reading from
newspapers and magazines. A small number of 2 out of 20 managers and 27 out
of 227 teachers agreed that teachers make use of specially designed guides and
instructional material. Teachers are of the opinion that the development of
instructional material is the responsibility of the Ministry of Education. The do
however agree that practical handbooks are essential.

4.3.6. Community Involvement

Parents are allowed to serve on the School Board. As a result, they have a say
in the general management of the school. Teachers however do not make use of
community members in their day-to-day teaching activities.

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4.3.7. The effect of multi-grade teaching on learner performance
Mason and Burns (1996:318) argue that while multi-grade classes are good for
some learners, they are potentially difficult for most, and increase teacher stress.
Multi-grade classrooms, they argue, are selectively formed and offer lower quality
instruction than mono-grade classes. Selection is likely to increase learner
achievement, while lower quality instruction is likely to reduce it. Their case is not
that teachers in such classes are inferior, but that the demanding nature of multi-
grade teaching reduces the quality of instruction.
They identify two areas in which demands are greater: increased workload (more
preparation/grouped instruction/teaching time) and more complex class
organisation (less instructional time, less individual attention, and greater
management demands).
They claim that:
teachers are therefore faced with delivering two different curricula to
learners of twice the age range in the same amount of time factors which
make these two structures drastically different. The two curricula that are
part and parcel of these classes require more preparation, more grouped
instruction, and more teaching time on the part of the teachers. Teacher
stress is exacerbated, and curriculum coverage and adaptive assistance
are diminished, with negative outcomes." Mason and Burns (1996:316)
Veenman acknowledges the increased stress on teachers in multi-grade
classrooms in his 1996 response, where he shared findings from interviews with
teachers in Holland:
"Interview data showed the teachers in the multi-grade classes to be less
satisfied with their jobs than their counterparts in mono-grade classes as a
result of the heavy teaching load and demands for classroom
management." Veenman (1996:98)

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Mason and Burns, and Veenmans arguments about increased stress on
teachers are not far-fetched. The table below is an extract from the analysis of
questionnaires administered to teachers in Namibia and clearly shows the
disagreement with the statement that teachers are less stressed.

Table 4.2: Extract from analysis of questionnaires administered to teachers on the
degree of teacher stress.

Strongly
Agree
Agree Disagree
Strongly
Disagree
NR Total
Count 5 10 101 111 227
B24. Teachers
are less stressed.
% 2.2% 4.4% 44.5% 48.9% 100.0%

The statement from Mason and Burns that multi-grade classrooms offer lower
quality instruction can be equally true. The following table, table 4.3, shows a
cross-tabulation done on two questions on the experience of teachers in multi-
grade classrooms.

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Table 4.3. Cross-tabulation on the experience of multi-grade teachers.
A3. How many years of teaching experience do you have? * A4. How many years
of teaching experience do you have in a Multi-grade classroom? Cross tabulation
Count
A4. How many years of teaching
experience do you have in a Multi-grade
classroom?

Less
than
one
year
More than
one year,
but less
than five
years
More than
five years,
but less
than ten
years
More
than 10
years

Total
Less than
one year
8 0 0 0 8
More than
one year,
but less than
five years
10 13 3 0 26
More than
five years,
but less than
ten years
5 35 29 1 70
A3. How many
years of teaching
experience do
you have?
More than
10 years
9 19 45 46 119
Total 32 67 77 47 223

This table shows that 119 teachers have more than ten years of teaching
experience, but only 47 has experience of teaching in a multi-grade classroom.
Another interesting figure is the 41 teachers who went straight into teaching in a
multi-grade classroom. The next table shows data on the number of teachers
who had training on multi-grade instruction.

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Table 4.4. Extract: Data on the number of teachers who had training on multi-
grade instruction.
A5. Have you had any training on multi-grade instruction?

Yes, before 1990 7 3.1 3.1
Yes, after 1990 5 2.2 2.2
No 214 94.3 94.7
Valid
Total 226 99.6 100.0
Missing System 1 .4
Total 227 100.0

There is a strong no 94.3%.

If teachers have neither experience, nor training, it is most likely that the quality of
teaching will suffer. The fact that teachers do not have access to specialised
materials to support their preparation, contribute to low quality instruction (see
table 4.5 below) and hence negative effects on learner performance.

Table 4.5: Data on the availability of specialised materials for multi-grade
teachers.

Strongly
Agree
Agree Disagree
Strongly
Disagree
NR Total
Count 10 26 130 61 227 B34. Teachers have
access to specialised
materials to support
their preparation.
% 4.4% 11.5% 57.3% 26.9% 100.0%

Additional statements from data collected from focus group interviews and
classroom observations that support negative effects on learner performance
include:
(i) Teaching time is divided and non-promotion subjects suffer.

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(ii) Teachers find it difficult to complete the curriculum in time.
(iii) Teachers are challenged to be creative when planning across grade
level objectives.
(iv) The biggest challenge teachers face at the moment is to cope with the
limited resources available in schools.
(v) The teacher used quite stimulating teaching aids, but could not succeed in
reaching the lesson objective, because too many new elements were
introduced orally.
(vi) If teaching and learning occur at this pace, learners will have to spend two
calendar years in one grade.
(vii) Many local parents have lost confidence in the school and enrolled their
children elsewhere.
(viii) Learners are behind and too much time is invested in the completion of
previous work.
(ix) Learners lack basic competencies in reading and mathematics.
(x) Not much written work has been done.
(xi) Mono-grade instruction focusing on the syllabus of the highest grade is
perceived as a way out of a multi-grade dilemma.

130
(xii) The reading skills of learners in both class groups are clearly not up to
standard.
(xiii) Teachers focus on completing the curriculum and learners are left
behind.
Recent studies of teachers in developing countries highlight their generally
negative perceptions of multi-grade classes and multi-grade teaching, as
discussed in chapter two.

Too many teachers perceive the mono-grade class as the desirable norm and the
multi-grade as the second class necessity.

A recent piece of action research suggests that teachers attitudes to multi-grade
teaching become more positive once they realise that there are strategies that
can be used to improve learner achievement outcomes and lessen the teachers
burden of intensive lesson planning for several grades (Vithanapathirana,
2003:17). Some teachers who really try their best to be efffective confirmed this
suggestion.
(See discussions on focus group interviews in the Hardap region in chapter 3).

Teachers, however, lack the necessary training and support to be innovative and
creative with the local resources at hand. Training needs to relate to the needs of
teachers in the classrooms and the contextual constraints and resources, which
they face in their everyday work.
Table 4.6 below shows the responses of teachers on the need for training.

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Table 4.6: Data on training needs of multi-grade teachers.

Strongly
Agree
Agree Disagree
Strongly
Disagree
NR Total
Count 121 94 8 3 1 227 B23. Teachers need
ongoing
professional
development.
% 53.3% 41.4% 3.5% 1.3% .4% 100.0%

4.3.8. Conclusion
Whilst the multi-grade teaching approach has been recognised worldwide as
potentially an important contribution to the achievement of good quality primary
education for all, most notably through the Escuela Nueva approach in Colombia
and in many other Latin American countries, it has not been accepted by most
Ministries of Education in Africa as an official strategy towards the achievement of
Education for All. The Multi-grade Programme provides the opportunity to actively
involve Ministries of Education in the provision of education in small multi-grade
schools in rural areas (Posti-Ahokas, 2006)
An important issue is to ensure that such small multi-grade schools can deliver
high quality and relevant education. They have to be seen as competitive rather
than as a poor substitute for larger school establishments. The quality of
education in remote rural schools tends to be substantively lower than in their
larger urban counterparts.
An important concern is the need to involve parents in the education of their
children, in particular in the education of their daughters. It is generally known
that few can attain a high level of enrolment and achievement without strong
parental support. The home and community must be supportive of the aims and
processes of the school.

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There is also need to develop teacher training programmes, both pre-service and
in-service, to improve the performance of classroom teachers who will teach
multi-grade classes.
All education is inevitably underpinned by educational philosophies whether
acknowledged or not. Multi-grade teaching too has particular philosophical bases,
which emerge from the literature. Multi-grade practices recognise that there is an
overlap of abilities amongst learners but also that levels of difficulty have to be
taken into account. The philosophy of teaching is therefore an important
consideration in multi-grade teaching.
The professional teacher is a key resource person in the multi-grade context. The
view that any teacher trained in mono-grade level teaching could be automatically
expected to be a multi-grade teacher is discounted. Indeed, multi-grade teaching
is of its own kind and should be recognised as such.
The next chapter will describe a brief summary of multi-grade teaching, the
findings and recommendations of the study.

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CHAPTER 5
SUMMARY, FINDINGS AND RECOMMENDATIONS

5.1. SUMMARY
The multi-grade classroom is labor intensive and requires more planning,
collaboration, and professional development than the conventional graded
classroom (Cushman, 1993:26). Sufficient planning time must be available to
meet the needs of both teacher and learner. Insufficient planning, staff
development, materials, support, and assessment procedures will have an impact
on the success of the multi-grade program (Fox, 1997:17; Miller, 1996:19; Nye,
1993:12).

Despite these constraints, there are special advantages to multi-grade
classrooms. Flexible schedules can be implemented and unique programs
developed to meet learners individual and group interests and needs.
Combined classrooms also offer ample opportunity for learners to become
resourceful and independent learners. The multi-grade rural classroom is usually
less formal than the mono-grade urban or suburban classroom.
Because of the small class size, friendly relationships based on understanding
and respect develop naturally between the learners and the teacher.

In this setting, learners become well known by their teacher and a family
atmosphere often develops.
The following summarises key issues facing teachers, learners and the
community involved in multi-grade teaching:

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5.1.1. Classroom Management

Effective teachers make their expectations explicit through clear rules and
procedures that are consistently taught and enforced. The first few weeks of
school are used to establish these expectations. Therefore, early planning and
preparation before school starts is critical for starting the school year right. In
other words, before the learners arrive, the teacher must develop a vision of
classroom life: how students will behave and relate to one another, where they
will work, how resources will be organised, and other important classroom
considerations.

Effective teachers focus on organising furnishings and materials in order to
facilitate instruction in several general ways:

(i) learners seating should be easy to monitor by the teacher
and not distracting to the learners;
(ii) well-used areas of the room should be easily accessible; and
(iii) materials and equipment should be quite accessible by
learners and the teacher.

Establishing productive norms for learner behavior can make the difference
between success and failure for a classroom teacher. These norms are best set
early in the year in a variety of ways, such as teacher praise for appropriate
behavior, corrective feedback, formally presented rules, establishing procedures
that regulate behavior during classroom activities, and academic work
requirements (Emmer, 1987: 236).

Learners must learn how to behave in a wide variety of work and social
situations. If the teacher can lie out in advance the desired expectations for some
of these situations, it is more likely that learners will behave in the desired
manner.

135
Uncertainty increases the level of excitement in the classroom. The technique of
direct instruction is to start each class by telling the learners exactly what will be
happening. An effective teacher will take care that the learner is not rewarded for
misbehavior by becoming the focus of attention. The teacher moves around and
monitors the activity in the classroom. Teachers should anticipate problems
before they occur.

Activities that are well planned, clearly sequenced and presented, and provide for
high levels of student success tend to produce a high degree of learner
engagement. When learners are actively learning, they are less likely to become
involved in inappropriate behavior. Effective teachers also organise the learning
environment to reduce the amount of influences that can disrupt the flow of
instruction, whether in teacher-led groups, small workgroups, or during
independent seatwork.

Depending on the availability of materials and space, the following ideas have
been useful:

Use shelf space and divide it so that each learner has an assigned
section or cubbyhole for his or her materials.

Make a quiet area for reading, thinking, and resting. This may be a rug
in the corner, a beanbag chair, or a cardboard house.

Make an art or project area.

Elect or select learners who are to be responsible for certain sections
of the room and rotate these helpers periodically.

Successful multi-grade teachers have found it critically important that learners
learn to manage their own time, make decisions, and evaluate what has been
happening to them. Learners who successfully manage their time tend to:

136

Bring only essential things to school

Clean out cubicles, lockers, or tote boxes once a week

Keep multi-grade papers in a binder or folder

Use a planning schedule to help them keep track of what to do.

It is critically important to establish clear expectations for learners if your class is
to be successfully managed. Learners know what you expect in simple but direct
terms. In developing a set of guidelines for learners, you may wish to involve
them. This will help to develop learner understanding, motivation, and ownership.
However, it is essential that once a list is set up, learners are taught the rules and
then systematically monitored to determine how well they are working.

5.1.2. Instructional Strategies

Every method a teacher uses has advantages and disadvantages, and requires
some preliminary preparation. So, what else is new? Three broad categories of
instructional methods are teacher talk, learner talk, and learner-teacher
interactive talk. Often, a particular method will naturally flow into another within
the same lesson. Which instructional method is right for a particular lesson
depends on many things, and among them are the age and developmental levels
of the learners, what the learners already know, what they need to know to
succeed with the lesson, the subject-matter content, the objective of the lesson,
the available people, time, space, and material resources and the physical
setting.

Another, more difficult problem, is to select an instructional method that best fits
ones particular teaching style and the lesson situation. There is no one right

137
method for teaching a particular lesson, but there are some criteria that pertain to
each that can help a teacher make the best decision possible.

Because cooperation and peer support play such a key role in multi-grade
instruction, a major emphasis is placed on group work: how to form groups, how
to structure learning experiences, and what skills are needed for successful
cooperation. It is important to keep in mind that instructional delivery and
classroom environments are extremely complex.

From our early experiences as learners, we generally remember a classroom
characterised by the teacher in front of the room, teaching. After the lesson, we
often completed worksheets at our individual desks while the teacher worked at
his/her desk. A test was often given sometime later to determine what we have
learned.

If we want to develop cooperative, self-directed learners, then other instructional
methods must be used as well. Teachers who expect learners to work together
and cooperate on academic tasks produce higher learner performance than
teachers who do not emphasise cooperation. Effective teachers:

Expect students to cooperate in completing academic tasks

Hold students accountable for their work

Use well-thought-out reward systems for reinforcing cooperation

Teachers should emphasise academics through positive reinforcement and avoid
such negative behaviors and attitudes as criticism of learner behavior, yelling or
screaming, using sarcasm with learners, scolding learners for inappropriate
behavior, and ridiculing students to facilitate learning.

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The sequencing of activities in a lesson and the types of activities the teacher
chooses has a direct relationship to learner achievement in basic skills. Before
the lesson starts, the teacher establishes a framework for instruction that helps
learners understand how information will be presented. Effective teaching
research has identified six key teacher behaviors:

Organising learning materials in advance

Providing clear, explicit direction about the work to be done

Telling learners about the materials they will use and the activities in
which they will be involved

Conducting pretests, revealing, discussing the objective of the lesson

Providing an overview of the lesson

Relating new materials to what students have already learned

While the teacher instructs a group of lower-level learners in reading skills,
learners at the upper levels could be engaged in individual or group learning
activities that have been developed and written down in advance.
The types of individual learning activities depend on the needs of learners,
available resources, and the maturity of the learners.

In order to allow learners to take more responsibility for their learning, they must
be allowed to put concepts into a personally meaningful context.
Learners retain more information and have more fun learning when material is
presented in this way. Computers make these meaningful contexts possible by
providing learners with highly individualised education.

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In preparing to teach a lesson to an entire multi-grade class, careful planning and
preparation are necessary. Figure 5.1 illustrates an example of a whole class
planning form for learning about sea creatures. The teacher would follow three
general steps:

(i) Choose a concept, theme, or skill determined to be important to all
students.

(ii) Decide on an activity to introduce the concept to the whole class.

(iii) Develop appropriate activities for each instructional level and pay
special attention to:

Subject integration (writing, reading, science, math, etc.)

Needed resources

References learners can use

How each level will be introduced to their activities

How learners will be evaluated

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FIGURE 5.1. Whole-Class Planning Form:

GENERAL PRESENTATION TOPIC/CONCEPT

Activity for Level/Group1 and 2

Activity for Level/Group 3

Activity for Level/Group 4

(adapted from Fogarty, 1979)

Alternatively, teachers can make use of ability grouping within classes, i.e.
facilitating different groups for different curriculum areas or units. There is a
multitude of ways to devise and use ability groups, depending on the teacher,
Discover and discuss various characteristics of sea creatures.
Brainstorm and group according to common features.
Color and label sea
creature book.
Read the story: A Day in the Life of Walley
Whale. Draw a picture of Walley and write
five characteristics you have learned about
whales.
Create a sea creature book by drawing each creature
discussed and writing two or more facts about each
one.

141
class, and subject area. They can range from teacher nominated to those with
large degrees of self-selection based on predetermined tasks with clearly
different levels of ability and motivation required.

Adapting the classroom-learning environment to the needs of learners is a
complex and demanding task, especially when teaching a multi-grade class
where diversity among classmates is extreme. But outside the classroom,
diversity is the normal condition that characterises life. People must learn to work
well with a wide variety of individuals in many different social settings. No single
best approach has been defined for problem solving, getting along with co-
workers, or learning something new. People learn and manage their lives in a
variety of ways.

The multi-grade classroom, with its wide range of learner levels, reflects this real-
life diversity better than any other classroom configuration. It is important that
teaching methods and grouping patterns reflect the variability of the learners
being taught and help prepare them to live in our diverse and complex world.
Therefore, it is vital, when planning for instruction, to determine the academic,
social, and cultural needs of learners and to devise plans that best meet those
needs.

5.1.3. Curriculum

What has been presented thus far reflects an area of schooling often referred to
as the hidden curriculum. This includes areas such as grouping practices,
scheduling and the allocation of time, disciplinary practices, the physical
environment, school norms and values, and human relationships. These areas of
schooling are hidden because they affect learning in powerful, but often
unintended, ways. We also influence how learners learn to relate to each other
and the teacher in accomplishing tasks, a social norm that the students may well
carry with them throughout their adult lives.

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As educators, we need to become aware of the hidden curriculum and its effects
on students, and consciously modify these practices to enhance learning. The
remaining curriculum is referred to as the planned curriculum and can be divided
into two general areas: essential learning skills and enrichment.

The planned curriculum can be described as consisting of four key elements:
goals, resources, activities, and assessment. Translated into teacher terms,
curriculum can be described as a series of questions:

What do learners need to know?

How will I help them learn it?

What resources will I use?

How will I know if the learners have learned it?

Multi-grade teachers may often find themselves in the role of answering these
questions with little guidance from advisory teachers. Even in those cases where
advisory services are available, isolation and small size will often reduce the
amount of direct service. Even more confounding, curriculum goals, guides, and
texts are conventionally organized by grade level, placing the teacher in the
dilemma of how to achieve expected learning goals when the instructional
organisation may well be inappropriate.

When a teacher enters a classroom with a new group of learners, the teachers
most pressing concern generally revolves around determining what the learners
already know and what they may need to learn. Ideally, there should be learner
records that provide an overview of individual learner progress. These generally
include standardised achievement test results, report cards, and diagnostic
testing information for reading and mathematics programs. However, this type of
information is not often kept systematically.

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The best way to determine what students know is through direct assessment:

Conduct an interest survey or conduct interviews.

Learn the types of learning learners find motivating.

Students can also tell what textbooks, learning kits, or instructional
materials they worked with the previous year.

Set up learning activities where you can watch how learners perform in
different subject areas and how they relate with peers. Make note of
what you learn.

Students are often an overlooked source of firsthand information.

Using grade-level placement information gathered from learner records, as well
as other information sources (such as colleagues or the community), plan lessons
for diagnostic purposes. These might include writing activities, completing a
series of mathematics problems, or individually reading to the teacher. Results
from these lessons can be used to determine learner strengths and needs.

When planning for diagnosis, it is important to set curricular priorities.
In other words, what content is essential for all learners to master, and in what
order?

5.1.4. Instructional Materials
In the multi-grade classroom, more time must be spent in organising and planning
for instruction. Extra materials and strategies must be developed so that learners
will be meaningfully engaged. This additional coordination lets the teacher meet
with small groups or individuals, while other work continues.

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Since the teacher cannot be everywhere or with each learner simultaneously, the
teacher shares instructional responsibilities with learners. A context of clear rules
and routines makes such shared responsibility productive. Learners know what
the teacher expects. They know what assignments to work on, when they are
due, how to get them graded, how to get extra help, and where to return
assignments.
Self-instruction study guides can be developed for learners in lower grades in four
basic curriculum areas (natural science, mathematics, social studies and
language). The guides adopt a method that promotes active learning, cognitive
skills, discussion, group decision-making and the development of application
skills within the local environment. The guides contain sequenced objectives and
activities. Because the learner follows the work at his/her own pace the schools
operate a system of "flexible promotion". Hence learners do not repeat grades.
They are promoted to the next grade of work when they have mastered the
present objectives and activities.

Conventional textbooks tend not to facilitate self-instruction.
Figure 5.2. and figure 5.3 are examples of language activities in self-instructional
guides.

Figure 5.2. Language activities in a Self-instructional guide

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The pronouns him and her take the place of a person.
The pronoun it takes the place of a place or thing. Write him, her,
or it on each blank to complete the thought of each activity.
______________________________________________________

1. The Mailman put the mail in the Lovejoys mailbox.
Mother asked Christy to get _______________.

2. Christy brought Mother the mail.
Christy watched _____________ as she sorted it.

3. One letter was for Christy.
Sandy had written to ________________.

Figure 5.3. Language activities in a self-instructional guide.

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5.1.5. Community Involvement

First the learner respond to stimuli built into the cards by expressing what
they see, in their mother tongue.
In Grade I, more time is spent on "readiness activities".
Listening and speaking are given prime importance.
Later, reading and writing are concentrated upon.
Songs and stories are included in the learning material.
Enactment of stories using puppetry as a medium also helps in
developing interest.
Gradually, there is a move from the local dialect to the national
language.

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Learning guides often explicitly require collecting knowledge and materials from
the community, which can be helpful in forging bonds. Parents collaborate in the
actual construction and maintenance of the school and furniture that facilitates
implementation of the reforms (i.e., desks that facilitate group work, shelves for
the learning corners, etc.).
There exists in small schools a sense of pride, and an attitude and sense of
personal possession and involvement on the part of learners, parents, teachers,
administrators, and community members. To a great degree, the school is the
community center in many small towns and rural areas.
The size of the school does not inhibit personal interaction; it encourages it. Small
schools typically serve a community nucleus. This invites strong support from
parents and community members as well as closer working relationships among
the school staff. In a small school it is not unusual for teachers, administrators,
and school board members to know each other well. This can lead to easy
acceptance of new ideas among friends as well as a strong sense of identification
and belonging.

5.1. FINDINGS
Finding 1
Multi-grade teaching worldwide is more common than we realise or care to
admit. Namibia is no exception with 31.7% of all primary schools affected
by multi-grade instruction.

Finding 2

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Many teachers in multi-grade environments are either untrained or trained
in the mono-grade pedagogy.

Finding 4
Curricula premised on a mono-graded structure need to be adapted to
meet the needs of the multi-grade classroom. Reorganisation and
modification of the curriculum for a multi-grade teaching context may be
considered. Teachers need to be taught how to plan across grade level
objectives.

Finding 5
Timetables must remain flexible as far as possible. This in turn, would
enable teachers to spend more time on a particular subject or practice
work depending on need. Thus, freedom to reprioritise classes should be
part of the multi-grade teaching system.

Finding 6
Effective multi-grade teaching involves the use of a range of organisational
strategies in the classroom. The promotion of approaches that increase
the level of learner independence and cooperative group work tend to be
suggested. These strategies should also include the involvement of
learners in the general management of the classroom.

Finding 7

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Pre-service and in-service training for teachers on the needs of the multi-
grade class is vital. A comprehensive package should be prepared for
multi-grade teaching that include various important aspects like time
management, arrangements for sitting, improving teaching skills,
preparation and organisation of the teaching learning materials and the
organisation of art and cultural activities, among other things.

Finding 8
Multi-grade teachers should be trained in approaches that help them to
develop relations between the school and the community, since multi-
grade teaching has much to offer communities that are not well served by
the existing mono-grade system.

Finding 9
There is a need for a national policy that recognises, legitimate and
support learners and teachers in multi-grade settings.

Finding 10
Teachers need to be well trained, well resourced and hold positive
attitudes towards multi-grade teaching in order to be successful.

5.3. Recommendations

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One of the specific objectives of this study was to make recommendations on
teacher training and preparation for the effective management of multi-grade
teaching.

There were five key areas of concern identified in chapter 2 that are generally the
focus of concern and should be included in any training programme. These five
areas, classroom management, instructional strategies, curriculum, instructional
materials and community involvement were also used to write up data collection
and interpretation. The recommendations will also be based on these key areas,
taken into consideration what was found in the literature and through data
collected in Namibian schools.

5.3.1. Recommendation 1: Classroom Management
Managing a multi-grade classroom is indeed difficult because there is more than
one grade level in the same classroom. Hence, the teacher must be skilled in
managing instruction to reduce the amount of dead time during which learners
are not productively engaged on task. This means that teachers must be aware
of different ways of grouping learners, the importance of independent study areas
where learners can go when they have finished their work, and approaches to
record keeping which are more flexible than those common in the mono-grade
classroom. Learners may need to be taught the value of independence and
cooperation by involving them in classroom decision-making.
Teachers in multi-grade schools need to be flexible in their management of
classrooms, to fit particular teaching situations, the physical environment and the
composition of the class.

The following figure, figure 5.4, is an example of a seat plan, which is a
combination of the seat plans suggested by the two focus groups.

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Door
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Writing Board
Teacher
Table

Grade 3

Grade 3

Grade 3
Study Area

Table
Additional Resources

Table
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Grade 2

Grade 2

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The arrangement of classroom furniture and the grouping of learners depend on
the activities to be undertaken. For example in subjects like reading, language
and mathematics learners are grouped by ability across grade levels. Teachers
work with one group level while the other grade level has self-activities. In other
subjects more informal arrangements can be utilised.
Older, more disciplined, learners could be designated as monthly monitors.
Different groups of learners in the class could be assigned to the monitors who
would assist the teacher in maintaining discipline in the classroom as well as help
him/her with various other learning activities.
Teaching aids prepared by teachers and learners could be kept systematically in
a learning corner, to be used whenever required and replaced in their particular
location.
A learners' Government, i.e., capable learners elected to form the different
groups, may be assigned to look after various school and cultural activities such
as prayer/ attendance, class cleanliness and decoration, ensure availability of
drinking water, maintain teaching materials prepared by the teacher, look after
the library and games corner, and art and sport activities.

5.3.2. Recommendation 2: Instructional Strategies
Instructional strategies may best be described as the methods, techniques or
devices used to enhance teaching and to facilitate learning.
Instructional strategies are seen as a key to improving the quality of teaching and
learning in the multi-grade classroom. The promotion of approaches that
increase the level of leaner independence and cooperative group work tend to be
suggested. These involve a change in the role of the teacher from giver of
information to facilitator. This is to ensure that time spent away from the teacher
is time spent productively.

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Three important strategies are peer instruction in which learners act as teachers
for each other, cooperative group work that involves small groups engaging in
collaborative tasks, and individualised learning programmes that involve the
learner in self-study.
Grouping is one of the strategies in multi-grade teaching that can play an
important role in the teaching-learning situation. To make teaching and learning
effective and easy the teacher may group the learners either on the basis of
classes, age, sex, or on the basis of ability. Mixed grouping is useful in the
classes for singing, dancing, art, indoor playing and other types of activities.
We must be conscious that, although each learner should be develop
intellectually, physically, emotionally, and socially, each one has different
developmental needs in these four categories. For these needs to be satisfied by
schooling, a school class can be divided into various sized groups according to
ability in those subject areas which are open to measurement techniques, such
as mathematics, reading and spelling.
Social or friendship groupings are strategies quite appropriate for subject areas
such as social studies. Within these groups, avenues occur for peer teaching or
learning.
Yet, even as we advocate the necessity for grouping, we do not underestimate
the importance of the face-to-face contact of individual learners, groups and
classes with the teacher. In multi-grade teaching two distinct organisational and
teaching strategies arise which lead to grouping.
Firstly, a class with two or three grade levels can be organised and taught as
though these grades are discrete. Within these discrete grades there should be
social or ability groupings. Of course there are occasions when the class can be
conducted as a whole, perhaps for cultural subjects, or story reading. Curricular
content and timetabling strategies are arranged by the teacher to ensure that all
students cover the curriculum requirements, obtain a fair measure of the

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teachers time and have ample opportunity for self-directed, independent
learning.
The second organisational strategy involves two or three grades being viewed as
one class for much of the curriculum. Thus, ability groupings in mathematics,
reading and spelling for example would be multi-aged with brighter younger
pupils being grouped according to their ability with older students. Some caution
is relevant here in that slower older students may regress if the situation
undermines their self-concept and confidence. Thus, a skilful teacher who, at
appropriate intervals, re-arranges the groups according to regular progress tests,
or completion of topics can coordinate a grouping pattern.
Grouping techniques demand that the teacher conduct whole class or group
teaching from any part of the room. Teaching aids, available equipment, text and
library books should all be used to support the teaching-learning process by
teachers who are prepared to give their time reflecting on the discharge of their
responsibilities.

5.3.3. Recommendation 3: Curriculum
National curricula are typically produced for the mono-grade classroom. Each set
of grade level material is typically placed in a separate booklet, which may
include specific content to be taught as well as guidelines on how to teach it.
Such curricula are difficult for the multi-grade teacher to use because they tend to
require plans to be written for each grade level separately. This is not only time
consuming, but may also result in ineffective instruction. Teachers need to be
taught how to plan across grade level objectives, or how to amend the curriculum
to make it more suitable for their setting. Similar observations may also apply to
the school timetable.
The key word in any discussion of an ideal model is flexibility. The curriculum has
to be very flexible given the nature of multi-grade teaching. One of the greatest

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difficulties in promoting multi-grade teaching is the inflexibility of grade-based
curriculum. The teachers are required to cover all the material for any one-year
for all the students enrolled for that year.
Teachers should adopt a model that is so flexible that prescription is kept to a
minimum. The concept of integration can address this issue.
Integration in multi-grade teaching will most often involve an integration of
learners from different grade levels and competencies. It also involves integration
of the curriculum either with subjects such as science and mathematics, or
subjects in the social sciences or a range of subjects being integrated.
Another form of integration in a desired future model is that the designers of the
curriculum should be an integrated group. The very important contribution of
curriculum experts should be integrated with the contribution of the practitioners
in and the administrators of schools (the teachers and principals). Furthermore,
parents and community representatives should form part of any truly integrated
curriculum design panel, especially where local content is required. Senior
learners might also be included.
A fourth aspect to an integrated multi-grade teaching curriculum is the way in
which it is organised. The multi-grade curriculum should consider for inclusion in
the teachers functions the use of learners as peer teachers and/or as monitors.
In addition, skilled community members should be considered as Para-
professional teachers (artists, writers and scientists, for example).
Although the present reality is that the curriculum, textbooks and evaluation
requirements are often fixed in a system, it is important in multi-grade teaching
that teachers approach these problems imaginatively and creatively. Imagination
and creativity are particularly important in dealing with aspects of present
curricula that are open to teacher input.

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Table 5.1 below shows how Environmental Education can be integrated and
being taught as a theme.
Table 5.1. Integration of the curriculum for Environmental Education.

Cross-Curricular Issue

Environmental Education

Environmental
Studies

Natural Environment: Impact of human behaviour on
water, plants, weather;
Caring for our environment

Language

Talking, listening to and reading stories, creative
writing about the environment

Mathematics

Data handling: Picture Graphs consumption of water
per week

Arts

Visual art: Collage and drawing, using materials from
the environment; Music and Drama: songs and role
play about the environment

Religious & Moral
Education

Stories about the creation and environment;
Environmental values education

Subjects should not be rigidly timetabled. Rather, time should be used flexibly
according to the nature of the intended learning and the tasks involved, as well as
the learners absorption in what they are doing. Also, in a more integrated
thematic web approach, it is not productive to divide up time allocation between
the various subjects drawn in around the theme. The important thing is that
sufficient time is given for the learners to achieve the competencies in each
subject area, over a term or year.

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The teacher should chart out a weekly lesson plan, as it is done in two of the
regions in the study. This would enable him/ her to organise the subject matter in
the best possible way to meet the special requirements of a multi-grade class.
A teacher has to account for the amount of teaching done in every subject and at
each grade level. This requires considerable preparation and much in excess of
that of a teacher in the mono-grade teaching situation.
Depending on the quality of teachers workbooks and worksheets, a teacher may
be with grade one for ten minutes, and away from grade three for fifteen minutes.
Such teaching requires very sound preparation especially considering the time
spent by learners in independent study. It also requires intelligent preparation and
reporting in demonstrating that the national requirements for teaching in the
different subject areas have been met.
Syllabi need to be prepared specifically for the multi-grade teaching context or be
able to be adapted to it. The primary curriculum prescribed is the same for both
urban and rural areas. This curriculum usually consists of a list of minimum
learning competencies stated in terms of behavioral objectives, which the teacher
is expected to achieve with each grade level within a particular time limit.
Since the minimum learning competencies are normally specifically designed for
regular school situations, the multi-grade teacher finds it difficult to make the
content of his or her teaching meaningful for the learners. Most often, the
designed curriculum lacks relevance and is dysfunctional when applied to the
socio-economic needs and cultural life-styles of multi-grade learners and their
communities.
Moreover, the conceptual and skill requirements of the prescribed curriculum are
too great for the teacher to cope with, given the pressing problems and concerns
which have to be addressed in the multi-grade teaching situation.

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For these reasons there is a need to re-organise and improve the curriculum for
multi-grade teaching by way of:
(i) Improving the curriculum content by developing subject matter in a way that
makes it relevant to the social conditions of the communities and the needs
of the learners.
(ii) Involving parents, teachers and community leaders in the re-organisation
and improvement of the curriculum.
(iii) Preparing instructional plans for teachers where various activities are
proposed for use with an emphasis on problem solving, and acquiring skills
for character and community development.
(iv) Preparing supportive instructional materials that are congruent with the plan
of instruction.
(v) Analysing the minimum competency requirements so as to identify skills,
which should be taught directly, and those that may evolve from self-
instruction.

Figure 5.5 shows an example of such a framework for a re-organised curriculum.

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Figure 5.5: A Framework for Improving the Multi-grade Curriculum

PRESCRIBED CURRICULUM

REVIEW OF CURRICULUM:
Analysis of the Minimum Learning Competencies

IDENTIFICATION OF:
Common and related skills
Skills for direct and indirect teaching
Content and skill areas for integration

ADAPTATION OF THE CURRICULUM TO SUIT LOCAL CONDITIONS

PREPARATION OF APPROAPRIATE MATERIALS

TRAILING AND IMPLEMENTATION OF ADAPTED CURRICULUM

EVALUATION

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5.3.4. Recommendation 4: Instructional Materials
Instructional materials also tend to be written for the mono-grade classroom.
Consequently, they are produced as grade level textbooks and are designed to
be delivered by the teacher to the learner. More suitable materials include a self-
study element. This might be in the form of workbooks with a self-correction key,
or a small classroom library that can be accessed independently by the learners.
Teachers need to be shown how to produce such self-study materials in a cost
effective way.
Materials for the provision of multi-grade teaching in the classroom are an
essential aspect of any discussion of multi-grade teaching. On the one hand,
there is not a considerable amount of materials support for multi-grade teaching
as opposed to mono-grade teaching. On the other hand, multi-grade teaching is
often associated with schools in remote and difficult contexts dealing with rural
and other disadvantaged communities. The result is that there are few resources
available, given the poverty of the region in which this type of teaching is found.
Multi-grade teachers have, therefore, to work in a considerably negative context
in terms of materials support. It is often the case that newly appointed teachers
must develop their own curriculum materials using locally found materials.
Teaching materials development could be considerable in terms of developing
specifically multi-grade teaching materials. This would be a significant
improvement for multi-grade teaching since it would mean that specific
development could occur rather than the need to convert mono-grade teaching
materials for multi-grade teaching use. This latter strategy is problematic since
the teaching strategies used in multi-grade teaching are different from those
employed in mono-grade classrooms.
There is little money to develop and produce multi-grade teaching materials to
meet all needs. Learners, who are disadvantaged geographically, linguistically,
culturally, economically or/and socially and are involved in multi-grade teaching
usually have a different set of special problems and needs for each group.

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Different sets of multi-grade textbooks should be developed to meet the special
needs of different areas and different language, cultural and ethnic groups. But
without money little can be achieved.
Multi-grade teaching needs more materials than mono-grade teaching, but
learners involved in multi-grade teaching are much poorer and cannot afford to
buy more materials. The government is also not able to provide the materials free
of charge for them.
The provision of teaching-learning materials especially in developing countries is
constrained by limited financial resources. As such teachers are encouraged to
produce low-cost materials that are appropriate to the situation and ability of
learners in these multi-grade schools. Low-cost teaching learning materials are
materials that have the following characteristics or qualities:
(i) Teachers, learners or members of the community can make the
materials.

(ii) The materials supplied can be put to effective use by the
teachers and learners in the classroom and do not incur extra
cost

(iii) The processes in the production of the materials are simple and
inexpensive.

(iv) The production of the materials is not time consuming.

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(v) The raw materials are freely and easily available from the local
community.

These raw materials can be:
(i) Natural resources; for example, plants (bamboo, leaves, rubber seeds,
coconut leaf stick, coconut, etc.), animal (shell, skin, bones, etc.) and
mineral (limestone, charcoal, etc.).

(ii) Industrial waste; for example, fuses, electric bulbs, used batteries, etc.

(iii) Domestic waste; for example, tin cans, milk boxes, bicycle parts, etc.

The characteristics/qualities of low-cost teaching learning materials may need to
be redefined as the situation differs from one area to another; that is according to
the social-economic situation and cultural contexts.
Because of this, the main consideration is not the low-cost factor of the materials,
but factors like ease of availability, ease of production and the like.

3.3.5. Recommendation 5: Community Involvement
Multi-grade schools are often located in remote and difficult to reach areas. They
may be far from resource centres and receive little pedagogical support. The
communities in which they are located may not see the value of education, and
may speak a different language to the official one of the school. For these

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reasons, it is essential that the community be involved in the life of the school.
Parents can be asked to come in to act as a resource, or the community can be
asked to support the school in other ways.

5.4. Conclusion
There is a universal problem of attracting people with appropriate backgrounds
and interests into the teaching profession. This is generally the case but is
exacerbated for multi-grade teaching schools because of the geographical and
social locations of such schools. In some countries, a financial or social incentive
is provided to attract better quality people into multi-grade schools. Viet Nam, for
example, provides additional salaries for teachers in multi-grade schools.
However, in all countries the problem exists of providing appropriate and
sufficient incentives for high quality students to want to be trained as multi-grade
teachers. The training of multi-grade teachers is complicated by the fact that not
all teacher graduates will experience such teaching. In some countries, the
percentage of teacher graduates who will experience multi-grade teaching is
relatively low. Thus, the question is raised as to the need for pre-service training
and practical experience in multi-grade teaching techniques for all student
teachers.
Existing Pre-service Training Programmes do not cater for multi-grade teaching.
Rather, student teachers are provided with the same pre-service courses as
those that are used to prepare regular teachers.
A practical component is generally found in most of teacher-training
programmes. This practical experience is considered to be a vital part of teacher
preparation. However, the provision of multi-grade teaching practical experience
is not always easy. It is the case that not all teachers will need to teach in such
situations; therefore making such practicals a compulsory component for all
student teachers is not appropriate.

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Team teaching is a useful technique in terms of a teaching strategy, particularly
for newer, inexperienced teachers beginning their careers in a school where a
more experienced teacher is available. However, the use of such a strategy
would require teachers to be trained in its use. Thus, specific in-service training
would be required to maximise the potential benefit of such a strategy for use by
experienced teachers.
Peer teaching is also a potentially useful technique for use in multi-grade schools.
Again, the benefits of the use of such a technique will only occur if appropriate
pre- and in-service training is provided to teachers. Quite specific training on the
techniques of peer teaching would be required.
There is an increasing need for multi-grade teachers to be able to assess (both
on the basis of ability and social factors) the needs of individual learners. The
requirement for Multi-grade teachers to be able to do this is probably more
important than for teachers in regular schools because of the wider range of
learners with whom multi-grade teachers need to deal.
Multi-grade teachers should be trained in approaches that help to develop
relations between the school and the community, since multi-grade teaching has
much to offer communities that are not well served by the existing mono-grade
system. It is in any case a popular alternative for improving rural education and
not without reason.
Teachers entering into a multi-grade classroom for the first time need to have an
awareness of exactly what can beneficially be gained from teaching multi-grade
classes. Similarly, a central understanding of the many hurdles that one is up
against with regards to literature and past research is critical. It is only when
teachers have this knowledge, that they have a means to overcome these
challenges and take full advantage of the benefits of multi-grade teaching.

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5.5. Suggestions For Further Research

Researchers on multi-grade teaching are unanimous on at least one point. For
children to learn effectively in multi-grade environments teachers need to be well
organised, well resourced and well trained, as well as to hold positive attitudes to
multi-grade teaching. Yet, as we have seen in previous chapters, many teachers
who find themselves teaching in a multi-grade environment are frequently under-
resourced, and are often the most undereducated and under-trained members of
a national teaching force.

Since there is a degree of overlap in the recommendations they will be
summarised and synthesised here in the form of questions, a format which may
be useful both in work with policymakers and practitioners, and in defining
developmental research work in the area of multi-grade teaching.

Although we could start with a series of questions for the teacher in the
classroom and work out from there, those initiatives which have had far reaching
and lasting effects on the multi-grade classroom appear to have received support
from district and national level authorities. Experience suggests that the multi-
grade teacher cannot, and indeed should not, be expected to solve the problems
of the multi-grade classroom alone.

Hence, the list begins with questions for the national-level policymaker.

5.5.1. National level

(i) Do the enrolment projections and costs of provision suggest that
multi-grade teaching will continue in many schools?

(ii) What are the conditions under which multi-grade teachers work?

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(iii) Do nationally prescribed pre-and in-service teacher training
programmes include content on effective teaching in multi-grade
settings?

(iv) Do they include content on effective teaching more generally eg
self-study, peer learning, planning and organisation, alternative
ways of grouping students for learning assessment skills?

(v) Is multi-grade teaching a recognised field of specialisation in
teacher training institutions?

(vi) Is there provision in nationally prescribed teacher training curricula
for the practice as well as the theory of teaching in multi-grade
settings?

(vii) Are there model schools practicing multi-grade teaching?

(viii) Have multi-grade techniques been considered for use in mono-
grade settings?

(ix) Are there material and professional incentives for teachers in multi-
grade schools in difficult locations? (eg salary supplements,
housing, training opportunities, promotion prospects)

(x) Have attempts been made to structure the content of the national
curriculum and all associated curriculum materials (eg syllabi,
teachers guides) in a way that supports multi-grade teaching (eg
integrated subject matter, i.e. teaching the same subject at different
conceptual levels; or a modular curriculum, i.e. allowing the learner
to proceed at his her own pace through learning modules)?

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(xi) Have such attempts attracted serious support from national-level
research and curriculum institutions over a period of time?

(xii) Have self-study materials been developed for extensive parts of the
curriculum?

(xiii) Could textbooks be designed to support self-study?

(xiv) Have or could adequate resources been allocated to libraries to
support self-leaning?

(xv) Is there an adequate budgetary commitment from government to
support multi-grade schools?

(xvi) Is there an understanding among national-level professionals and
administrators of the cognitive and non-cognitive benefits of multi-
grade teaching?

(xvii) Is there an effective mechanism for the regular supervision,
monitoring and evaluation of multi-grade schools?

5.5.2. Regional level

Systems of education vary in the division of roles and responsibilities between
national and regional levels of administration. Consequently many of the
questions listed above may apply equally to practitioners working at the regional
levels. The following may also apply:

(i) Are there mechanisms in place at regional level that can support the
pedagogy of multi-grade teaching?

168
(ii) Are there regular and frequent newsletters developed by multi-
grade teachers for multi-grade teachers?

(iii) Are there local radio networks and/or distance learning schemes
that can support the teacher in the field?

(iv) Are guidelines developed with teachers on the timetabling of multi-
grade teaching?

(v) Are there administrative tasks which face the multi-grade teacher in
difficult areas which could be handled more effectively by local
education offices, eg arrangements for delivery of materials,
building repairs, monthly payments?

(vi) Are there ways of supporting horisontal linkages between schools
so that teachers may learn from each other?

(vii) Are there ways of stimulating horisontal linkages with local
community members to support the work of the multi-grade
teacher?

(viii) Is professional and regional level staff aware of changes at the
national level that support the multi-grade teacher? (eg through
changes in curriculum teacher training, criteria for promotion etc?)

(ix) Are there promotion and repetition policies at the regional level that
are sensitive to the organisation of multi-grade classes?

169
5.5.3. Classroom level

(i) Are teachers able to discriminate between optimal ways of
organising the teaching of different subjects?

(ii) Are teachers given guidance on syllabus coverage across the day,
week, term, and school year in multi-grade settings?

(iii) Are teachers familiar with the pedagogic advantages (both cognitive
and non cognitive) of multi-grade teaching?

(iv) Are teachers able to convince parents of the advantages?

(v) Are teachers able and willing to encourage self-study and peer
learning in multi-grade settings?

(vi) Do teachers have access to effective and practical means for
assessing learning outcomes in multi-grade settings on a regular
basis?

(vii) Have teachers established classroom routines so that learning may
continue even in the absence of the teacher (eg through the use of
student monitors and access to self and group-learning activities?)

(viii) Are teachers able to request support from higher levels of authority
for problem solving in relation to multi-grade teaching?

These questions may be regarded as a checklist of use in both assessing the
present status and support for multi-grade teaching, and stimulating discussion at
different levels of the education system about improved ways of supporting the
teaching of the multi-grade teacher and the learning of the multi-grade learner. As
well providing a useful framework for dialogue between policymakers and

170
practitioners, each could also usefully provide a framework for further
developmental research.

The questions pitched at the level of the teacher and the classroom is particularly
amenable to action research by teachers and teacher educators

The questions pitched at the level of the regional or national authorities are also
amenable to action research by practitioners and policymakers working at this
level. In practice however few have the time, resources, skills and interest in
conducting the type of research that has implications that go beyond their
immediate and local environment. In such situations, outside researchers can
play a useful role, especially where insiders are interested in seeing the research
conducted.

5.5.4. Conclusion

Research may usefully be seen as an extension of the process of dialogue. It is
also important to understand that not all useful research is executed quickly, nor
do all research results have immediate application. National authorities may
sometimes need evidence provided by long-term evaluation research if they are
to promote national level reform. Unfortunately, very little research has been
undertaken on cost efficiency and effectiveness connected with multi-grade
schools.

Teacher education institutions may need a critical mass of staff members who
have conducted longer term research on multi-grade teaching and associated
strategies (eg self-study, peer-learning), or who have direct experience of working
in these settings, if they are to carry conviction with student teachers about the
benefits of multi-grade teaching.

171
In addition, teacher education institutions and university departments of education
are members of national and international academic and professional hierarchies
that legitimise some types of knowledge as more valuable than others. It is
symptomatic of both hierarchies that the realities facing the multi-grade teacher
worldwide barely warrant a mention in national and international education
research agenda, in priorities attached to training scholarships, in books about
the problems of education, in manuals on effective teaching, in information and
dissemination networks and in teacher education curricula.

172
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184

APPENDIX A

QUESTIONNAIRE

Dear Sir/Madam

MANAGING THE EFFECTS OF MULTIGRADE TEACHING
ON LEARNER PERFORMANCE IN NAMIBIA:
A questionnaire to determine what effect multigrade instruction has on learner
performance and what kind of preparation or training is needed to manage a
multigrade classroom effectively.

This questionnaire is part of a study that aims to address the above-mentioned
issues on multigrade instruction. Please take time to complete the questionnaire,
keeping the following in mind:

Answer all the questions.
Do not write your name on the questionnaire.

Each participant will be allocated an entity number to ensure anonymity.
The information collected will be made available to the Ministry of Education.

Thank you for your time and participation

Yours truly,

.
Ms F. Beukes

185

Section A

Instructions:
Please read each question carefully and circle the response that best represents
your answer:

1. Please indicate your gender.
Male 1
Female 2

2. What is your highest educational qualification?

Grade 12 1
Grade 12 and one year teacher training 2
Grade 12 and two years teacher training 3
Grade 12 and three years teacher training 4
Other, please specify 5
__________________________________________________________

3. How many years of teaching experience do you have?

Less than one year 1
More than one year, but less than five years 2
More than five years, but less than ten years 3
More than 10 years 4

4. How many years of teaching experience do you have in a
Multigrade classroom?

Less than one year 1
More than one year, but less than five years 2
More than five years, but less than ten years 3
More than 10 years 4

5. Have you had any training on multigrade instruction?

Yes, before 1990 1
Yes, after 1990 2
No 3

Example:

1. Please indicate your gender. Male 1
(If you are a male) Female 2

186

6. Please indicate your educational region.

Khomas 1
Hardap 2
Karas 3
Erongo 4

Section B

Instructions:
Please indicate with a cross (x) the extent to which you agree or disagree with the
following statements. Keep in mind that all statements refer to multi-grade
instruction.

Example:
1. Combinations of ages and levels exist at the same time.

Strongly
Agree
Agree Disagree Strongly Disagree
________________________________________________________________

1. Combinations of ages and levels exist at the same time.

Strongly
Agree

2. Learners work in small groups

Strongly
Agree

3. Learners work individually.

Strongly
Agree

4. Classroom rules and procedures are developed collaboratively between
teachers.

Strongly
Agree

187

5. Time is used flexibly in accordance with learners needs.

Strongly
Agree

6. Learners are encouraged to take responsibility for their own learning.

Strongly
Agree

7. Learners receive personal attention.

Strongly
Agree

8. Learners are expected to develop independence.

Strongly
Agree

9. Learners learn to set personal goals.

Strongly
Agree

10. Learners compete with themselves.

Strongly
Agree

11. Older learners have the opportunity to demonstrate helpfulness and
leadership.

Strongly
Agree

12. Learners are encouraged to move around in class.

Strongly
Agree

13. More planning is needed to teach in a multi-grade classroom.

188

Strongly
Agree

14. Appropriate teaching and learning materials are readily available.

Strongly
Agree

15. The teacher shares instructional responsibilities with the learners.

Strongly
Agree

16. Instruction is planned at the learners level of development.

Strongly
Agree

17. Teachers prepare activities to expand each learners level of understanding.

Strongly
Agree

18. The teacher has to develop a wide range of teaching strategies.

Strongly
Agree

19. A range of materials and resources are used when teaching.

Strongly
Agree

20. The teacher teaches one group while the other group work on its own.

Strongly
Agree

21. The teacher teaches a theme to both groups at the same time.

Strongly
Agree

22. Teachers should be able to decide if they want to teach in a multi-grade
classroom.

189

Strongly
Agree

23. Teachers need ongoing professional development.

Strongly
Agree

24. Teachers are less stressed.

Strongly
Agree

25. Learners serve as peer-teachers.

Strongly
Agree

26. The educational atmosphere is conducive to academic progress.

Strongly
Agree

27. Multi-grade classes invite cooperation and other forms of pro-social
behaviour.

Strongly
Agree

28. The need to discipline is less.

Strongly
Agree

29. Multi-grade classes can be seen as assets that promote quality learning.

Strongly
Agree

30. Teachers make use of specially designed guides and instructional materials.

Strongly
Agree

31. Learning tasks aim at high standards of performance

190

Strongly
Agree

32. Teachers need to be aware of learning styles, multiple intelligences and
abilities.

Strongly
Agree

33. Practical guidebooks are essential.

Strongly
Agree

34. Teachers have access to specialized materials to support their preparation.

Strongly
Agree

35. The conventional school curriculum addresses the needs of the multi-grade
class.

Strongly
Agree

36. Entrance tests are conducted to determine the educational level of each
learner.

Strongly
Agree

37. Teachers consider learner differences when planning for instruction.

Strongly
Agree

38. Learners progress at their own pace.

Strongly
Agree

39. Learners are assessed on a daily basis.

Strongly
Agree

191
40. Competition is minimized in a multi-grade classroom.

Strongly
Agree

41. Learners assess themselves.

Strongly
Agree

42. Assessment is ongoing.

Strongly
Agree

43. Students are assessed in multiple ways.

Strongly
Agree

44. Parents are involved in the education of their children.

Strongly
Agree

45. Parental involvement is important for the success of multi-grade teaching.

Strongly
Agree

46. The community is strongly involved in the support and management of the
school.

Strongly
Agree

Thank you for completing this questionnaire.

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