Lecturer I: Unit I 2D Primitives - Introduction Regulation 2008

UNIT I 2D PRIMITIVES - INTRODUCTION Regulation 2008
Ms.A.Aruna , Assistant Professor / IT, SNSCE 1

LECTURER I

A SURVEY OF COMPUTER GRAPHICS
The objectives of this lesson are to make the student aware of the following concepts
History of Computer Graphics
Applications of Computer Graphics
Graphical User Interface
INTRODUCTION
Computer Graphic is the discipline of producing picture or images using a computer
which include modeling, creation, manipulation, storage of geometric objects, rendering,
converting a scene to an image, the process of transformations, rasterization, shading,
illumination, animation of the image, etc. Computer Graphics has been widely used in graphics
presentation, paint systems, computer-aided design (CAD), image processing, simulation, etc.
From the earliest text character images of a non-graphic mainframe computers to the
latest photographic quality images of a high resolution personal computers, from vector displays
to raster displays, from 2D input, to 3D input and beyond, computer graphics has gone through
its short, rapid changing history. From games to virtual reality, to 3D active desktops, from
unobtrusive immersive home environments, to scientific and business, computer graphics
technology has touched almost every concern of our life. Before we get into the details, we have
a short tour through the history of computer graphics
HISTORY OF COMPUTER GRAPHICS
In the 1950s, output are via teletypes, lineprinter, and Cathode Ray Tube (CRT). Using
dark and light characters, a picture can be reproduced. In the 1960s, beginnings of modern
interactive graphics, output are vector graphics and interactive graphics.
One of the worst problems was the cost and inaccessibility of machines. In the early
1970s, output start using raster displays, graphics capability was still fairly chunky. In the
1980s output are built-in raster graphics, bitmap image and pixel. Personal computers costs
decrease drastically; trackball and mouse become the standard interactive devices.
In the 1990s, since the introduction of VGA and SVGA, personal computer could easily
display photo-realistic images and movies. 3D image renderings became the main advances and


it stimulated cinematic graphics applications. Table 1: gives a general history of computer
graphics.

TABLE 1.1: GENERAL HISTORY OF COMPUTER GRAPHICS

YEAR INVENTIONS , DISCOVERY AND FINDINGS
1950
Ben Laposky created the first graphic images, an Oscilloscope, generated by
an electronic (analog) machine. The image was produced by manipulating
electronic beams and recording them onto high-speed film.
1951
1.UNIVAC-I: the first general purpose commercial computer, crude hardcopy
devices, and line printer pictures.
2.MIT Whirlwind computer, the first to display real time video, and capable
of displaying real time text and graphic on a large oscilloscope screen.
1960 William Fetter coins the computer graphics to describe new design methods.
1961 Steve Russel developed Spacewars, the first video/computer game
1963
1. Douglas Englebart developed first mouse
2. Ivan Sutherland developed Sketchpad, an interactive CG system, a man-
machine graphical communication system with pop-up menus, constraint-
based drawing, hierarchical modeling, and utilized lightpen for interaction. He
formulated the ideas of using primitives, lines polygons, arcs, etc. and
constraints on them; He developed the dragging, rubberbanding and
transforming algorithms; He introduced data structures or storing. He is
considered the founder of the computer graphics.
1964
William Fetter developed first computer model of a human figure
1965
Jack Bresenham designed line-drawing algorithm
1968
1. Tektronix a special CRT, the direct-view storage tube, with keyboard and
mouse, a simple computer interface for $15, 000, which made graphics
affordable
2. Ivan Sutherland developed first head-mounted display
1969
John Warnock area subdivision algorithm, hidden-surface algorithms
Bell Labs first framebuffer containing 3 bits per pixel
1972 Nolan Kay Bushnell Pong, video arcade game
1973
John Whitney. Jr. and Gary Demos Westworld, first film with computer
graphics
1974
Edwin Catmuff texture mapping and Z-buffer hidden-surface algorithm
James Blinn curved surfaces, refinement of texture mapping
Phone Bui-Toung specular highlighting
1975
Martin Newell famous CG teapot, using Bezier patches
Benoit Mandelbrot fractal/fractional dimension


1976 James Blinn environment mapping and bump mapping
1977 Steve Wozniak -- Apple II, color graphics personal computer
1979 Roy Trubshaw and Richard Bartle MUD, a multi-user dungeon/Zork
1982
Steven Lisberger Tron, first Disney movie which makes extensive use of
3-D graphics
Tom Brighman Morphing, first film sequence plays a female character
which deforms
and transforms herself into the shape of a lynx.
John Walkner and Dan Drake AutoCAD
1983 Jaron Lanier DataGlove, a virtual reality film.
1984 Wavefron tech. Polhemus, first 3D graphics software
1985
Pixar Animation Studios Luxo Jr., 1989, Tin toy
NES Nintendo home game system
1987 IBM VGA, Video Graphics Array introduced
1989
Video Electronics Standards Association (VESA) SVGA, Super VGA
formed
1990 Hanrahan and Lawson Renderman
1991
Disney and Pixar Beauty and the Beast, CGI was widely used,
Renderman systems provides fast, accurate and high quality digital computer
effects.
1992 Silicon Graphics OpenGL specification
1993
University of Illinois -- Mosaic, first graphic Web browser
Steven Spielberg Jurassic Park a successful CG fiction film.
1995
Buena Vista Pictures Toy Story, first full-length, computer-generated,
feature film
NVIDIA Corporation GeForce 256, GeForce3(2001)
2003 ID Software Doom3 graphics engine

APPLICATIONS OF COMPUTER GRAPHICS
COMPUTER AIDED DESIGN
Computer-aided design (CAD) is use of a wide range of computer based tools that assist
engineers, architects and other design profession in their design activities. It is the main
geometry authoring tool within the Product Lifecycle Management process and involves both
software and sometimes special-purpose hardware. Current packages range from 2D vector base
drafting systems to 3D solid and surface modellers.



Figure1.1: CAD Process
CAD is used to design, develop and optimize products, which can be goods used by end
consumers or intermediate goods used in other products. CAD is also extensively used in the
design of tools and machinery used in the manufacture of components, and in the drafting and
design of all types of buildings, from small residential types (houses) to the largest commercial
and industrial structures (hospitals and factories).
CAD is mainly used for detailed engineering of 3D models and/or 2D drawings of
physical components, but it is also used throughout the engineering process from conceptual
design and layout of products, through strength and dynamic analysis of assemblies to definition
of manufacturing methods of components.
CAD has become an especially important technology, within the scope of Computer
Aided technologies, with benefits such as lower product development costs and a greatly
shortened design cycle. CAD enables designers to layout and develop work on screen, print it out
and save it for future editing, saving time on their drawings.
The capabilities of modern CAD systems include
a. Wireframe geometry creation
b. 3D parametric feature based modelling, Solid modeling
c. Freeform surface modeling
d. Automated design of assemblies, which are collections of parts and/or other
assemblies


e. create Engineering drawings from the solid models
f. Reuse of design components
g. Ease of modification of design of model and the production of multiple versions
h. Automatic generation of standard components of the design
i. Validation/verification of designs against specifications and design rules
j. Simulation of designs without building a physical prototype
k. Output of engineering documentation, such as manufacturing drawings, and Bills
of Materials to reflect the BOM required to build the product,
l. Import/Export routines to exchange data with other software packages,
m. Output of design data directly to manufacturing facilities
n. Output directly to a Rapid Prototyping or Rapid Manufacture Machine for
industrial prototypes
o. Maintain libraries of parts and assemblies
p. calculate mass properties of parts and assemblies
q. Aid visualization with shading, rotating, hidden line removal, etc...,
r. Bi-directional parametric association (modification of any feature is reflected in
all information relying on that feature; drawings, mass properties, assemblies,
etc... and counter wise),
s. kinematics, interference and clearance checking of assemblies,
t. Sheet metal,
u. Hose/cable routing,
v. Electrical component packaging,
w. Inclusion of programming code in a model to control and relate desired attributes
of the model,
x. Programmable design studies and optimization,
y. Sophisticated visual analysis routines, for draft, curvature, curvature continuity...
Originally software for CAD systems were developed with computer language such as
Fortran, but with the advancement of object-oriented programming methods this has radically
changed. Typical modern parametric feature based modeler and freeform surface systems are
built around a number of key C programming language modules with their own APIs.


Today most CAD computer workstations are Windows based PCs; some CAD systems also
run on hardware running with one of the Unix operating systems and a few with Linux. Some
CAD systems such as NX provide multiplatform support including
Windows, LINUX, UNIX and Mac OSX.
VIDEOS LINK
CAD of JET Engine : http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=qc08euAm7YQ ,
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=oQ81dRH6EY0
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=klsbq5Xt5-E
CAD and Rapid Prototyping : http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=WqxdbN_MLiU
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=kDS-vxSLous
Parachute Modeling and Simulation : http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=yJf5JbWB58s
virtual 3-D interiors (Virtual Environment) : http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=MWsTwRyGpD4
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2LN5JRl8_sU
CAM(jewelry industry: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=SUPq3UwsF2w
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=wP5xLwbmP2M
CAD Design : http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=XW1gmRr2ym8
CAD Robot : http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=v90SQYwyXmc

Figure 1.2 : CAD of JET Engine Fig 1.3: CAD and Rapid Prototyping Fig 1.4: Parachute Modeling and Simulation

Fig 1.5:virtual 3-D interiors Fig 1.6 CAM(jewelry industry) Fig 1.7: CAD Design
(Virtual Environment)


Fig 1.8: CAD robot
Generally no special hardware is required with the exception of a high end OpenGL
based Graphics card; however for complex product design, machines with high speed (and
possibly multiple) CPUs and large amounts of RAM are recommended. The human-machine
interface is generally via a computer mouse but can also be via a pen and digitizing graphics
tablet. Manipulation of the view of the model on the screen is also sometimes done with the use
of a spacemouse/SpaceBall. Some systems also support stereoscopic glasses for viewing the 3D
model.
COMPUTER AIDED MANUFACTURING

Since the age of the Industrial Revolution, the manufacturing process has undergone
many dramatic changes. One of the most dramatic of these changes is the introduction of
Computer Aided Manufacturing (CAM), a system of using computer technology to assist the
manufacturing process.
Through the use of CAM, a factory can become highly automated, through systems such
as real-time control and robotics. A CAM system usually seeks to control the production process
through varying degrees of automation. Because each of the many manufacturing processes in a
CAM system is computer controlled, a high degree of precision can be achieved that is not
possible with a human interface.
The CAM system, for example, sets the toolpath and executes precision machine
operations based on the imported design. Some CAM systems bring in additional automation by
also keeping track of materials and automating the ordering process, as well as tasks such as tool
replacement.
Computer Aided Manufacturing is commonly linked to Computer Aided Design (CAD)
systems. The resulting integrated CAD/CAM system then takes the computergenerated design,
and feeds it directly into the manufacturing system; the design is then converted into multiple
computer-controlled processes, such as drilling or turning.


Another advantage of Computer Aided Manufacturing is that it can be used to facilitate
mass customization: the process of creating small batches of products that are custom designed
to suit each particular client. Without CAM, and the CAD process that precedes it, customization
would be a time-consuming, manual and costly process. However, CAD software allows for easy
customization and rapid design changes: the automatic controls of the CAM system make it
possible to adjust the machinery automatically for each different order.
Robotic arms and machines are commonly used in factories, but these do still require
human workers. The nature of those workers' jobs change however. The repetitive tasks are
delegated to machines; the human workers' job descriptions then move more towards set-up,
quality control, using CAD systems to create the initial designs, and machine maintenance.
ENTERTAINMENT
One of the main goals of todays special effects producers and animators is to create images with
highest levels of photorealism. Volume graphics is the key technology to provide full immersion
in upcoming virtual worlds e.g. movies or computer games. Real world phenomena can be
realized best with true physics based models and volume graphics is the tool to generate,
visualize and even feel these models! Movies like Star Wars Episode I, Titanic and The Fifth
Element already started employing true physics based effects.

Fig 1.9: Entertainment Games

MEDICAL CONTENT CREATION
` Medical content creation has become more and more important in entertainment and
education in the last years. For instance, virtual anatomical atlas on CD-ROM and DVD have
been build on the base of the NIH Visible Human Project data set and different kind of
simulation and training software were build up using volume rendering techniques. Volume
Graphics' products like the VGStudio software are dedicated to the used in the field of medical
content creation. VGStudio provides powerful tools to manipulate and edit volume data. An easy
to use keyframer tool allows to generate animations, e.g. flights through any kind of volume


data. In addition VGStudio provides highest image quality and unsurpassed performance already
on a PC!

Fig 1.10: Images of a fetus rendered by a V.G. Studio MAX user.

ADVERTISEMENT

Voxel data can be used to visualize the most fascinating and complex facts in the world.
The visualization of the human body and medical content creation is an example. Voxel data sets
like CT or MRI scans or the exciting Visible Human data show all the finest details up to the
gross structures of the human anatomy. Images rendered by Volume Graphics 3D graphics
software are already used for US TV productions as well as for advertising. Volume Graphics
cooperates with companies specialized on Video and TV productions as well as with advertising
agencies.

VISUALIZATION

Visualization is any technique for creating images, diagrams, or animations to
communicate a message. Visualization through visual imagery has been an effective way to
communicate both abstract and concrete ideas since the dawn of man. Visualization today has
ever-expanding applications in science, engineering Product visualization, all forms of
education, interactive multimedia, medicine etc. Typical of a visualization application is the field
of computer graphics. The invention of computer graphics may be the most important
development in visualization. The development of animation also helped advance visualization.



Fig 1.11: Visualization of how a car deforms in an Fig 1.12: Computer aided Learning
asymmetrical crash using finite element analysis.

Visualization is the process of representing data as descriptive images and, subsequently,
interacting with these images in order to gain additional insight into the data. Traditionally,
computer graphics has provided a powerful mechanism for creating and manipulating these
representations. Graphics and visualization research addresses the problem of converting data
into compelling and revealing images that suit users needs. Research includes developing new
representations of 3D geometry, choosing appropriate graphical realizations of data, strategies
for collaborative visualization in a networked environment using three dimensional data, and
designing software systems that support a full range of display formats ranging from PDAs to
immersive multi-display visualization environments.



VISUALIZING COMPLEX SYSTEMS
Graphic images and models are proving not only useful, but crucial in many
contemporary fields dealing with complex data. Only by graphically combining millions of
discrete data items, for example, can meteorologists track weather systems, including hurricanes
that may threaten thousands of lives. Theoretical physicists depend on images to think about
events like collisions of cosmic strings at 75 percent of the speed of light, and chaos theorists
require pictures to find order within apparent disorder. Computeraided design systems are critical
to the design and manufacture of an extensive range of contemporary products, from silicon
chips to automobiles, in fields ranging from space technology to clothing design.
Computer systems, on which we all increasingly depend, are also becoming more and
more visually oriented. Graphical user interfaces are the emerging standard, and graphic tools are
the heart of contemporary systems analysis, identifying and preventing critical errors and
omissions that might otherwise not be evident until the system is in daily use. Graphic computer-
aided systems engineering (CASE) tools are now used to build other computer systems. Recent
research indicates that visual computer programming produces better comprehension and
accuracy than do traditional programming languages based on words, and commercial visual
programming packages are now on the market.
Medical research and practice offer many examples of the use of graphic tools and
images. Conceptualizing the deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) double helix permitted dramatic
advances in genetic research years before the structure could actually be seen.
Computerized imaging systems like computerized tomography (CT) and magnetic
resonance imaging (MRI) have produced dramatic improvements in the diagnosis and treatment
of serious illness, and a project compiling a three-dimensional cross-section of the human body
provides a new approach to the study of anatomy. X-rays, venerable medical imaging tools, are
now being combined with expert systems to help physicians identify other cases similar to those
they are handling, suggesting additional diagnostic and treatment information relevant to
patients.
Sociologists and social psychologists use graphic tools extensively in their research
programs. They often turn to sociograms and other visual tools to present and explain concepts
extracted from complex statistical analyses and to identify meaningful patterns in the data.
Graphic depiction of exchange networks permits the study of changes among groups over time.


Another useful approach is Bales's Systematic Multiple Level Observation of Groups
(SYMLOG), which provides a three-dimensional graphic representation of friendliness,
instrumental-versus-expressive orientation, and dominance in small groups.
Graphic visualization has demonstrated utility for organizing information effectively and
coherently in a broad range of fields dealing with complex data. Social work deals with similarly
(and sometimes more) complex patterns and contextual situations, and, in fact, social work and
related disciplines have discovered the utility of images for conceptualizing and communicating
about clinical practice.
GRAPHICAL USER INTERFACE
A graphical user interface (GUI) is a type of user interface which allows people to
interact with a computer and computer-controlled devices which employ graphical icons, visual
indicators or special graphical elements called "widgets", along with text, labels or text
navigation to represent the information and actions available to a user. The actions are usually
performed through direct manipulation of the graphical elements. The precursor to graphical user
interfaces was invented by researchers at the Stanford Research Institute, led by Douglas
Engelbart. They developed the use of textbased hyperlinks manipulated with a mouse for the On-
Line System. The concept of hyperlinks was further refined and extended to graphics by
researchers at Xerox PARC, who went beyond text-based hyperlinks and used a GUI as the
primary interface for the Xerox Alto computer. Most modern general-purpose GUIs are derived
from this system. As a result, some people call this class of interface a PARC User Interface
(PUI) (note that PUI is also an acronym for perceptual user interface).
Following PARC the first commercially successful GUI-centric computer operating
models were those of the Apple Lisa but more successfully that of Macintosh System graphical
environment. The graphical user interfaces familiar to most people today are Microsoft
Windows, Mac OS X, and the X Window System interfaces. IBM and Microsoft used many of
Apple's ideas to develop the Common User Access specifications that formed the basis of the
user interface found in Microsoft Windows,
IBM OS/2 Presentation Manager, and the Unix Motif toolkit and window manager. These
ideas evolved to create the interface found in current versions of the Windows operating system,
as well as in Mac OS X and various desktop environments for Unix-like systems. Thus most
current graphical user interfaces have largely common idioms. Graphical user interface design is


an important adjunct to application programming. Its goal is to enhance the usability of the
underlying logical design of a stored program. The visible graphical interface features of an
application are sometimes referred to as "chrome". They include graphical elements (widgets)
that may be used to interact with the program. Common widgets are: windows, buttons, menus,
and scroll bars. Larger widgets, such as windows, usually provide a frame or container for the
main presentation content such as a web page, email message or drawing. Smaller ones usually
act as a user-input tool.
The widgets of a well-designed system are functionally independent from and indirectly
linked to program functionality, so the graphical user interface can be easily customized,
allowing the user to select or design a different skin at will. Some graphical user interfaces are
designed for the rigorous requirements of vertical markets. These are known as "application
specific graphical user interfaces." Examples of application specific graphical user interfaces:
Touch screen point of sale software used by wait staff in busy restaurants
Self-service checkouts used in some retail stores..
ATMs
Airline self-ticketing and check-in
Information kiosks in public spaces like train stations and museums
Monitor/control screens in embedded industrial applications which employ a real time
operating system (RTOS).

The latest cell phones and handheld game systems also employ application specific touch screen
graphical user interfaces. Cars have graphical user interfaces in them. For example, GPS
navigation, touch screen multimedia centers, and even on dashboards of the newer cars.
VIDEO LINK:
3D Window manager : http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=5_6Fuyu4l_E
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Rl5U8lBrySE
XGL 3D Desktop : http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=DrXHCE3VWxA



Fig 1.13: Metisse 3D Window manager Fig 1.14: XGL 3D Desktop

Fig 1.15: Residents training in Videoendoscopic Fig 1.16 : Visualization
Surgery Laboratory

THREE-DIMENSIONAL GRAPHICAL USER INTERFACES
For typical computer displays, three-dimensional are a misnomertheir displays are
two-dimensional. Three-dimensional images are projected on them in two dimensions. Since this
technique has been in use for many years, the recent use of the term three-dimensional must be
considered a declaration by equipment marketers that the speed of three dimension to two
dimension projection is adequate to use in standard graphical user interfaces.
Three-dimensional graphical user interfaces are common in science fiction literature and
movies, such as in Jurassic Park, which features Silicon Graphics' threedimensional file
manager.
In science fiction, three-dimensional user interfaces are often immersible environments
like William Gibson's Cyberspace or Neal Stephenson's Metaverse. Threedimensional graphics
are currently mostly used in computer games, art and computeraided design (CAD). A three-
dimensional computing environment could possibly be used for collaborative work. For
example, scientists could study three-dimensional models of molecules in a virtual reality
environment, or engineers could work on assembling a three-dimensional model of an airplane.



OVERVIEW OF COMPUTER GRAPHICS
The objectives of this lesson are to make the student aware of the following concepts
Display systems
Cathode ray tube
Random Scan
Raster Scan and
Display processor

INTRODUCTION

Graphics Terminal: Interactive computer graphics terminals comprise distinct output and input
devices. Aside from power supplies and enclosures, these usually connect only via a computer
both connect to.
Output: A display system presenting rapidly variable (not just hard-copy) graphical output;
Input: Some input device(s), e.g. keyboard + mouse. These may provide
graphical input:
A mouse provides graphical input the computer echoes as a graphical cursor on the
display.
A keyboard typically provides graphical input located at a separate text cursor position.
There may be other I/O devices, e.g. a scanner and/or printer, microphone(s) and/or speakers.
A Display System typically comprises:
A display device such as a CRT (cathode ray tube), liquid crystal display, etc.
Most have a screen which presents a 2D image;
Stereoscopic displays show distinct 2D images to each eye (head-mounted / special
glasses);
Displays with true 3D images are available.
A display processor controlling the display according digital instructions about what to display.
Memory for these instructions or image data, possibly part of a computer's ordinary RAM.



Fig 1.17 Display System
COMPUTER DISPLAY
A computer display monitor, usually called simply a monitor, is a piece of electrical
equipment which displays viewable images generated by a computer without producing a
permanent record. The word "monitor" is used in other contexts; in particular in television
broadcasting, where a television picture is displayed to a high standard. A computer display
device is usually either a cathode ray tube or some form of flat panel such as a TFT LCD. The
monitor comprises the display device, circuitry to generate a picture from electronic signals sent
by the computer, and an enclosure or case. Within the computer, either as an integral part or a
plugged-in interface, there is circuitry to convert internal data to a format compatible with a
monitor.
The CRT or cathode ray tube, is the picture tube of a monitor. The back of the tube has a
negatively charged cathode. The electron gun shoots electrons down the tube and onto a charged
screen. The screen is coated with a pattern of dots that glow when struck by the electron stream.
Each cluster of three dots, one of each color, is one pixel.

Fig 1.17: Cathode Ray Tube


The image on the monitor screen is usually made up from at least tens of thousands of
such tiny dots glowing on command from the computer. The closer together the pixels are, the
sharper the image on screen. The distance between pixels on a computer monitor screen is called
its dot pitch and is measured in millimeters. Most monitors have a dot pitch of 0.28 mm or less.
There are two electromagnets around the collar of the tube which deflect the electron
beam. The beam scans across the top of the monitor from left to right, is then blanked and moved
back to the left-hand side slightly below the previous trace (on the next scan line), scans across
the second line and so on until the bottom right of the screen is reached. The beam is again
blanked, and moved back to the top left to start again.
This process draws a complete picture, typically 50 to 100 times a second. The number of
times in one second that the electron gun redraws the entire image is called the refresh rate and is
measured in hertz (cycles per second). It is common, particularly in lowerpriced equipment, for
all the odd-numbered lines of an image to be traced, and then all the even-numbered lines; the
circuitry of such an interlaced display need be capable of only half the speed of a non-interlaced
display. An interlaced display, particularly at a relatively low refresh rate, can appear to some
observers to flicker, and may cause eyestrain and nausea.

Fig 1.18: CRT Computer Monitor
As with television, several different hardware technologies exist for displaying computer-
generated output:
Liquid crystal display (LCD). LCDs are the most popular display device for new
computers in the Western world.
Cathode ray tube (CRT)
o Vector displays, as used on the Vectrex, many scientific and radar applications,
and several early arcade machines (notably Asteroids - always implemented using


CRT displays due to requirement for a deflection system, though can be emulated
on any raster-based display.
o Television receivers were used by most early personal and home computers,
connecting composite video to the television set using a modulator. Image quality
was reduced by the additional steps of composite video modulator TV tuner
composite video.
Plasma display
Surface-conduction electron-emitter display (SED)
Video projector - implemented using LCD, CRT, or other technologies. Recent
consumer-level video projectors are almost exclusively LCD based.
Organic light-emitting diode (OLED) display
The performance parameters of a monitor are:
1. Luminance, measured in candelas per square metre (cd/m).
2. Size, measured diagonally. For CRT the viewable size is one inch (25 mm) smaller then
the tube itself.
3. Dot pitch. Describes the distance between pixels of the same color in millimetres. In
general, the lower the dot pitch (e.g. 0.24 mm, which is also 240 micrometres), the
sharper the picture will appear.
4. Response time. The amount of time a pixel in an LCD monitor takes to go from active
(black) to inactive (white) and back to active (black) again. It is measured in milliseconds
(ms). Lower numbers mean faster transitions and therefore fewer visible image artifacts.
5. Refresh rate. The number of times in a second that a display is illuminated.
6. Power consumption, measured in watts (W).
7. Aspect ratio, which is the horizontal size compared to the vertical size, e.g. 4:3 is the
standard aspect ratio, so that a screen with a width of 1024 pixels will have a height of
768 pixels. A widescreen display can have an aspect ratio of 16:9, which means a display
that is 1024 pixels wide will have a height of 576 pixels.
8. Display resolution. The number of distinct pixels in each dimension that can be
displayed.



A fraction of all LCD monitors are produced with "dead pixels"; due to the desire to
increase profit margins by companies, most manufacturers sell monitors with dead pixels.
Almost all manufacturers have clauses in their warranties which claim monitors with fewer than
some number of dead pixels is not broken and will not be replaced.
The dead pixels are usually stuck with the green, red, and/or blue subpixels either
individually always stuck on or off. Like image persistence, this can sometimes be partially or
fully reversed by using the same method listed below, however the chance of success is far lower
than with a "stuck" pixel.
Screen burn-in, where a static image left on the screen for a long time embeds the image
into the phosphor that coats the screen, is an issue with CRT and Plasma computer monitors and
televisions. The result of phosphor burn-in are "ghostly" images of the static object visible even
when the screen has changed, or is even off.
This effect usually fades after a period of time. LCD monitors, while lacking phosphor
screens and thus immune to phosphor burn-in, have a similar condition known as image
persistence, where the pixels of the LCD monitor "remember" a particular color and become
"stuck" and unable to change. Unlike phosphor burn-in, however, image persistence can
sometimes be reversed partially or completely.
This is accomplished by rapidly displaying varying colors to "wake up" the stuck pixels.
Screensavers using moving images, prevent both of these conditions from happening by
constantly changing the display. Newer monitors are more resistant to burn-in, but it can still
occur if static images are left displayed for long periods of time.
Most modern computer displays can show thousands or millions of different colors in the
RGB color space by varying red, green, and blue signals in continuously variable intensities.
Many monitors have analog signal relay, but some more recent models (mostly LCD screens)
support digital input signals.
It is a common misconception that all computer monitors are digital. For several years,
televisions, composite monitors, and computer displays have been significantly different.
However, as TVs have become more versatile, the distinction has blurred. Some users use more
than one monitor. The displays can operate in multiple modes.
One of the most common spreads the entire desktop over all of the monitors, which thus
act as one big desktop. The X Window System refers to this as Xinerama.


Fig 1.19: Two Apple flat-screen monitors used as dual display
Display systems use either random or raster scan:
Random scan displays, often termed vector displays, came first and are still used in some
applications. Here the electron gun of a CRT illuminates points and/or straight lines in any order.
The display processor repeatedly reads a variable 'display file' defining a sequence of X,Y
coordinate pairs and brightness or colour values, and converts these to voltages controlling the
electron gun.

Fig 1.20: A Random Scan Display (outline)

Raster scan displays, also known as bit-mapped or raster displays, are somewhat less relaxed.
Their whole display area is updated many times a second from image data held in raster memory.
The rest of this handout concerns hardware and software aspects of raster displays.

RANDOM SCAN SYSTEMS
A two-dimensional video data acquisition system comprising: video detector apparatus
for scanning a visual scene; controller apparatus for generating scan pattern instructions; system
interface apparatus for selecting at least one scan pattern for acquisition of video data from the
visual scene, the scan pattern being selected from a plurality of such patterns in accordance with
the scan pattern instructions; and scan-video interface apparatus comprising random scan driver
apparatus for generating scan control signals in accordance with the selected scan pattern, the
video detector apparatus scanning the visual scene in accordance with the scan control signals to
provide an output to the system interface such that an intensity data map is stored therein, the


controller apparatus performing data processing of the intensity data map in accordance with a
predetermined set of video data characteristics.
RASTER SCAN
A Raster scan, or raster scanning, is the pattern of image detection and reconstruction in
television, and is the pattern of image storage and transmission used in most computer bitmap
image systems. The word raster comes from the Latin word for a rake, as the pattern left by a
rake resembles the parallel lines of a scanning raster.
In a raster scan, an image is cut up into successive samples called pixels, or picture
elements, along scan lines. Each scan line can be transmitted as it is read from the detector, as in
television systems, or can be stored as a row of pixel values in an array in a computer system. On
a television receiver or computer monitor, the scan line is turned back to a line across an image,
in the same order. After each scan line, the position of the scan line is advanced, typically
downward across the image in a process known as vertical scanning, and a next scan line is
detected, transmitted, stored, retrieved, or displayed. This ordering of pixels by rows is known as
raster order, or raster scan order.
RASTERS
Lexically, a raster is a series of adjacent parallel 'lines' which together form an image on a
display screen. In early analogue television sets each such line is scanned continuously, not
broken up into distinct units. In computer or digital displays these lines are composed of
independently coloured pixels (picture elements).
Mathematically we consider a raster to be a rectangular grid or array of pixel positions:

Fig 1.21: Raster


Pixel positions have X,Y coordinates. Usually Y points down. This may reflect early use to
display text to western readers. Also when considering 3D, right-handed coordinates imply Z
represents depth.
PI XEL VALUES
The colour of each pixel of a display is controlled by a distinct digital memory element. Each
such element holds a pixel value encoding a monochrome brightness or colour to be displayed.
Monochrome displays are of two types. Bi-level displays have 1-bit pixels and have
been green or orange as well as black-and-white. Greyscale displays usually have 8 to 16 bit
pixel values encoding brightness.
Non-monochrome displays also have different types. True-colour displays have pixel
values divided into three component intensities, usually red, green and blue, often of 8 bits each.
This used to be very costly. Alternatively the pixel values may index into a fixed or variable
colour map defining a limited colour palette. Pseudo-colour displays with 8-bit pixels indexing
a variable colour map of 256 colours have been common.
RASTER MEMORY
Pixmap: A pixmap is storage for a whole raster of pixel values. Usually a contiguous area of
memory, comprising one row (or column) of pixels after another.
Bitmap: Technically a bitmap is a pixmap with 1 bit per pixel, i.e. boolean colour values, e.g.
for use in a black-and-white display. But 'bitmap' is often misused to mean any pixmap - please
try to avoid this!
Pixrect: A pixrect is any 'rectangular area' within a pixmap. A pixrect thus typically refers to a
series of equal-sized fragments of the memory within a pixmap, one for each row (or column) of
pixels.

Fig 1.22: Raster Memory


Frame Buffer: In a bit-mapped display, the display processor refreshes the screen 25 or more
times per second, a line at a time, from a pixmap termed its frame buffer. In each refresh cycle,
each pixel's colour value is 'copied' from the frame buffer to the screen.
Frame buffers are often special two-ported memory devices ('video memory') with one port for
writing and another for concurrent reading. Alternatively they can be part of the ordinary fast
RAM of a computer, which allows them to be extensively reconfigured by software.
Additional raster memory may exist 'alongside' that for colour values. For example there
may be an 'alpha channel' (transparency values) a z-buffer (depth values for hidden object
removal), or an a-buffer (combining both ideas). The final section of these notes will return to
this area, especially use of a z-buffer.
KEY ATTRIBUTES OF RASTER DISPLAYS
Major attributes that vary between different raster displays include the following:
'Colour': bi-level, greyscale, pseudo-colour, true colour: see 'pixel values' above;
Size: usually measured on the diagonal: inches or degrees;
Aspect ratio: now usually 5:4 or 4:3 (625-line TV: 4:3; HDTV: 5:3);
Resolution: e.g. 10241280 (pixels). Multiplying these numbers together we can say e.g.
'a 1.25 Mega-pixel display'. Avoid terms such as low/medium/high resolution which may
change over time.
Pixel shape: now usually square; other rectangular shapes have been used.
Brightness, sharpness, contrast: possibly varying significantly with respect to view
angle.
Speed, interlacing: now usually 50 Hz or more and flicker-free to most humans;
Computational features:
Since the 1970s, raster display systems have evolved to offer increasingly
powerful facilities, often packaged in optional graphics accelerator boards or chips. These
facilities have typically consisted of hardware implementation or acceleration of
computations which would otherwise be coded in software, such as:
Raster-ops: fast 2D raster-combining operations
2D scan conversion, i.e. creating raster images required by 2D drawing primitives such
as:


o 2D lines, e.g. straight/circular/elliptical lines, maybe spline curves (based on
several points);
o 2D coloured areas, e.g. polygons or just triangles, possibly with colour
interpolation;
o Text (often copied from rasterised fonts using raster-ops);
3D graphics acceleration, now often including 3D scan conversion, touched on below:
It is useful for graphics software developers to be aware of such features and how
they can be accessed, and to have insight into their cost in terms of time taken as a
function of length or area.
DISPLAY PROCESSOR
A display processor for displaying data in one or more windows on a display screen. The
display processor divides a display screen into a plurality of horizontal strips with each strip
further subdivided into a plurality of tiles. Each tile represents a portion of a window to be
displayed on the screen. Each tile is defined by tile descriptors which include memory address
locations of data to be display in that tile. The descriptors need only be changed when the
arrangement of the windows on the screen is changed or when the mapping of any of the
windows into the bit-map is changed. The display processor of the present invention does not
require a bit map frame buffer to be utilized before displaying windowed data on a screen. Each
horizontal strip may be as thin as 1 pixel, which allows for the formation of windows of irregular
shapes, such as circles.
GRAPHICS INPUT DEVICES
INTRODUCTION
In the following subsection we will learn about the following input devices
a. Keyboard
b. Mouse
c. Data gloves
d. Graphics Tablet
e. Scanner
f. Joystick
g. Light Pen



KEYBOARD
A keyboard is a peripheral partially modeled after the typewriter keyboard. Keyboards are
designed to input text and characters, as well as to operate a computer. Physically, keyboards are
an arrangement of rectangular buttons, or "keys". Keyboards typically have characters engraved
or printed on the keys; in most cases, each press of a key corresponds to a single written symbol.
However, to produce some symbols requires pressing and holding several keys simultaneously or
in sequence; other keys do not produce any symbol, but instead affect the operation of the
computer or the keyboard itself

Fig 1.23a : Keyboard
Roughly 50% of all keyboard keys produce letters, numbers or signs (characters). Other keys can
produce actions when pressed, and other actions are available by the simultaneous pressing of
more than one action key.

Fig 1.23b : Keyboard Fig 1.23 c: foldable keyboard


MOUSE
A mouse (plural mice or mouses) functions as a pointing device by detecting two-
dimensional motion relative to its supporting surface. Physically, a mouse consists of a small
case, held under one of the user's hands, with one or more buttons. It sometimes features other
elements, such as "wheels", which allow the user to perform various system-dependent
operations, or extra buttons or features can add more control or dimensional input. The mouse's
motion typically translates into the motion of a pointer on a display.
The name mouse, coined at the Stanford Research Institute, derives from the resemblance
of early models (which had a cord attached to the rear part of the device, suggesting the idea of a
tail) to the common eponymous rodent. The first marketed integrated mouse shipped as a part
of a computer and intended for personal computer navigation came with the Xerox 8010 Star
Information System in 1981.

Fig 1.24a : Mouse Fig 1.24b : first computer mouse, held by
inventor Douglas Engelbart

Mouse-Mechanism-Cutaway
1: Pulling the mouse turns the ball.
2: X and Y rollers grip the ball and transfer movement.
3: Optical encoding disks include light holes.
4: Infrared LEDs shine through the disks.
5: Sensors gather light pulses to convert to X and Y velocities
Fig 1.24c : Mouse-Mechanism



DATA GLOVES
A glove equipped with sensors that sense the movements of the hand and interfaces those
movements with a computer. Data gloves are commonly used in virtual reality environments
where the user sees an image of the data glove and can manipulate the movements of the virtual
environment using the glove
GRAPHICS TABLET
A graphics tablet is a computer input device that allows one to hand-draw images and graphics,
similar to the way one draws images with a pencil and paper. A Graphics tablet consists of a flat
surface upon which the user may "draw" an image using an attached stylus, a pen-like drawing
apparatus. The image generally does not appear on the tablet itself but, rather, is displayed on the
computer monitor.

Fig 1.25a : Wacom Graphire4 graphics tablet Fig 1.25b : Gerber graphics tablet

SCANNER
A scanner is a device that analyzes images, printed text, or handwriting, or an object
(such as an ornament) and converts it to a digital image. Most scanners today are variations of
the desktop (or flatbed) scanner.
The flatbed scanner is the most common in offices. Hand-held scanners, where the device
is moved by hand, were briefly popular but are now not used due to the difficulty of obtaining a


high-quality image. Both these types of scanners use charge-coupled device (CCD) or Contact
Image Sensor (CIS) as the image sensor, whereas older drum scanners use a photomultiplier tube
as the image sensor.
Another category of scanner is a rotary scanner used for high-speed document scanning.
This is another kind of drum scanner, but it uses a CCD array instead of a photomultiplier.
Other types of scanners are planetary scanners, which take photographs of books and
documents, and 3D scanners, for producing three-dimensional models of objects, but this type of
scanner is considerably more expensive relative to other types of scanners.
Another category of scanner are digital camera scanners which are based on the concept
of reprographic cameras. Due to the increasing resolution and new features such as anti-shake,
digital cameras become an attractive alternative to regular scanners. While still containing
disadvantages compared to traditional scanners, digital cameras offer unmatched advantages in
speed and portability.

Fig 1.26 : Image scanner

JOYSTICK
A joystick is a personal computer peripheral or general control device consisting of a
handheld stick that pivots about one end and transmits its angle in two or three dimensions to a
computer.


Joysticks are often used to control video games, and usually have one or more push-buttons
whose state can also be read by the computer. The term joystick has become a synonym for game
controllers that can be connected to the computer since the computer defines the input as a
"joystick input".
Apart from controlling games, joysticks are also used for controlling machines such as
aircraft, cranes, trucks, powered wheelchairs and some zero turning radius lawn mowers. More
recently miniature joysticks have been adopted as navigational devices for smaller electronic
equipment such as mobile phones.
There has a been a recent and very significant drop in joystick popularity in the gaming
industry. This is primarily due to the shrinkage of the flight simulator genre, and the almost
complete disappearance of space-based simulators. Joysticks can be used within first-person
shooter games, but are significantly less accurate than a mouse-keyboard. This is one of the
fundamental reasons why multiplayer console games are not compatible with PC versions of the
same game.
A handful of recent games, including Halo 2 and Shadowrun, have allowed console-PC
matchings, but have significantly handicapped PC users by requiring them to use the auto-aim
feature.
J oystick elements:
1. Stick
2. Base
3. Trigger
4. Extra buttons
5. Autofire switch
6. Throttle
7. Hat Switch (POV Hat)
8. Suction Cup Fig 1.27 : Joystick

LIGHT PEN
A light pen is a computer input device in the form of a light-sensitive wand used in
conjunction with the computer's CRT monitor. It allows the user to point to displayed objects, or
draw on the screen, in a similar way to a touch screen but with greater positional accuracy. A


light pen can work with any CRT-based monitor, but not with LCD screens, projectors and other
display devices.
A light pen is fairly simple to implement. The light pen works by sensing the sudden
small change in brightness of a point on the screen when the electron gun refreshes that spot. By
noting exactly where the scanning has reached at that moment, the X,Y position of the pen can
be resolved. This is usually achieved by the light pen causing an interrupt, at which point the
scan position can be read from a special register, or computed from a counter or timer. The pen
position is updated on every refresh of the screen.
The light pen became moderately popular during the early 1980s. It was notable for its
use in the Fairlight CMI, and the BBC Micro. Even some consumer products were given Light
pens. For example, the Toshiba DX-900 VHS HiFi/PCM Digital VCR came with one. However,
due to the fact that the user was required to hold his or her arm in front of the screen for long
periods of time, the light pen fell out of use as a general purpose input device.
The first light pen was used around 1957 on the Lincoln TX-0 computer at the MIT
Lincoln Laboratory. Contestants on the game show Jeopardy! use a light pen to write down their
answers and wagers for the Final Jeopardy! round. Light pens are used country-wide in Belgium
for voting.

Fig 1.27 : Light Pen C-64

Lecturer I: Unit I 2D Primitives - Introduction Regulation 2008

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UNIT I 2D PRIMITIVES - INTRODUCTION Regulation 2008

Ms.A.Aruna , Assistant Professor / IT, SNSCE 1

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