Soc Psychol Educ (2011) 14:427439

DOI 10.1007/s11218-011-9155-1
Intrinsic motivation, extrinsic motivation, and academic
achievement among Indian adolescents in Canada
and India
Shaljan Areepattamannil John G. Freeman
Don A. Klinger
Received: 30 November 2010 / Accepted: 20 March 2011 / Published online: 22 April 2011
Springer Science+Business Media B.V. 2011
Abstract The purpose of the present study was to examine the relationships among
intrinsic motivation, extrinsic motivation, and academic achievement for the Indian
immigrant adolescents in Canada in comparison to their counterparts in India. Descrip-
tive discriminant analysis indicated that the Indian immigrant adolescents in Canada
had higher intrinsic motivation and academic achievement than their peers in India.
By contrast, the Indian adolescents in India had higher extrinsic motivation than their
counterparts in Canada. Hierarchical multiple regression analyses revealed the positive
predictive effects of intrinsic motivation on academic achievement for both the Indian
immigrant and Indian adolescents. While extrinsic motivation had a negative predic-
tive effect on academic achievement for the Indian immigrant adolescents in Canada,
it was not a significant predictor of academic achievement for the Indian adolescents
in India. Implications of the ndings for policy and practice are discussed.
Keywords Intrinsic motivation Extrinsic motivation Academic achievement
Indian immigrant adolescents Indian adolescents
1 Introduction
Childrens abilities and skills do not fully explain their academic achievement
(Grahamand Hudley 2005; Pintrich 2003; Schunk and Zimmerman 2007), suggesting
that there are also other pertinent factors at play in determining childrens academic
achievement. It is in this context that the noncognitive correlates of academic achieve-
ment, such as intrinsic motivation and extrinsic motivation, have been found to play a
pivotal role in childrens school achievement (see Areepattamannil and Freeman 2008;
S. Areepattamannil (B) J. G. Freeman D. A. Klinger
Faculty of Education, Queens University, Kingston, Ontario, K7M 5R7, Canada
e-mail: shaljan.areepattamannil@queensu.ca
1 3
428 S. Areepattamannil et al.
Areepattamannil et al. 2010; Becker et al. 2010; Lee et al. 2010). Furthermore, intrin-
sic motivation and extrinsic motivation form the basis of some of the contemporary
theories of academic motivation, such as self-determination theory (SDT; Deci and
Ryan 1985, 2000, 2008a; Niemiec et al. 2010; Ryan and Deci 2000a; Vansteenkiste
et al. 2008) and attribution theory (Weiner 1986, 1995, 2006). However, the contem-
porary theories of academic motivation and the two distinct types of academic moti-
vationintrinsic and extrinsicare the offspring of Western theorizing and research.
Thus, most of the research pertaining to academic motivation and motivational beliefs
involved Western, particularly American, participants (Klassen 2004; Klassen and
Usher 2010).
Because modern education needs cross-cultural psychology (Triandis 2001,
p. 1), it is of critical importance to broaden the purview of motivation theories
and research to account for the experiences of culturally diverse groups (Murdock
2009; McInerney and Van Etten 2004). However, concurring with Klassen (2004),
McInerney (2007) posits that when motivational and learning theories are trans-
ported to new cultural and social settings to understand and manage individual and
group behavior, there might be a mismatch (p. 369). Therefore, more empirical
research, examining the effects of motivational constructs on learning outcomes for
school children across cultures, is warranted. Although there is an increasing body of
research devoted to the study of academic motivation across East Asian cultures (e.g.,
Liemand Nie 2008; Zhou and Salili 2008), no study to date has examined the interrela-
tionships among intrinsic motivation, extrinsic motivation, and academic achievement
for adolescents, particularly for Indian adolescents, in South Asia and Indian immi-
grant adolescents in Canada. Hence, the objectives of the present study were to: (1)
examine the intrinsic motivation, extrinsic motivation, and academic achievement of
Indian immigrant adolescents in Canada in comparison to their counterparts in India;
and (2) explore the predictive effects of intrinsic motivation and extrinsic motivation
on academic achievement for the Indian immigrant adolescents in Canada, and for the
Indian adolescents in India.
1.1 Intrinsic motivation, extrinsic motivation, and academic achievement
Historically, motivation theorists and their motivation theories have treated motiva-
tion primarily as a unidimensional concept (Deci and Ryan 2008b). Furthermore,
several contemporary theories of motivation unduly emphasize the overall amount of
motivation, and fail to differentiate the types of motivation (Deci and Ryan 2008a,b).
Motivation, according to SDT, is multidimensional in nature (Deci and Ryan 2000),
and the multidimensional motivation orientation encompasses three global types of
motivation: intrinsic motivation, extrinsic motivation, and amotivation (Deci and Ryan
1985, 2000, 2008a). Of these, intrinsic motivation and extrinsic motivation are the two
primary types of motivated academic behavior (Cokley 2003). Ryan and Deci (2002)
posit:
Intrinsically motivated behaviors are those whose motivation is based in the
inherent satisfactions of the behaviors per se, rather than in contingencies or
reinforcements that are operationally separable from those activities. Intrinsic
1 3
Intrinsic and extrinsic motivation, and achievement 429
motivationrepresents a prototype of self-determinedactivity, inthat, whenintrin-
sically motivated, people engage in activities freely, being sustained by the expe-
rience of interest and enjoyment. (p. 10)
Thus, intrinsic motivation is the most self-determined formof academic motivation
(Vallerand and Ratelle 2002). Initially, motivation theorists argued that intrinsic moti-
vation was unidimensional in nature (Vallerand and Ratelle 2002). Later, Vallerand and
his colleagues (Vallerand et al. 1989, 1992, 1993) proposed a tripartite taxonomy of
intrinsic motivation: intrinsic motivation to know, intrinsic motivation to accomplish,
and intrinsic motivation to experience stimulation. Vallerand (1997) differentiates the
three types of intrinsic motivation. Intrinsic motivation to know refers to the desire
to perform an activity for the pleasure and satisfaction that one experiences while
learning, exploring, or trying to understand something new (p. 280). Intrinsic moti-
vation to accomplish, on the other hand, refers to the desire to perform an activity for
the pleasure and satisfaction that one receives from accomplishing or creating new
things. Finally, individuals who participate in an activity for the pleasure and satis-
faction derived while experiencing pleasurable intellectual or physical sensations are
intrinsically motivated to experience stimulation.
A number of studies have demonstrated the innumerable advantages of intrinsic
motivation in the context of learning. Intrinsically motivated students tend to have
higher academic achievement (e.g., Areepattamannil and Freeman 2008; Areepatta-
mannil et al. 2010; Gottfried et al. 2007), higher intellectual performance (e.g., Got-
tfried and Gottfried 1996, 2004), higher self-esteem(e.g., Deci and Ryan 1995), greater
persistence (e.g., Vansteenkiste et al. 2004, 2006), less academic anxiety (e.g., Got-
tfried 1982, 1985, 1990), mastery-oriented coping with failure (e.g., Dweck 1975),
enhanced deep or conceptual learning (e.g., Ames and Archer 1988; Grolnick and
Ryan 1987; Vansteenkiste et al. 2004), creativity (e.g., Eisenberger and Shanock
2003; Koestner et al. 1984), enhanced cognitive exibility and engagement (e.g.,
McGraw and McCullers 1979; Walker et al. 2006), enhanced subjective/psychologi-
cal well-being (e.g., Burton et al. 2006; Ryan and Deci 2000a; Sheldon et al. 2004),
and less extrinsic motivation (e.g., Gottfried et al. 2005). Without doubt, intrinsic
motivation would contribute to successful school performance (Gottfried et al. 2007,
2008).
Extrinsic motivation, by contrast, refers to a broad array of behaviors having
in common the fact that activities are engaged in not for reasons inherent in them,
but for instrumental reasons (Vallerand and Ratelle 2002, p. 42). Because extrinsic
motivation is a multidimensional construct, SDT postulates that extrinsically moti-
vated behaviors are characterized by four types of extrinsic behavioral regulation:
external regulation, introjected regulation, identied regulation, and integrated reg-
ulation (Ryan and Deci 2002). Moreover, SDT maintains that these four types of
extrinsic behavioral regulation can be situated along a self-determination continuum,
with external regulation representing a complete lack of self-determined motivation
and integrated regulation representing the most self-determined formof extrinsic moti-
vation (Ryan and Deci 2009).
Ryan and Deci (2002) differentiate the four types of extrinsic motivation. Extrinsic
motivation-external regulation refers to behavior that is determined through means
1 3
430 S. Areepattamannil et al.
external to the individual. In other words, rewards and constraints regulate these
behaviors. For example, a student who performs an activity to satisfy external demands
(e.g., a tangible reward or punishment) or social contingency is externally regulated.
Next along the autonomy continuum is the construct of extrinsic motivation-intro-
jected regulation. These behaviors are controlled in part by the environment, but also
by internal reward/punishment contingencies (e.g., ego enhancement, guilt, shame,
or obligation). An example is students who perform their schoolwork because they
do not want to let their parents down. Hence, introjected regulation encompasses a
moderately low degree of self-determination.
Further alongthe self-determinationcontinuum, extrinsic motivation-identiedreg-
ulation refers to behaviors that are performed by choice because the individual judges
them to be important. For instance, a student with identied regulation engages in a
particular behavior as long as she or he perceives the usefulness or instrumental value
of doing so. In contrast to introjected regulation, identied regulation encompasses
a moderately high degree of self-determination. Therefore, identied regulation is a
relatively autonomous form of extrinsic motivation. Finally, integrated regulation, the
most developmentally advanced form of extrinsic motivation, refers to behaviors that
are fully integrated into ones self-schema. Although integrated forms of motivation,
like intrinsic motivation, are characterized by a sense of autonomy and freedom, they
are still extrinsic because behavior motivated by integrated regulation is done for its
presumed instrumental value with respect to some outcome that is separate from the
behavior (Ryan and Deci 2000b, p. 62).
Numerous studies have documented the effects of extrinsic motivation on learning
outcomes. Students who are extrinsically motivated are more likely to have lower
academic achievement (e.g., Becker et al. 2010; Lepper et al. 2005; Wolters et al.
1996) and to engage in surface learning (e.g., Biggs 1991). Furthermore, extrinsically
motivated students experience greater anxiety (e.g., Wolters et al. 1996), less positive
emotions in school (e.g., Sncal et al. 1995), and have a poorer ability to cope with
failures (e.g., Deci and Ryan 2000).
In summary, intrinsic motivation and extrinsic motivation are not incompatible and
can coexist in different degrees (Covington and Mueller 2001). Guay et al. (2008)
opine that student motivation is of high quality when primarily based on intrinsic,
integrated and identied regulations, and is of poor quality when based on external
and introjected regulations (p. 233). Thus, intrinsic motivation, unlike extrinsic moti-
vation, is related to more positive academic and psychological outcomes (Reeve et al.
2007). Therefore, it is critical to examine the relationships among intrinsic motivation,
extrinsic motivation, and academic achievement for the Indian immigrant adolescents
in Canada and Indian adolescents in India. The following research questions addressed
the objectives of the present study:
1. To what extent do the Indian immigrant adolescents in Canada differ from their
counterparts in India in terms of their intrinsic motivation, extrinsic motivation,
and academic achievement?
2. How well do intrinsic motivation and extrinsic motivation predict academic
achievement for Indian immigrant adolescents in Canada and for Indian adoles-
cents in India?
1 3
Intrinsic and extrinsic motivation, and achievement 431
2 Method
2.1 Participants
The nal sample consisted of 355 Indian immigrant adolescents in Grades 912 (179
male, 176 female) from one of the provinces in Central Canada, and 363 Indian ado-
lescents in Grades 912 (192 male, 171 female) from one of the states in India. The
age of the Indian immigrant participants ranged from 16 to 19 years, with a mean age
of 16.04 years (SD = 1.15). The age of the Indian participants ranged from 13 to 18
years, with a mean age of 16.88 years (SD = .89).
2.2 Data collection procedures
After obtaining clearance from the university research ethics board, principals of ve
secondary schools in one of the states in India were contacted. Three of the ve schools
agreed to participate in the study. The participating students completed the research
measures in the classroom setting. All questionnaires were administered in English,
which was the primary language of instruction in the participating schools. Students
were told that all of their answers would be condential and that they did not have
to answer any of the questions if they did not wish to. Participants were seated at
individual tables to ensure privacy while they completed the measures. Data from the
Indian immigrant adolescents were collected through the Indian community centers
in Central Canada.
2.3 Measures
2.3.1 Demographic questionnaire
The demographic questionnaire asked respondents to report their age, gender, and cur-
rent grades in school. To measure academic achievement, participants were asked to
report their overall school GPA on a 5-point scale ranging from 1 = A (Mostly 90s) to
5 = F (Mostly 50s). The scale was later reverse scored such that higher scores indicate
higher grades.
2.3.2 Intrinsic and extrinsic motivation
Intrinsic motivation and extrinsic motivation were measured using 24 items drawn
from the Academic Motivation ScaleHigh School version (AMS; Vallerand et al.
1992). The items were rated on a scale ranging from 1 (does not correspond at all) to
7 (corresponds exactly). Separate exploratory factor analyses (EFAs) using principal
axis factoring (PAF) with oblique rotation were performed for each sample to identify
the measures. The latent root criterion (eigenvalue > 1.00) and an examination of
the scree plot were used to extract meaningful factors that accounted for the maxi-
mum amount of common variance (Thompson 2004). The EFA results supported two
extracted factors: intrinsic motivation (12 items) and extrinsic motivation (12 items).
1 3
432 S. Areepattamannil et al.
The internal reliability of the intrinsic motivation scale was .95 for the Indian immi-
grant sample and .76 for the Indian sample. The internal reliability of the extrinsic
motivationscale was .88for the Indianimmigrant sample and.80for the Indiansample.
3 Results
3.1 Intrinsic motivation, extrinsic motivation, and academic achievement
of Indian Immigrant and Indian adolescents
Descriptive statistics and intercorrelations among the study variables are presented
in Table 1. Because descriptive discriminant analysis (DDA) is sufcient to indi-
cate both that group differences exist and precisely where they exist among the
variables (see Huberty and Olejnik 2006; Sherry 2006), DDA was conducted in
lieu of multivariate analysis of variance (MANOVA) to identify the variables that
best discriminate between Indian immigrant and Indian adolescents (see Table 2).
The variables entered were extrinsic motivation, intrinsic motivation, and overall
school GPA. Groups were Indian immigrant and Indian. The overall Wilks lambda,
= .94,
2
(3, N = 714) = 47.60, p < .001,
2
= .06, indicated that the two
groups were statistically significantly different, and the resulting discriminant func-
tion would be statistically signicant.
The canonical correlation (R
c
), a measure of association that summarizes the degree
of relationship between the groups and the discriminant function (Tabachnick and
Fidell 2007), was .25. Thus, the correlation between the grouping variable and the
composite predictor variable accounted for only 6% of the variance (R
2
c
), suggest-
ing that the canonical discriminant function did not discriminate between the two
Table 1 Descriptive statistics and intercorrelations among the study variables
Indian immigrant Indian
M SD Correlation M SD Correlation
1 2 3 1 2 3
1. Extrinsic motivation 5.20 1.09 5.35 .91
2. Intrinsic motivation 4.97 1.39 .34** 4.68 .83 .57**
3. Overall school GPA 4.12 .49 .01 .48** 3.79 .94 .17** .23**

p < .01
Table 2 Standardized discriminant function and structure coefcients for the two groups
Variable Coefcient r
s
r
2
s
(%)
Extrinsic motivation .56 .28 7.84
Intrinsic motivation .49 .47 22.09
Overall school GPA .74 .83 68.89
Group 1 = Indian; Group 2 = Indian immigrant
1 3
Intrinsic and extrinsic motivation, and achievement 433
groups very well. Extrinsic motivation, F(1, 716) = 3.90, p < .05,
2
= .01; intrin-
sic motivation, F(1, 716) = 11.08, p < .01,
2
= .02; and overall school GPA,
F(1, 716) = 33.73, p < .001,
2
= .05 differentiated the two groups. Overall school
GPAhad the strongest correlation with the grouping variable (.83), followed by intrin-
sic motivation (.47). Although extrinsic motivation statistically significantly separated
the two groups, it had a loading of less than .40. For the substantive interpretation,
loadings less than .40 are not interpreted (see Sherry 2006). Overall school GPA
accounted for 68.89% of the variance in scores on the discriminant function, followed
by intrinsic motivation with 22.09%. Thus, overall school GPA contributed the most
to group separation, followed by intrinsic motivation.
The group centroid means indicated that the discriminant function maximally
separated the Indian immigrant group (.26) from the Indian group (.20). The dis-
criminant function separated the Indian immigrant group from the Indian group on
intrinsic motivation and overall school GPA, with higher scores characterizing the
Indian immigrant adolescents (M = 4.97, SD = 1.39; M = 4.68, SD = .83, respec-
tively) and lower scores characterizing the Indian adolescents (M = 4.12, SD =
.49; M = 3.79, SD = .94, respectively). By contrast, the discriminant function sepa-
rated the Indian immigrant group from the Indian group on extrinsic motivation, with
higher scores characterizing the Indian adolescents (M = 5.35, SD = .91) and lower
scores characterizing the Indian immigrant adolescents (M = 5.20, SD = 1.09).
3.2 Predicting academic achievement from intrinsic and extrinsic motivation
To address the second research question, separate hierarchical multiple regression
analyses were conducted for the Indian immigrant and Indian samples. Overall school
GPA was the dependent variable. Extrinsic motivation and intrinsic motivation were
the independent variables. The results of the hierarchical regression analyses for vari-
ables predicting academic achievement are shown in Table 3. Control variables, gender
and age, were entered into the regression equation in Step 1. In Step 2, extrinsic moti-
vation and intrinsic motivation were added to the regression equation.
For the Indian immigrant adolescents, the control variables entered into the regres-
sion equation in Step 1 did not account for a statistically significant proportion of the
variance in academic achievement, R
2
= .01, F(2, 352) = 1.09, p = .34. After Step
2, with extrinsic motivation and intrinsic motivation also included in the equation,
R
2
= .26, F
change
(4, 350) = 31.53, p < .001. Thus, addition of extrinsic motivation
and intrinsic motivation to the regression equation resulted in a statistically signif-
icant increment in R
2
. Whereas extrinsic motivation negatively predicted academic
achievement for the Indian immigrant adolescents ( = .18, p < .001), intrinsic
motivation positively predicted their academic achievement ( = .54, p < .001).
For the Indian adolescents, the control variables entered into the regression equation
in Step 1 accounted for a statistically significant proportion of the variance in academic
achievement, R
2
= .04, F(2, 360) = 6.67, p < .01. In this step, age was a negative
predictor of academic achievement for Indian adolescents ( = .14, p < .01). After
Step 2, with extrinsic motivation and intrinsic motivation also included in the equation,
R
2
= .08, F
change
(4, 358) = 7.56, p < .001. The addition of extrinsic motivation
1 3
434 S. Areepattamannil et al.
Table 3 Hierarchical multiple regression analyses for variables predicting academic achievement
Indian immigrant Indian
B (SE) B (SE)
Step 1
Gender .07(.05) .07 .13(.09) .07
Age .01(.03) .02 .14(.04) .17
Step 2
Gender .07(.04) .07 .10(.09) .05
Age .01(.03) .01 .12(.04) .14
Extrinsic motivation .08(.02) .18 .08(.06) .07
Intrinsic motivation .19(.02) .54 .18(.07) .16
For Indian immigrants: R
2
= .01 for step 1 (ns), R
2
= .25 for step 2; for Indian: R
2
= .04 for step 1,
R
2
= .04 for step 2.

p < .05.

p < .01.

p < .001
and intrinsic motivation to the regression equation resulted in a statistically signifi-
cant increment in R
2
. Extrinsic motivation did not statistically significantly predict
academic achievement for the Indian adolescents ( = .07, p = .24). However,
intrinsic motivation positively predicted Indian adolescents academic achievement
( = .16, p < .05).
4 Discussion
The aim of this study was twofold: rst, to examine the intrinsic motivation,
extrinsic motivation, and academic achievement of Indian immigrant adolescents in
Canada in comparison to their counterparts in India; and second, to investigate the pre-
dictive effects of intrinsic motivation and extrinsic motivation on academic achieve-
ment for the Indian immigrant adolescents in Canada and for the Indian adolescents
in India. With regard to academic achievement, the Indian immigrant adolescents
in Canada outperformed their counterparts in India. Whereas the Indian immigrant
adolescents in Canada were more intrinsically motivated than the Indian adolescents
in India, the Indian adolescents were more extrinsically motivated than the Indian
immigrant adolescents in Canada.
One of the reasons for the better school performance of the Indian immigrant
adolescents in Canada could be their higher intrinsic motivation and lower extrinsic
motivation as compared to the Indian adolescents in India. Reeve et al. (2007) posit
that students learn better and feel better when they pursue intrinsic rather than extrin-
sic goals and when their teachers facilitate learning associated with intrinsic goals
(p. 233). Given the numerous benets of autonomy-supportive classroomcontexts (see
McLachlan and Hagger 2010; Reeve 2006; Reeve et al. 2007), the Indian adolescents
in India might benet from autonomy-supportive classroom teachers who facilitate
their students autonomous motivation. However, to help classroom teachers become
more autonomy-supportive requires that teachers work through the steps of becoming
1 3
Intrinsic and extrinsic motivation, and achievement 435
less controlling, wanting to support autonomy, and learning the practical how-to of
classroom autonomy support (Reeve 2009, p. 172). Further research is warranted to
identify the factors that cause differences in intrinsic motivation, extrinsic motivation,
and academic achievement between the Indian immigrant adolescents in Canada and
the Indian adolescents in India.
The ndings of the study indicated that extrinsic motivation had a negative pre-
dictive effect on academic achievement for the Indian immigrant adolescents in Can-
ada. In other words, adolescents who study for extrinsic reasons have poorer school
performance than do adolescents with lower extrinsic motivation. However, extrinsic
motivation was not a significant predictor of academic achievement for the Indian
adolescents in India. The negative association between extrinsic motivation and aca-
demic achievement is very well documented in the burgeoning literature on extrinsic
motivation (e.g., Becker et al. 2010; Lepper et al. 2005; Wolters et al. 1996).
In congruence with previous research (e.g., Areepattamannil and Freeman 2008;
Areepattamannil et al. 2010; Gottfried et al. 2007), intrinsic motivation had a positive
predictive effect on academic achievement for both the Indian immigrant adolescents
in Canada and the Indian adolescents in India. This nding suggests that opportunities
to engage in intrinsically motivated learning may lead to better school performance
on the part of adolescents. Hence, supporting intrinsically motivated learning is of
critical importance. Reeve et al. (2007) contend that:
Supporting intrinsic motivation means being attuned to students psychologi-
cal needs and offering external events in ways that support students autonomy,
competence, and intrinsic motivation. It also means ndings ways to enrich
learning opportunities, making them more interesting and relevant to students
lives. (p. 234)
In conclusion, the ndings of the present study may provide empirical support
that intrinsic motivation is a positive predictor of academic achievement for the
Indian immigrant adolescents in Canada and for the Indian adolescents in India. Fur-
thermore, the present study corroborates the negative association between extrinsic
motivation and academic achievement. Indeed, more research revolving around the
impact of motivational constructs on learning outcomes is required to unearth the
meaning and implications of motivational constructs and motivation theories across
cultures.
4.1 Limitations of the study
There are two limitations of the study. First, the measure of academic achievement
in the study is based on student self-reports. Although self-reported grades are rea-
sonably good reections of actual grades for students with high ability and good
grade point averages, self-reported grades are unlikely to represent accurately the
actual scores of students with low GPAs and, to a lesser extent, low ability (Kuncel
et al. 2005, p. 74). Second, data for the present study were drawn from Indian immi-
grant and Indian adolescents belonging to Kerala, one of the states in India. Since
India is a culturally diverse country, the relationships among intrinsic motivation,
1 3
436 S. Areepattamannil et al.
extrinsic motivation, and academic achievement for the Indian immigrant and Indian
adolescents in the present study may not be generalizable to adolescents across cultures
in India.
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Author Biographies
Shaljan Areepattamannil is a PhD candidate in educational psychology at the Faculty of Education,
Queens University, Canada. His research focuses on better understanding the psychological and environ-
mental factors that impact the academic achievement of adolescents across cultures.
John G. Freeman is an associate professor at the Faculty of Education, Queens University, with a cross-
appointment tothe School of HealthSciences andKinesiologyandDirector of the Social ProgramEvaluation
Group (SPEG). His research and that of the students he supervises focuses primarily on how schools can be
made more welcoming places for students, teachers, and parents, regardless of ability level, race, sexuality,
or emotional health (among other considerations). As Director of SPEG, he hopes to build rich research
partnerships between local community partners and Queens University.
Don A. Klinger is an associate professor in assessment and evaluation at the Faculty of Education at
Queens University, Canada. His research explores the use of large-scale assessments and databases to
inform educational policy and practice, and help us determine those factors associated with educational
outcomes.
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