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TH E E Q U IV A L E N T STA TIC A C C E L E RA TIO N S
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N A V A L RE SE A RC H L A BO RA TO RY
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N RL RE PO RT N O . 0-3302
TH E E Q U IV A L E N T STA TIC A C C E L E RA TIO N S
O F SH O C K MO TIO N S
J. P. Walsh and R. E. Blake
June 21, 1948
n VOR P^
C

BEI
^
E
Approved by:
Or. H. M. Trent, Head, Applied Mathematics Section
Or. E. B. Stephenson, Superintendent, Mechanics Division
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iii
CONTENTS
Abstract vi
Problem Status vi
Authorization vi
INTRODUCTION 1
RESPONSE OF SINGLE-DEGREE-OF-FREEDOM SYSTEMS TO SHOCK MOTIONS 1
THE DERIVATION OF SHOCK SPECTRA FROM REED-GAGE DATA 2
EXAMPLES OF SHOCK SPECTRA 3
SIGNIFICANCE OF SHOCK SPECTRA 4
NAVY SHOCK-MACHINE SPECTRA 5
SUMMARY 9
APPENDIX I - NOTES ON THE REED GAGE 10
ABSTRACT
The use of the reed gage as a method of determi ni ng i mportant char-
acteri sti cs of a shock moti on i s di scussed. It i s shown that the'shock
spectrum," deri ved f rom the reed-gage record, provi des desi gn condi -
ti ons f or "shockproof " equi pment i n the f orm of equi valent stati c accel-
erati ons of the shock moti on, and a rati onal method f or compari ng the
severi ty of di f f erent shock moti ons.
Shock spectra are presented f or certai n theoreti cal moti ons as well
as f or the moti ons of Navy shock-testi ng machi nes. Di f f erences between
jthe machi nes are poi nted out and i t i s noted that the predomi nant charac-
teri sti c of the shock-machi ne moti on i s a sudden veloci ty change.
PROBLEM STATUS
Thi s i s an i nteri m report on thi s problem^ work i s conti nui ng.
AUTHORIZATION
NRL Problem No. F 03-06 R.
vi
THE EQUIVALENT STATIC ACCELERATIONS OF SHOCK MOTIONS
INTRODUCTION
When contemplating the design of a structure which must be " shock-proof," the designer
seeks design conditions which can be used to calculate the sizes of the members of the
structure. Because ot training and past experience, it is likely that he will attempt to
transform the dynamic inertia loads acting on the structure, into equivalent static
loads - loads which, if apolied statically, will produce similar deflections, stresses,
ana lailures. In the reports of investigations on laboratory shock machines and aboard
ship, records of the acceleration imparted to various parts of these structures under shock
conditions are found. In general, these records show that the acceleration reached peak
values many times the acceleration due to gravity - in some cases thousands of times as
much. Knowing that systems can not be designed to carry several thousand times their own
weight, the designer chooses some arbitrary number (say 50, 100, or 150) and proceeds on
the assumption that the equivalent static load acting on the structure is its static weight
multiplied by this arbitrary number.
It is the purpose of this paper to point out: a) that the effect of a given shock motion
is not the same for all structures, and b), that the load for which a structure should be
designed depends not only upon the shock motion to which it is to be subjected, but also upon
its natural frequencies; and to present data useful in the design of structures.
RESPONSE OF SINGLE-DEGREE-OF-FREEDOM SYSTEMS TO SHOCK MOTIONS
The concept of the response of a single-degree-of-freedom system to the shock motion
under consideration is of fundamental importance. That this is true will be apparent later.
A single-degree-of-freedom-system (Figure 1) is defined as a rigid mass (M) supported by
a massless linear spring. The motion or response of the system can be completely de-
scribed by the displacement of the mass in a direction parallel with the axis of the spring. A
X = x
1
-x
6
Fig. 1 - A single-degree-of-freedom system
N A V A L RE SE A RC H L A BO RA TO RY
si ngle-degree-of -f reedom system has one natural f requency. It i s of ten descri bed as a
"si mple system "and wi ll be so desi gnated i n the remai nder of thi s report. A necessary
assumpti on throughout thi s report i s that the moti on (Xj) of the f oundati on i s unaf f ected by
the moti on of the structure whi ch i t supports.
There are several methods of f i ndi ng the response of a si mple system (Fi gure 1) to
shock exci tati ons. If an analyti c expressi on f or the shock exci tati on i s known, the response
of the si mple system can be obtai ned by Duhamel's i ntegral.
1
For each natural f requency
assi gned to the si mple system, a response to the exci tati on can be computed.
When the exci tati on i s gi ven only i n graphi cal f orm (an accelerati on ti me curve taken
aboard shi p f or example) there are two conveni ent methods of determi ni ng the response of
si mple systems to such exci tati ons. The f i rst i s a graphi cal method of evaluati ng Duhamel's
i ntegral, descri bed i n detai l i n ref erence
2
. By thi s method, the maxi mum value of the
accelerati on of the mass (M) can be f ound f or any natural f requency of the system when Xj,
the accelerati on of the base of the si mple system, i s gi ven as a graphi cal record or an
analyti cal expressi on whi ch can be plotted.
The second method i s by use of a torsi on pendulum. Blot* has shown that i f the support
of a torsi on pendulum (Fi gure 2) i s gi ven an angular di splacement d proporti onal to Xj (the
accelerati on of the base of the si mple system (Fi gure 1) then < t > (the absolute angular di s-
placement of the bob of the torsi on pendulum) i s proporti onal to the relati ve di splacement
(X) i n the si mple system. In the di scussi on of the desi gn of earthquake-proof bui ldi ngs. Blot
f ound the maxi mum value of the accelerati on of the mass of a si mple system (x
max
)>
subjected to a gi ven earthquake accelerati on-ti me record. Thi s maxi mum accelerati on
was plotted agai nst the natural f requency of the si mple system, and thi s plot was called an
"earthquake spectrum."
Fi g. 2 - Di agram of torsi on pendulum
If a seri es of si mple systems could be constructed
and subjected to an actual shock moti on, and i f the
relati ve moti ons (X) were recorded, a shock spec-
trum " could be plotted si mi lar to the earthquake
spectrum. The reed gage (Fi gure 3), desi gned at the
Davi d Taylor Model Basi n approxi mates such an i n-
strument. The reed gage, as i ts name i mpli es, i s
composed of a seri es of canti levers carryi ng masses
at thei r f ree ends. Each canti lever has a di f f erent
natural f requency i n the f i rst mode. The maxi mum
value of the di splacement of the f ree end, relati ve to
the f i xed end, i s recorded by scri bi ng on waxed paper,
THE DERIVATION OF SHOCK SPECTRA FROM
REED-GAGE DATA
In order to obtai n the shock spectrum of a gi ven
shock by use of the reed-gage, the exci tati on i s appli ed to the
1
T. Von Karman and M. A. Blot, Mathemati cal methods i n engi neeri ng, (McGraw Hi ll,
1940), p. 403.
2
G. E. Hudson, A method of esti mati ng equi valent stati c loads i n si mple elasti c structures,
Davi d W. Taylor Model Basi n Report No. 507, June 1943.
3
M. A. Blot, Bulleti n of the sei smologi cal soci ety of Ameri ca, 31: 151-171, (1941)
N A V A L RE SE A RC H L A BO RA TO RY 3
base of the gage, and the maximum deflections of the reeds relative to the base are
recorded.
If the re> ds are considered to be simp'e systems, for each reed there is a static deflec-
tion
s
(due to the action of gravity alone) whicnis related to the natural frequency f
n
of the
reed by the familiar equation
f = 3. 13
n
l/fcps
(1)
Let X be the deflection of a reed tip relative to the base of the instrument under shock.
Then
max
5.
= N (2)
Where N is the "equivalent static acceleration. " The equivalent static acceleration is the
gradually applied acceleration, expressed as a multiple of the acceleration due to gravity,
to which the reed must be subjected in order to produce the same deflection of the tip as
was produced under shock.
This value of N is plotted against the primary natural frequency of the reed. This plot
of N against f
n
is called the "shock spectrum" of the shock to which the reed gage was sub-
jected.
EXAMPLES OF SHOCK SPECTRA
Figures 4 and 5 show the shock spectra for some simple motions which can be expressed
and analyzed mathematically. These and many other similar curves have been published by
several writers.
a-
Curve 1, Figure 4, is the shock spectrum
for a half-sine pulse of acceleration defined
by equations (3).
x = a sin
2Trt
for
for
oS. S-I and
t<0 andt> Y (3)
N/a is the ratio of the peak acceleration of the
mass of a simple system to peak acceleration,
a, of the applied shock motion and f
n
is the
natural frequency of the simple system.
Assigning values to a and T reduces the coor-
dinates to the conventional ones (i. e. , N and f
n
).
Curve n shows the effect on the shock
spectrum of having the sine pulse of curve I
Fig. 3 - Reed gage, (cover removed), show-
ing reeds and records scribed on wax paper
N A V A L RE SE A RC H L A BO RA TO RY
si
li.
i
- *
A
-in
e
ft r^ n
i
-li
W
f
u
+
f

|
\
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\
\
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Y
\
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__ = .
J 1
V
1
1 i
.1
r i IMA L F MO XI 1 MRU V

IO MO I MIL K
continue on as a damped transient vibration.
This motion is defined by
xj = 0
and x = e
-bt
for t<0
a sin(^ y) fort^O (4)
In the curve shown, b is appropriate for 0. 5
percent of critical damping and the phase
angle y is practically zero. This curve is
very similar to a steady-state vibration trans-
missibility curve.
Curve in is the shock spectrum for a
"square"pulse of acceleration defined by
Xj = 0 for K0, t> |-
"^ = a for O^t^-y
and
(5)
Figure 5 is the shock spectrum for a step
velocity change defined by
0 for t<0 and
Fig. 4 - Shock spectra for
three simple shocks
n wtmti '" * * * *
Fig. 5 - Shock spectra for
velocity change
^ = V for t> 0 (6)
Various values of the velocity change (V)
have been used to obtain the family of curves shown.
The equation of this family of curves is given by
2v{ V ,
N= 2 ' , (7)
SIGNIFICANCE OF SHOCK SPECTRA
Shock spectra are important because they can be
used to calculate whether or not a given shock will
damage a specific strurture. In order to use the shock
spectra in designing a structure, it is necessary to
assume that the structure is elastic and linear up to
the point of failure, and is subject to the same shock
motion as the reed gage.
The kinds of damage to a structure which are
predictable from the use of shock spectra are: the
yielding of ductile materials, the fracture of brittle mate-
rials, and the collision of adjacent parts through elastic
distortion of their supports. Types of failure not pre-
dictable from shock spectra include: breaking of a
friction bond, as in the loosening of screws or opening
of knife switches; spilling of liquids; fracture of
ductile materials; and collision of unsecured parts.
When a structure can be assumed to be a simple
system (i. e. , a single degree of freedom system) and
N A V A L RE SE A RC H L A BO RA TO RY 5
the shock spectrum is available, it is an easy matter to calculate its natural frequency and
to determine the stress and deflection which will be caused by the shock. Tlds calculation
is simple because the shock spectrum gives the equivalent static acceleratipn from which
the equivalent static load may be computed. Since static stress is proportional to static
load, the shock spectrum enables one to predict stress, and hence damage. > *
Similar calculations of stress and deflection are possible for a multi-degree-of-freedom
structure if the flexible members of the structure are linear and elastic. The method of
calculation is given in reference (4) and will be discussed in detail in a future report. The
important parts of the method are the following: First, it is necessary to find the shapes of
the modes of vibration of the structuce, and ihejiatural frequencies associated with them. r . -. - <
The amplitude of each mode excited by a shock motion is proportional to the number of g
in the shock spectrum corresponding to the natural frequency of the mode. Since each moae
is analogous to a simple system, the total stress and deflection of the structure can be
found by superposing the response of the various modes.
The shock spectrum is an excellent index of the damaging capacity of a shock, for if
the vulnerability of a structure to two different shock motions is under consideration, the |
spectrum with the greater value at the natural frequency of the structure is the one which
will produce the greater stress or likelihood of damage. The shock spectrum is also an
excellent index of the relative protective abilities of two or more shock mounts. One shock
mount is considered the best of a lot in the performance of its protective function, if the
motion of a mass mounted on it has, during shock, a lower shock spectrum than that of any
of the others.
I
The shock spectrum presents a shock motion in a graphical form which can be easily
understood. Onthe other hand, by looking at the velocity-meter records. Figures 11 and 12,
one can see that the motion at the center of the 4A plate is different from that at the edge;
but it is not apparent what the effect of this difference will be upon structures to be tested.
The shock spectra Figures 6 through 10 show the significance of this difference, which
will be discussed in the following section.
-H
NAVY SHOCK-MACHINE SPECTRA
i
Reed-gage records were obtained on the Navy Light-Weight Shock Machine, prior to its
modification in 1947
?
by mounting the gage on the 4A plate and subjecting the anvil plate to
1ft, 2 ft, 3 ft, 4 ft, and 5 ft back blows. The shock spectra obtained of the motion of the
center of the 4A plate are shown as dotted lines in Figures 6 through 10. The reed gage [
was also placed at the edge of the 4A plate directly over the channel support of the 4A plate.
The shock spectra of the motion at this location are shown in Figures 6 through 10 as solid
lines. These spectra were obtained by connecting the observed points with straight lines.
The motion at the two locations on the 4A plate as recorded by a British type velocity meter
are shown in Figures 11 and 12. Peaks occurring in the shock spectra are due to near-
resonance of particular reeds with transient vibrations of the anvil and 4 A plate. The width
m
and height of these peaks are not well defined because of the small number of reeds used.
Since the frequency of the transient vibration probably did not coincide with any reed fre-
quency, the true peaks are probably higher than shown and resemble, in shape, the peak of
Figure 4, curve .
Reed-gage records obtained on the Navy Medium-Weight Shock Machine are shown in
Figures 13 through 15 The important features of the motion of the anvil plate of this machine L
M. A. Blot, Natl. Acad. Sei. (U. S. ) 19: 262-66 (1933)
6
N A V A L RE SE A RC H L A BO RA TO RY
Figures 6 through 10 indicate shock spectra foi the Navy Light-Weight Shock Machine.
Dotted line-center of 4A plate. Solid line edge of 4A plate over channel.
WO O
9
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Fig. 6 - 1-foot back blow Fig. 7 - 2-foot back blow
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Fig. 8 - 3-foot back blow Fig. 9 - i-foot back blow
N A V A L RE SE A RC H L A BO RA TO RY
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Fi g. 10 - 5-f oot back blow
are two successi ve veloci ty changes - one due to the
i mpact of the hammer, the second to the i mpact of the
anvi l plate agai nst ri gi d stops. The ef f ect of tue second
i mpact (veloci ty change) upon the reeds (already vi brat-
i ng f rom the f i rst i mpact) depends upon the phase of the
reeds at the moment of the second i mpact. The ampli -
tudes of some reeds are i ncreased by the second veloci ty
change whi le those of other reeds may be unaf f ected or
decreased; hence the record shows some devi ati ons f rom
the strai ght-li ne characteri sti c of an i nstantaneous ve-
loci ty change.
A compari son of Fi gure 5 wi th the shock spectra of
the shock machi nes shows that the predomi nate charac-
teri sti c of the shock-machi ne moti on i s an i nstantaneous
veloci ty change. These records demonstrate that desi gn-
i ng f or some f i xed value of g wi thout regard f or the
natural f requency of the structure bei ng desi gned i s not
correct and cannot be justi f i ed. When i t i s desi red to
reduce the descri pti on of a shock machi ne moti on to a
si mple equi valent, thi s can be done wi th less error by
f i ndi ng the veloci ty change the spectrum of whi ch li es
just over the shock spectrum.
The spectra of the moti on of the center of the 4A
plate on the Navy Li ght-Wei ght Shock Machi ne shows clearly an i mportant characteri sti c
of the moti on at thi s poi ntthe relati vely hi gh
a
equi valent-stati c-accelerati ons "to whi ch
the 100 cps systems are subjected. Thi s hi gh accelerati on i s a result of the transi ent
[^ dTC B O F 4A P. A TE
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Fi g. 11 - Veloci ty - ti me record of moti on of center of
4A plate Navy Li ght-Wei ght Shock Machi ne

V lL O C .TV N C TC r tD3E Of ** -iJiT-l
C* BACH tO
lCK BLOW
3 HACK -. ,. . : -
5" PACK BL 0 .r .a ^r .'... -a
TrMr Ih'fflV JiL BE TWE E N TPACF IN 'E H h
Fig. 12 - Velocity - time record of motion of 4A plate over
supporting channel Navy Light-Weight Shock Machine
1
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Fig. 13 - hock spectra of the motion of the Fig. 14 - Shock spectra of the motion of the
Medium-Weight Shock Machine, 3-inch table Medium-Weight Shock Machine, 3-inch table
travel, 1-foot hammer crop, 500-pound load travel, 2-foot hammer drop, 500-pound load
on table on table
N A V A L RE SE A RC H L A BO RA TO RY
9
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Fi g. 15 - Shock spectra of the moti on of the
Medi um-Wei ght Shock Machi ne, L54nch table
travel, 1-f oot hammer drop, 500-pound load
on table
vi brati on of the 4A plate, whi ch i s shown on
the veloci ty-ti me curve of thi s moti on,(Fi g-
ure 12). It has been poi nted out earli er that
the maxi mum hei ght of the peak i n the vi ci n-
i ty of 100 cps i s not known exactly. However,
thi s peak, i f f ound exactly, would have a
shape si mi lar to curve II of Fi gure 4. It has
been shown, then, that the Li ght-Wei ght Shock
Machi ne, because of the vi brati on of the 4A
plate, can cause systems havi ng a natural
f requency i n the vi ci ni ty of 100 cps to be
subjected to at least f i ve ti mes the accelera-
ti on of systems havi ng a natural f requency of
50 cps. The shock spectra f or locati ons at
the edges of the 4 A plate over the channels
do not exhi bi t thi s peak at 100 cps; nei ther
do the shock spectra f or the Medi um-Wei ght
Shock Machi ne. When the response of systems
havi ng approxi mately 350-cps natural f re-
quenci es are exami ned, other marked di f f er-
ences are seen. At the center of the 4A plate
on the Li ght-Wei ght Shock Machi ne, the
equi valent stati c accelerati on of the 350-cps
system has about the same value as the 50-
cps system, several ti mes less than that of
the 100-cps system. However, the equi valent-
stati c-accelerati on f or the 350-cps system
on the Medi um-Wei ght Shock Machi ne or over
the channels on the Li ght-Wei ght Shock
Machi ne, has conti nued to ri se f rom the value
f or the 100-cps system wi th the general
characteri sti c of an i nstantaneous veloci ty
change.


)

Now si nce the spectra are measures of the damagi ng ef f ect of a shock moti on, they
demonstrate that di f f erent results f rom the shock test machi nes can be obtai ned, dependi ng
not only on whi ch type machi ne i s used but, also, i n the case of the Li ght-Wei ght Shock
Machi ne, where the component i s mounted.

SUMMARY
The i mportance of the "shock spectrum," whi ch can be deri ved f rom a reed gage record
of a shock moti on, has been di scussed. It has been poi nted out that the shock spectrum of a
shock moti on gi ves the gradually appli ed accelerati ons whi ch wi ll produce def lecti ons and
stresses i n a si mple system equal to those produced by the shock. These equi valent stati c
accelerati ons are a f uncti on of the natural f requency of the si mple system and are the
proper basi s f or desi gn of structures to wi thstand shock. The practi ce of desi gni ng struc-
tures f or a si ngle, arbi trari ly chosen, equi valent stati c accelerati on, wi thout regard to
natural f requency, i s shown to be i ncorrect by presenti ng shock spectra obtai ned on Navy
Hi gh-Impact Shock Machi nes. These spectra show that the best approxi mati on of the shock
machi ne moti on i s a sudden ,e!oci ty change.
Shock spectra gi ve a uni que basi s i or compari ng the relati ve damge capaci ty of di f f er-
ent shock moti ons. Shock spectra are bei ng used to study the perf ormance of shock mounts.


1 0 N A V A L RE SE A RC H L A BO RA TO RY * *
Compari son of the shock-machi ne spectra shows that the damage capaci ty of the two types
of Navy Shock Machi nes di f f er and that i n the case of the Li ght-Wei ght Shock Machi ne si gni f i -
cantly di f f erent spectra are obtai ned f or di f f erent locati ons on the test-speci men mounti ng
f i xture.
APPENDIX I
NOTES ON THE REED GAGE

The present reed gage (Fi gure 3) di verges f rom the theoreti cal i deal i n several respects.
Correcti ons can be made f or some devi ati ons on a theoreti cal basi s, but other errors are
i nherent i n the i nstrument. The f ollowi ng observati ons are the result of experi ence i n
usi ng and applyi ng the reed gage.
1. The accuracy wi th whi ch a def lecti on can be measured i s not sati sf actory f or the
hi gh f requency reeds. It i s beli eved f rom experi ence, that reed def lecti ons cannot be meas-
ured closer than 0.01 i nches. Thi s can amount to an error of the f ollowi ng number of ~g"
dependi ng upon the f requency.
Reed Natural Frequency Error (i n g 's)
20 .40
40 1.39
100 8.82
210 37.70
345 120
430 185
570 316
These errors are due largely to the use of rounded poi nt styli on waxed paper to record *
def lecti ons. The li ne scri bed i s broad and poorly def i ned. Suggested i mprovements have
not yet obtai ned the desi red si mpli ci ty, f reedom f rom f ri cti on drag, and abi li ty to operate
duri ng shock. There i s also an error because the scri bed dei lecti on mark i s an arc rather
than a strai ght li ne. Thi s i s not i mportant, si nce i t predomi nates i n the low f requency reeds
and i s a small error i n terms of equi valent stati c accelerati on. Def lecti on i s customari ly
measured as the perpendi cular di stance f rom the end of the arc to the zero-def lecti on li ne. 9
Occasi onally, shi f ti ng of the recordi ng paper, when i t i s removed f rom under the reeds af ter
a shock, makes the zero posi ti on of the reeds di f f i cult to locate.
2. The mass of an actual reed i s di stri buted rather than concentrated at the ti p. The
proper poi nt at whi ch to measure the def lecti on i s not thecenter of the wei ght at theti p of the
reed, but some ef f ecti ve center of mass. It i s possi ble to f i nd the rati o of the def lecti on of
a reed at the poi nt measured, to the def lecti on whi ch a si mple system of the same f requency k 9
would undergo.
5
The f ollowi ng table gi ves numbers, correspondi ng to standard reeds of the
gage, whi ch should be multi pli ed by the measured reed def lecti ons to f i nd the def lecti ons
whi ch a si mple system would have recorded.
9
E. Z. Stowell, et al. Bendi ng and shear stresses developed by the i nstantaneous arrest
of the root of a canti lever"beam wi th a mass at i ts ti p. NACA MR No. 14K30
I
I


N A V A L RE SE A RC H L A BO RA TO RY H
Reed Frequency Correction Factor
20 . 97
40 -845
100 . 860
210 . 93
345 . 98
430 . 97
570 . 945
I
The above effect of distributed mass is quite different from the effect of higher modes
of vibration of the reeds. The deflection of the reed tip due to the second and higher modes
is, except in rare cases of resonance, a negligibly small fraction of the tip deflection due
to the first mode.
I
3. Friction of the scribers on the waxed paper causes damping of the reeds. This is
certainly not the same amount and type of damping to be found in the practical structures
which the reed gage is supposed to represent, though it would be difficult to specify an
ideal damping characteristic. Examination of the transient, traced upon a special moving
paper, as a result of a velocity-change shock shows the damping to be coulomb (rubbing) >
friction. The decrement of amplitude per cycle was uniform regardless of amplitude and
is tabulated in the following table.
Reed Decrement Per Decrement Per
Frequency (cps) Cycle (inches) Cycle (g)
20 . 132 5. 28
40 . 115 16. 0
100 . 014 12. 4
210 . 004 15. 1
For shocks which will build up the simple system amplitude by resonance, damping will
cause a large error. Except in such cases, the error is negligible. In the case of resonant T " '" Z
build-up of vibration, it is not yet clear whether or not a simple undamped system represents " - -
an actual structure any better than the friction-damped reed. If a practical structure is to
fail by successive increases in its amplitude of motion because of resonance with a transient
vibration in the shock motion, it must, on some cycle, pass from wholly elastic deformation
into a slight plastic deformation. This orovides a considerable increase in the damping and
may thus prevent the deformation from exceeding an acceptable value. Further investigation
of this important question is required. \ m
4. The number of reeds which can be accommodated in the reed gage frame is too
small to define satisfactorily a shock spectrum. The present gage is already too large
for some applications. The difficulty is largely inherent in the nature of the gage since a
large space is required for motions of the low- frequency reeds. Shorter low-frequency
reeds would be more non-linear than the present reeds since their deflection would be a
larger fraction of their length, and since lighter reeds are affected more by scriber friction.
Perhaps the solution lies In having several reed gage designs - each for a special type of
application.

* * *
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