Ch01 - Introduction

Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne 2009
Operating System Concepts 8

th
Edition,
Introduction
Modified by M.Rebaudengo - 2010
1.2
th
Edition
What is an Operating System?
! A program that acts as an intermediary between a
user of a computer and the computer hardware
! Operating system goals:
" Execute user programs and make solving user
problems easier
" Make the computer system convenient to use
" Use the computer hardware in an efcient manner
1.3
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Computer System Structure
! Computer system can be divided into four components
" Hardware provides basic computing resources
! CPU, memory, I/O devices
" Operating system
! Controls and coordinates use of hardware among various
applications and users
" Application programs dene the ways in which the system
resources are used to solve the computing problems of the
users
! Word processors, compilers, web browsers, database
systems, video games
" Users
! People, machines, other computers
1.4
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Four Components of a Computer System
1.5
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Operating System Definition
! From the computer's point of view, the operating system is the program
most involved with the hardware
! OS is a resource allocator
" Manages all resources (CPU time, memory space, le-storage space,
I/O devices, etc.)
" resource allocation is important where many users access the same
computer
" Decides between conicting requests for efcient and fair resource use
! OS is a control program
" Controls execution of programs to prevent errors and improper use of
the computer
" It is especially concerned with the operation and control of I/O devices.
1.6
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Operating System Definition (Cont.)
! No universally accepted denition of what is part of the operating system
! The one program running at all times on the computer
" usually called kernel
! Everything else is either a system program (shipped with the operating
system) or an application program.
1.7
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Computer System Organization
! Computer-system operation
" One or more CPUs, device controllers connect through common bus
providing access to shared memory
" Concurrent execution of CPUs and devices competing for memory
cycles
1.8
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Basic anatomy on a CPU (1)
! Some key CPU Components
" Program Counter (PC)
! holds memory address of next instruction
" Instruction Register (IR)
! holds instruction currently being executed
" Registers (Reg. 1..n)
! hold variables and temporary results
" Arithmetic and Logic Unit (ALU)
! performs arithmetic functions and logic operations
1.9
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Basic anatomy on a CPU (2)
! Some key CPU Components
" Memory Address Register (MAR)
! contains address of memory to be read/written
" Memory Data Register (MDR)
! contains memory data read or to be written
" Stack Pointer (SP)
! holds memory address of a stack with a frame for each procedures
local variables & parameters
" Processor Status Word (PSW)
! contains the mode bit and various control bits
1.10
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Program execution
! Instruction sets
" different for different machines
" all have load and store instructions for moving items between memory
and registers
" many instructions for comparing and combining values in registers and
putting result in a register
! Fetch/Decode/Execute cycle
" fetch next instruction pointed to by PC
" decode it to nd its type and operands
" execute it
" repeat
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Fetch/decode/execute cycle
PC
MDR
IR
MAR
Reg. n
Reg. 1

ALU
CPU
Memory
1.12
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PC
MDR
IR
MAR
Reg. n
Reg. 1

ALU
CPU
Memory
While (1) {
Fetch instruction from memory
Execute instruction
(Get other operands if necessary)
Store result
}
1.13
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PC
MDR
IR
MAR
Reg. n
Reg. 1

ALU
CPU
Memory
While (1) {
Execute instruction
Store result
}
1.14
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PC
MDR
IR
MAR
Reg. n
Reg. 1

ALU
CPU
Memory
While (1) {
Execute instruction
Store result
}
1.15
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Edition
PC
MDR
IR
MAR
Reg. n
Reg. 1

ALU
CPU
Memory
While (1) {
Execute instruction
Store result
}
1.16
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PC
MDR
IR
MAR
Reg. n
Reg. 1

ALU
CPU
Memory
While (1) {
Execute instruction
Store result
}
1.17
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Edition
PC
MDR
IR
MAR
Reg. n
Reg. 1

ALU
CPU
Memory
While (1) {
Execute instruction
Store result
}
1.18
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Computer Startup
! Bootstrap program is loaded at power-up or reboot
" Typically stored in ROM or EPROM, generally known as rmware
" Initializes all aspects of system (CPU registers, device controllers,
memory contents, etc.)
" Loads operating system kernel and starts execution
! The operating system then starts executing the rst process (init) and waits
for some event to occur.
! The occurrence of an event is signaled by an interrupt from either the
hardware and the software:
" hardware may trigger an interrupt by sending a signal to the CPU
" software may trigger an interrupt by executing a special operation called
system call (or monitor call).
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Interrupts
! Interrupts is the way by which hardware informs
OS of special conditions that require OSs
attention
! Interrupt causes the CPU not to execute the next
instruction
! Instead, the control is passed to OS
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Computer-System Operation
! I/O devices and the CPU can execute concurrently
! Each device controller is in charge of a particular device
type
! Each device controller has a local buffer
! CPU moves data from/to main memory to/from local
buffers
! I/O moves from the device to local buffer of controller
! Device controller informs CPU that it has nished its
operation by causing an interrupt
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Common Functions of Interrupts
! Interrupt transfers control to the interrupt service routine
generally, through the interrupt vector, which contains
the addresses of all the service routines
! Interrupt architecture must save the address of the
interrupted instruction
! A trap is a software-generated interrupt caused either by
an error or a user request
! An operating system is interrupt driven
1.22
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Handling interrupts
! Interrupt handler is a piece of the OS code intended to
do something about the condition which caused the
interrupt
" Pointers to the interrupt handlers are stored in the
interrupt vector
" The interrupt vector is stored at a pre-dened memory
location
1.23
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Handling Interrupts (II)
! When an interrupt occurs:
" The CPU enters kernel mode, and
" passes control to the appropriate interrupt
handler
" the handler address is found using the
interrupt number as an index into the
interrupt vector
1.24
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Interrupt types
! Asynchronous interrupts are generated by
external devices at unpredictable times
! Internal (synchronous) interrupts are generated
synchronously by CPU as a result of an
exceptional condition
" An error condition
" A temporary problem
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I/O architecture
1.26
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Servicing an interrupt
! When an interrupt occurs (and is accepted), the execution of the current
program is suspended
! Must save PC and Registers
! A special routine executes to service the interrupt
! In most cases the interrupted program resumes
! The service routine is called an interrupt handler or interrupt service routine
(ISR).
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Servicing an interrupt
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Saving Registers
! For the interrupted program to resume, the CPU
status and data registers must be saved
(because they will change during the ISR)
! They are saved before the ISR executes
! They are restored after the ISR executes
! They are saved either
" On the stack (a special area of memory to temporarily
hold information), or
" In a process control block (PCB)
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Vectored interrupt
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Direct Memory Access (DMA) structure
! Used for high-speed I/O devices able to transmit information at close
to memory speeds
! Device controller transfers blocks of data from buffer storage directly
to main memory without CPU intervention
! Only one interrupt is generated per block, rather than the one
interrupt per byte.
Request
Peripheral
Device
DMA
Controller
Memory
Acknowledge
CPU
On-Chip-Bus
Interrupt
Bus
Arbiter
1.31
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Program-Controlled I/O (in DMA)
Data bus
Address bus
Control bus
Memory
DMAC
CPU
Disk
The CPU
prepares
the DMAC
1.32
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DMA
Data bus
Address bus
Control bus
Memory
DMAC
CPU
Disk
The transfer
takes place
1.33
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I/O Interrupt (in DMA)
Data bus
Address bus
Control bus
Memory
DMAC
CPU
Disk
The DMAC
interrupts the
CPU when the
transfer is
complete
IRQ
1.34
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Edition
Storage-Device Hierarchy
1.35
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Storage Structure
! Main memory only large storage media that the CPU can access directly
! Secondary storage extension of main memory that provides large
nonvolatile storage capacity
! Magnetic disks rigid metal or glass platters covered with magnetic
recording material
" Disk surface is logically divided into tracks, which are subdivided into
sectors
" The disk controller determines the logical interaction between the
device and the computer
1.36
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Storage Hierarchy
! Storage systems organized in hierarchy
" The higher levels are more expensive, but they are faster. As we move
down the hierarchy
! Speed: the access time increases
! Cost: the cost per bit decreases
" Volatility:
! registers, cache and main memory lose their contents when the
power to the device is removed.
1.37
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Caching
! Important principle, performed at many levels in a computer (in
hardware, operating system, software)
! Information in use copied from slower to faster storage temporarily
! Faster storage (cache) checked rst to determine if information is
there
" If it is, information used directly from the cache (fast)
" If not, data copied to cache and used there
! Cache smaller than storage being cached
" Cache management important design problem
" Cache size and replacement policy
1.38
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How a Modern Computer Works
1.39
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Computer-System Architecture
! Most systems use a single general-purpose processor (PDAs through
mainframes)
" Most systems have special-purpose processors as well
! Multiprocessors systems growing in use and importance
" Also known as parallel systems, tightly-coupled systems
" Advantages include
1. Increased throughput (speed-up)
2. Economy of scale
3. Increased reliability graceful degradation or fault tolerance
" Two types
1. Asymmetric Multiprocessing: each processor is assigned a specic
task. A master processor controls the system: it schedules and
allocates work to the slave processors
2. Symmetric Multiprocessing: all processors are peers (no master-
slave relationship exists between processors).
1.40
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Symmetric Multiprocessing Architecture
! Many processes can run simultaneously.
1.41
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A Dual-Core Design
! Multicore CPUs appear to the operating system as N standard processors.
1.42
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Operating System Structure
! Multiprogramming needed for efciency

" Single user cannot keep CPU and I/O devices busy at all times
" Multiprogramming organizes jobs (code and data) so CPU always has
one to execute
" A subset of total jobs in system is kept in memory
" One job selected and run via job scheduling
" When it has to wait (for I/O for example), OS switches to another job
! Timesharing (multitasking) is logical extension in which CPU switches
jobs so frequently that users can interact with each job while it is running
" Each user has at least one program executing in memory !process
" If several jobs ready to run at the same time ! CPU scheduling
" If processes dont t in memory, swapping moves them in and out to
run
" Virtual memory allows execution of processes not completely in
memory
1.43
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Memory Layout for Multiprogrammed System
! The operating system keeps several jobs in memory simultaneously.
1.44
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Operating-System Operations
! Since the operating system and the users share the hardware and the
software resources of the computer system, it is important to make sure that
an error in a user program could cause problems only for the one program
running
! With sharing, many processes could be affected by a bug in one program
! Dual-mode operation allows OS to protect itself and other system
components
" User mode and kernel mode (or supervisor, system or privileged
mode)
" Mode bit provided by hardware
! Provides ability to distinguish when system is running user code or
kernel code
! Some instructions designated as privileged, only executable in
kernel mode
! System call changes mode to kernel, return from call resets it to user
1.45
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Transition from User to Kernel Mode
! System calls provide the means for a user program to ask the operating
system to perform tasks reserved for the operating system on the user
program's behalf.
1.46
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Transition from User to Kernel Mode
! Timer to prevent innite loop / process hogging resources
" Set interrupt after specic period
" Operating system decrements counter
" When counter reaches 0, an interrupt occurs
" Set up before scheduling process to regain control or terminate program
that exceeds allotted time
1.47
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Process Management
! A process is a program in execution. It is a unit of work
within the system
! Program is a passive entity (like the contents of a le
stored on a disk), process is an active entity
! Process needs resources to accomplish its task
" CPU, memory, I/O, les (given when it is created or
allocated while it is running)
" Initialization data
! Process termination requires reclaim of any reusable
resources
1.48
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Process Management (cont.)
! Single-threaded process has one program counter
specifying location of next instruction to execute
" Process executes instructions sequentially, one at a
time, until completion
! Multi-threaded process has one program counter per
thread
! Typically system has many processes, some user
processes (executing user code), some operating
system processes (executing system code) running
concurrently on one or more CPUs
" Concurrency by multiplexing the CPUs among the
processes / threads
1.49
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Process Management Activities
The operating system is responsible for the following
activities in connection with process management:
! Scheduling processes and threads of the CPUs
! Creating and deleting both user and system processes
! Suspending and resuming processes
! Providing mechanisms for process synchronization
! Providing mechanisms for process communication
! Providing mechanisms for deadlock handling.
1.50
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Memory Management
! Main memory is a large array of words or bytes, where
each word has its own address
! Main memory is a repository of accessible data shared
by the CPU and I/O devices
! CPU reads instructions from main memory during the
instruction-fetch cycle
! CPU reads/writes data from/to main memory during the
data-fetch cycle
! The main memory is the only large storage device that
the CPU is able to address and access directly
! All data in memory before and after processing: to
process data from disk, those data must rst be
transferred to main memory by CPU-generated I/O calls
! All instructions in memory in order to be executed
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Memory Management (cont.)
! A program, to be executed, must be mapped to absolute
adresses and loaded into memory
! As the program executes, it accesses program
instructions and data from memory by generating these
absolute adresses
! When the program terminates, its memory space is
declared available, and the next program can be loaded
and executed
! To improve the utilization of the CPU and the speed of
the computer's response to its users, general-purpose
computers must keep several programs in memory,
creating a need for memory management
! Many different memory management schemes are used.
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Memory Management
! Memory management activities
" Keeping track of which parts of memory are currently
being used and by whom
" Deciding which processes (or parts thereof) and data
to move into and out of memory
" Allocating and deallocating memory space as needed
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Storage Management
! OS provides a uniform, logical view of information
storage
" Abstracts physical properties to logical storage
unit - le
" OS maps les onto physical media and accesses
these les via the storage devices
" Each medium is controlled by device (i.e., disk
drive, tape drive)
! Varying properties include access speed,
capacity, data-transfer rate, access method
(sequential or random)
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Storage Management
! File-System management
" Files usually organized into directories
" Access control on most systems to determine who can
access in what way (e.g., read, write, append)
" OS activities include
! Creating and deleting les and directories
! Supporting primitives to manipulate les and directories
! Mapping les onto secondary storage
! Backup les onto stable (non-volatile) storage media
1.55
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Mass-Storage Management
! Computer system must provide secondary storage to back up main memory:
" Main memory is too small to accomodate all data and programs
" Data that memory holds are lost when power is lost
! Most programs are stored on a disk until loaded into memory and then use the
disk as both the source and the destination of their processing
! Entire speed of computer operation hinges on disk subsystem and its algorithms
! OS activities
" Free-space management
" Storage allocation
" Disk scheduling
! Some storage need not be fast
" Tertiary storage includes optical storage, magnetic tape
" Varies between WORM (write-once, read-many-times) and RW (read-write)
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Performance of Various Levels of Storage
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Migration of Integer A from Disk to Register
! Multitasking environments must be careful to use most recent value, no
matter where it is stored in the storage hierarchy
! Multiprocessor environment must provide cache coherency in hardware
such that all CPUs have the most recent value in their cache
1.58
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I/O Subsystem
! One purpose of OS is to hide peculiarities of hardware devices from
the user
! I/O subsystem responsible for
" Memory management of I/O including buffering (storing data
temporarily while it is being transferred), caching (storing parts of
data in faster storage for performance)
" General device-driver interface
" Drivers for specic hardware devices

Ch01 - Introduction

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Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne 2009

Operating System Concepts 8

! Multiprogramming needed for efciency

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