Eqm

Dr. Dr.
Vinod Vinod Patidar Patidar

Physi c s of Mat er i al s f or B. Tec h (CSE Physi c s of Mat er i al s f or B. Tec h (CSE\ \ECE) I I Sem ECE) I I Sem
Si r Padampat Si nghani a Uni ver si t y, Udai pur
1 1 PH 103 PH 103
Physics of Materials
Physics of Materials
PH 103
PH 103
(for B. Tech (CSE
(for B. Tech (CSE
\
\
ECE) II Semester students)
ECE) II Semester students)
Part I: (Elementary Quantum Physics)
Part I: (Elementary Quantum Physics)
Books recommended:
Books recommended:
1.
1.
Concepts of modern physics
Concepts of modern physics
-
-
A.
A.
Beiser
Beiser
2.
2.
Modern Physics
Modern Physics
K. S.
K. S.
Krane
Krane
Any other book available in the library on modern physics
Any other book available in the library on modern physics
Dr. Dr. Vinod Vinod Patidar Patidar
2 2 PH 103 PH 103
Review of Classical Physics
Review of Classical Physics
Mechanics:
Mechanics:
Kinetic energy
Kinetic energy
Linear momentum
Linear momentum
Angular momentum
Angular momentum
Force
Force
Torque
Torque
2
2
1
. . mv E K =
v m p
r r
=
p r L
r r
r
=
dt
p d
a m F
r
r
= =

r
I =
Conservation of
Conservation of
Energy
Energy
Linear momentum
Linear momentum
Angular momentum
Angular momentum
Electricity and Magnetism:
Electricity and Magnetism:
Thermodynamics:
Thermodynamics:
Wave & Oscillations:
Wave & Oscillations:
Optics of Waves:
Optics of Waves:
3 3 PH 103 PH 103
Classical Physics treats particles and waves as separate compone Classical Physics treats particles and waves as separate components. nts.
Mechanics of particles and optics of waves are independent disci Mechanics of particles and optics of waves are independent disciplines. plines.
In the microscopic world (atoms, molecules, electrons, nuclei an In the microscopic world (atoms, molecules, electrons, nuclei and several d several
other elementary particles etc. ), there are neither particles n other elementary particles etc. ), there are neither particles nor waves in or waves in
classical sense. classical sense.
We may regard the electron in the picture tube, as a particle si We may regard the electron in the picture tube, as a particle since it has nce it has
charge, mass and behave as a mechanical particle (following Newt charge, mass and behave as a mechanical particle (following Newton on s s
Laws) Laws)
It is equally correct to consider the moving electrons as wave. It is equally correct to consider the moving electrons as wave.
We consider electromagnetic waves as waves under certain suitabl We consider electromagnetic waves as waves under certain suitable e
conditions they exhibit diffraction, interference, polarization conditions they exhibit diffraction, interference, polarization etc. etc.
Under other suitable conditions, EM Under other suitable conditions, EM- -waves behave as they consist of a waves behave as they consist of a
stream of particles. stream of particles.
This This wave particle duality wave particle duality along with the along with the special theory of relativity special theory of relativity is the is the
central theme of modern physics. central theme of modern physics.
4 4 PH 103 PH 103
Electromagnetic Waves
Electromagnetic Waves
Coupled electric and magnetic oscillations that move with the
Coupled electric and magnetic oscillations that move with the
speed of light and exhibit typical wave
speed of light and exhibit typical wave
behaviour
behaviour
.
.
Maxwell (1864)
Maxwell (1864)
made a remarkable suggestion:
made a remarkable suggestion:
accelerated electric charges generate linked electric and
accelerated electric charges generate linked electric and
magnetic disturbances that can travel indefinitely through space
magnetic disturbances that can travel indefinitely through space
.
.
If the charges oscillate periodically, the disturbances are wave
If the charges oscillate periodically, the disturbances are wave
s
s
whose electric and magnetic components are perpendicular to
whose electric and magnetic components are perpendicular to
each other and to the direction of motion.
each other and to the direction of motion.
5 5 PH 103 PH 103
The changing magnetic field can induce a current in a wire loop
The changing magnetic field can induce a current in a wire loop
hence changing magnetic field is equivalent in its effect to an
hence changing magnetic field is equivalent in its effect to an
electric field.
electric field.
Maxwell proposed the converse that the changing electric field
Maxwell proposed the converse that the changing electric field
has a magnetic field associated with it.
has a magnetic field associated with it.
Maxwell was able to show that the speed
Maxwell was able to show that the speed
c
c
of electromagnetic
of electromagnetic
waves in free space is given by
waves in free space is given by
where is permittivity of free space and is its ma
where is permittivity of free space and is its ma
gnetic
gnetic
permeability. This is same as the speed of light waves. Thus,
permeability. This is same as the speed of light waves. Thus,
Maxwell concluded that light consists of electromagnetic waves,
Maxwell concluded that light consists of electromagnetic waves,
but no direct experimental support was available to the existenc
but no direct experimental support was available to the existenc
e
e
of EM
of EM
-
-
waves.
waves.
Hertz (1888) showed that EM waves indeed exist and behave
Hertz (1888) showed that EM waves indeed exist and behave
exactly as Maxwell had predicted
exactly as Maxwell had predicted
s m c / 10 998 . 2
1
8
0 0
= =

0

6 6 PH 103 PH 103
Hertz determined the wavelength and speed of the waves he
Hertz determined the wavelength and speed of the waves he
generated, and showed that they both have electric and
generated, and showed that they both have electric and
magnetic components and found that they could be reflected,
magnetic components and found that they could be reflected,
refracted and diffracted.
refracted and diffracted.
Light is not the only example of an EM wave. Although all such
Light is not the only example of an EM wave. Although all such
waves have the same fundamental nature
waves have the same fundamental nature
-
-
features of their
features of their
interaction with matter depend upon their frequencies
interaction with matter depend upon their frequencies
A characteristic property of all the waves
A characteristic property of all the waves
They obey the

They obey the
principle of superposition
principle of superposition
Amplitude
Amplitude
The maximum value of the wave variable

The maximum value of the wave variable
Instantaneous Amplitude
Instantaneous Amplitude
value at certain place and time of

value at certain place and time of
the quantity whose variations constitutes the wave
the quantity whose variations constitutes the wave
7 7 PH 103 PH 103
Wave in a stretched string
Wave in a stretched string
-
-
displacement of the string from its
displacement of the string from its
normal position
normal position
Water waves
Water waves
Height of the water surface relative to its normal

Height of the water surface relative to its normal
level
level
Sound wave
Sound wave
Change in the pressure relative to the normal

Change in the pressure relative to the normal
pressure
pressure
EM waves (light)
EM waves (light)
:
:
E = c B,
E = c B,
its instantaneous amplitude can be
its instantaneous amplitude can be
taken as either E or B. Usually E is used, since interactions o
taken as either E or B. Usually E is used, since interactions o
f E
f E
with matter give rise to nearly all common optical effects:
with matter give rise to nearly all common optical effects:
Interference, diffraction, polarization etc.
Interference, diffraction, polarization etc.
8 8 PH 103 PH 103
9 9 PH 103 PH 103
10 10 PH 103 PH 103
The classical wave picture of EM
The classical wave picture of EM
-
-
waves
waves
was able to explain all the optical
was able to explain all the optical
phenomena such as: Interference,
phenomena such as: Interference,
diffraction, polarization etc. but failed in
diffraction, polarization etc. but failed in
explaining the observed spectrum of
explaining the observed spectrum of
thermal radiation
thermal radiation
-
-
the type of radiation
the type of radiation
emitted by all objects merely because of
emitted by all objects merely because of
the temperature.
the temperature.
11 11 PH 103 PH 103
Black Body Radiation
Black Body Radiation
Only the quantum theory can explain its origin
Only the quantum theory can explain its origin
What is the origin of the radiation emitted by bodies of
What is the origin of the radiation emitted by bodies of
matter?
matter?
Glow of a hot piece of metal
Glow of a hot piece of metal
gives off visible light

gives off visible light
whose color varies with the temperature of the metal from
whose color varies with the temperature of the metal from
red to yellow to white as it becomes hotter and hotter.
red to yellow to white as it becomes hotter and hotter.
Other frequencies are also present to which our eyes do
Other frequencies are also present to which our eyes do
not respond.
not respond.
All objects continuously radiate such energy whatever their
All objects continuously radiate such energy whatever their
temperatures
temperatures
At room temperatures most of the

At room temperatures most of the
radiations are in the infrared part of the spectrum and
radiations are in the infrared part of the spectrum and
hence is invisible.
hence is invisible.
12 12 PH 103 PH 103
The ability of a body to radiate
The ability of a body to radiate
related to its ability to absorb

related to its ability to absorb
radiation
radiation
A body at a constant temperature is in thermal equilibrium with
A body at a constant temperature is in thermal equilibrium with
its surroundings and must absorb energy from them at the same
its surroundings and must absorb energy from them at the same
rate as it emits energy
rate as it emits energy
Black Body
Black Body
An ideal body that absorbs all radiation incident

An ideal body that absorbs all radiation incident
upon it, regardless of frequency
upon it, regardless of frequency
We can disregard the precise nature of whatever is radiating,
We can disregard the precise nature of whatever is radiating,
since all blackbodies behave identically
since all blackbodies behave identically
Black body
Black body
-
-
Hollow object with a very small hole leading to its
Hollow object with a very small hole leading to its
interior. Any radiation striking on it enters the cavity, it is
interior. Any radiation striking on it enters the cavity, it is
trapped
trapped
by reflection back and forth until it is absorbed
by reflection back and forth until it is absorbed
13 13 PH 103 PH 103
To study the black body radiation, the hollow sphere with a smal
To study the black body radiation, the hollow sphere with a smal
l
l
hole is heated to and maintained at a particular temperature the
hole is heated to and maintained at a particular temperature the
n
n
the distribution of the radiant energy over different wavelength
the distribution of the radiant energy over different wavelength
at constant temperature is observed. It was first time done by
at constant temperature is observed. It was first time done by
Lummer
Lummer
and
and
Pringsheim
Pringsheim
(1899).
(1899).
14 14 PH 103 PH 103
Failures of Classical Physics in explaining Black Body
Failures of Classical Physics in explaining Black Body
Radiation
Radiation
Wien
Wien
s
s
radiation formula (1896):
radiation formula (1896):
Assumptions: Assumptions:
1. Radiations inside the hollow enclosure is produced by 1. Radiations inside the hollow enclosure is produced by
resonators of molecular dimensions resonators of molecular dimensions
2. The frequency of emitted radiation is proportional to the ki 2. The frequency of emitted radiation is proportional to the kinetic netic
energy of resonator energy of resonator
3. The intensity of radiation of any particular wavelength is 3. The intensity of radiation of any particular wavelength is
proportional to the number of resonators having required amount proportional to the number of resonators having required amount of of
energy. energy.
Limitations: Limitations:
This formula only explains the experimental results for low valu This formula only explains the experimental results for low values es
of but at higher values of it gives the value o of but at higher values of it gives the value of energy density, f energy density,
lower than the experimental results. lower than the experimental results.
d e
C
d E
T C
2
5
1

=
T
T
15 15 PH 103 PH 103
Rayleigh
Rayleigh
-
-
J eans formula (1900):
J eans formula (1900):
It is based on the principle of
It is based on the principle of
equipartition
equipartition
of energy,
of energy,
according
according
to which the average energy of an entity at thermal equilibrium
to which the average energy of an entity at thermal equilibrium
at
at
temperature T is ,where
temperature T is ,where
k
k
is
is
Boltzman
Boltzman
Constant
Constant
d
c
kT
d U
3
2
8
=
d
kT
d U
4
8
=
kT
2
1
K J k
23
10 38 . 1

=
Limitations:
Limitations:
As wavelength decreases, the energy density increases and
As wavelength decreases, the energy density increases and
under the limit . However experi
under the limit . However experi
mentally it is
mentally it is
. This discrepancy in theoretical and
. This discrepancy in theoretical and
experimental results at lower wavelength is known as
experimental results at lower wavelength is known as
Ultraviolet
Ultraviolet
Catastrophe
Catastrophe

U 0
0 0

U
16 16 PH 103 PH 103
Ultraviolet Catastrophe
Ultraviolet Catastrophe
17 17 PH 103 PH 103
Planck
Planck
s Quantum Theory
s Quantum Theory
In order to explain the black body radiation phenomenon, Max
In order to explain the black body radiation phenomenon, Max
Planck (1900) introduced the quantum theory of radiation. He
Planck (1900) introduced the quantum theory of radiation. He
assumed that
assumed that
-
-
the atoms in the walls of a black body behave like simple
the atoms in the walls of a black body behave like simple
harmonic oscillator
harmonic oscillator
-
-
a simple harmonic oscillator can not have any arbitrary
a simple harmonic oscillator can not have any arbitrary
values of energy but only those values of energy given by
values of energy but only those values of energy given by
, where
, where
n = 0, 1, 2,
n = 0, 1, 2,
..
..
n is called quantum number and
n is called quantum number and
h=6.626 X 10
h=6.626 X 10
- -34 34
JS
JS
.
.
-
-
As long as the oscillator is in one of the allowed stated, it
As long as the oscillator is in one of the allowed stated, it
can not emit or absorb energy (stationary state). The
can not emit or absorb energy (stationary state). The
emission and absorption occurs only when the oscillator
emission and absorption occurs only when the oscillator
jumps from one state to another state.
jumps from one state to another state.
According to Planck this quantum theory is only applicable to th
According to Planck this quantum theory is only applicable to th
e
e
radiant energy. Later on Einstein (1905) extended the theory.
radiant energy. Later on Einstein (1905) extended the theory.
nh E =

18 18 PH 103 PH 103
kT hc
1
8
3
3
=
kT h
e
d
c
h
d U
Planck
Planck
s Radiation Formula
s Radiation Formula
1
8
5
=
kT hc
e
d hc
d U
For small values of i.e. in the higher wavelength li

For small values of i.e. in the higher wavelength li
mit, the
mit, the
exponential term can be expanded and by retaining only the first
exponential term can be expanded and by retaining only the first
term, we approach to the
term, we approach to the
Rayleigh
Rayleigh
-
-
J eans Formula.
J eans Formula.
For large values of i.e. in the lower wavelength lim
For large values of i.e. in the lower wavelength lim
it, the
it, the
term 1 can be neglected in comparison with the exponential term
term 1 can be neglected in comparison with the exponential term
and we obtain the
and we obtain the
Wien
Wien
s
s
formula.
formula.
Hence no more Ultraviolet catastrophe.
Hence no more Ultraviolet catastrophe.
kT hc
19 19 PH 103 PH 103
Photo electric effect
Photo electric effect
When an electromagnetic radiation of sufficiently high frequency
When an electromagnetic radiation of sufficiently high frequency
,
,
such ultraviolet light or X
such ultraviolet light or X
-
-
rays is incident on a clean metal
rays is incident on a clean metal
surface, electrons are emitted from it.
surface, electrons are emitted from it.
Hertz (1987)
Hertz (1987)
20 20 PH 103 PH 103
Experimental facts:
Experimental facts:
-
-
The maximum kinetic energy of the emitted electrons is
The maximum kinetic energy of the emitted electrons is
completely independent of the intensity of light.
completely independent of the intensity of light.
-
-
The photo electric effect does not occur at all, if the
The photo electric effect does not occur at all, if the
frequency of the light source is below a certain value.
frequency of the light source is below a certain value.
-
-
The first electron is emitted instantaneously (with in
The first electron is emitted instantaneously (with in
nano
nano
second time) after the light source is turned on.
second time) after the light source is turned on.
Predictions based on Classical wave theory:
Predictions based on Classical wave theory:
-
-
The maximum kinetic energy of the emitted electrons
The maximum kinetic energy of the emitted electrons
should be proportional to the intensity of radiation.
should be proportional to the intensity of radiation.
-
-
The photoelectric effect should occur for light of any
The photoelectric effect should occur for light of any
frequency.
frequency.
-
-
The first electron should be emitted in a time interval of
The first electron should be emitted in a time interval of
the order of seconds after the radiation first strikes the
the order of seconds after the radiation first strikes the
metal surface.
metal surface.
21 21 PH 103 PH 103
Einstein
Einstein
s Quantum Theory of Light

s Quantum Theory of Light
Based on the Planck idea, Einstein proposed that the energy of
Based on the Planck idea, Einstein proposed that the energy of
the light wave is not continuously distributed over the
the light wave is not continuously distributed over the
wavefront
wavefront
,
,
but instead is concentrated in localized bundles, which were
but instead is concentrated in localized bundles, which were
later called
later called
Photons
Photons
.
. Each photon of light of frequency has the
energy .
1.
1.
EM wave energy is concentrated in photons and not
EM wave energy is concentrated in photons and not
spread out, there should be no delay in emission of
spread out, there should be no delay in emission of
photoelectrons
photoelectrons
2.
2.
All photons of frequency have the same energy, so
All photons of frequency have the same energy, so
changing the intensity of monochromatic light beam
changing the intensity of monochromatic light beam
will change the number of photoelectrons but not
will change the number of photoelectrons but not
their
their
energies
energies
h
22 22 PH 103 PH 103
Photoelectron current is proportional to light intensity I for a
Photoelectron current is proportional to light intensity I for a
ll
ll
retarding voltages. The extinction voltage V
retarding voltages. The extinction voltage V
0 0
, which corresponds
, which corresponds
to the maximum photoelectron energy, is the same for all
to the maximum photoelectron energy, is the same for all
intensities of the light of the same frequency
intensities of the light of the same frequency
23 23 PH 103 PH 103
3.
3.
The higher the frequency, the greater the photon
The higher the frequency, the greater the photon
energy and so photoelectrons have more energy
energy and so photoelectrons have more energy
24 24 PH 103 PH 103
What is the meaning of the critical frequency below which no
What is the meaning of the critical frequency below which no
photoelectrons are emitted?
photoelectrons are emitted?
There must be a minimum energy for an electron to
There must be a minimum energy for an electron to
escape from a particular metal surface. This energy is
escape from a particular metal surface. This energy is
called the
called the
work function
work function
of
of
the metal
the metal
Work function
Work function
Photoelectric effect is a phenomenon of the visible and
Photoelectric effect is a phenomenon of the visible and
ultraviolet region (1.7 to 3.3eV or about 4.3 to 7.5 Hz
ultraviolet region (1.7 to 3.3eV or about 4.3 to 7.5 Hz
Einstein
Einstein
s formula for photoelectron effect

s formula for photoelectron effect
0
h =
14
10
+ =
max
KE h
25 25 PH 103 PH 103
26 26 PH 103 PH 103
Photon
Photon
We can describe photon with the following properties:
We can describe photon with the following properties:
- -
Like an electromagnetic wave, photon move with the speed
Like an electromagnetic wave, photon move with the speed
of light
of light
- -
They have zero rest mass and energy
They have zero rest mass and energy
- -
They carry energy and momentum
They carry energy and momentum
They can be created or destroyed, when radiation is emitted
They can be created or destroyed, when radiation is emitted
and absorbed
and absorbed
- -
They can have particle like collisions with other particles
They can have particle like collisions with other particles
such as electrons
such as electrons
h
c
h
p = = h E =
27 27 PH 103 PH 103
Compton effect
Compton effect
Another way for radiation to interact with atoms is by mean of
Another way for radiation to interact with atoms is by mean of
Compton effect.
Compton effect.
In Compton effect, radiation scatters from loosely bound, nearly
In Compton effect, radiation scatters from loosely bound, nearly
free electrons. Part of the energy of radiation is transferred
free electrons. Part of the energy of radiation is transferred
to
to
electron, which gets released from the atom and the remaining
electron, which gets released from the atom and the remaining
energy is emitted as electromagnetic radiation of wavelength
energy is emitted as electromagnetic radiation of wavelength
higher than the incident radiation.
higher than the incident radiation.
h h
c c
) cos 1 (
'
=
c m
h
e
28 28 PH 103 PH 103
According to classical wave theory, the scattered radiation is l
According to classical wave theory, the scattered radiation is l
ess
ess
energetic (less intense) but has the same wavelength as of the
energetic (less intense) but has the same wavelength as of the
incident wavelength.
incident wavelength.
The concept of photon leads to a different result, which also
The concept of photon leads to a different result, which also
confirms the experimental predictions.
confirms the experimental predictions.
The Compton effect can be simply analyzed as an interaction
The Compton effect can be simply analyzed as an interaction
between a photon and an electron, which we assume at rest.
between a photon and an electron, which we assume at rest.
The energy of incident photon
The energy of incident photon
hc
h E = =
The linear momentum
The linear momentum
p
p
c
E
p =
29 29 PH 103 PH 103
The rest energy of electron
The rest energy of electron
2
c m
e
final initial
E E =
After the scattering
After the scattering
the photon with energy
the photon with energy
E
E

and momentum
and momentum
p
p

moves in a direction at
moves in a direction at
an angle with respect to incident photon
an angle with respect to incident photon
The electron has total energy
The electron has total energy
E
E
e e
and momentum
and momentum
p
p
e e
and moves in
and moves in
a direction at an angle with respect to incident photon
a direction at an angle with respect to incident photon
From energy conservation principle
From energy conservation principle
e e
E E c m E + = +
' 2
' 2
E c m E E
e e
+ =
30 30 PH 103 PH 103
From momentum conservation
From momentum conservation
final x initial x
p p ) ( ) ( =
2 2
2
' cos ' 2 p pp p p
e
+ =
4
2
2
2 2
c m c p E
e e e
+ =
final y initial y
p p ) ( ) ( =
cos ' cos p p p
e
+ =
sin ' sin 0 p p
e
=
By adding and squaring above two equations
By adding and squaring above two equations
From relativistic relationship between energy and momentum
From relativistic relationship between energy and momentum
Now substitute the value of
Now substitute the value of
E
E
e e
and
and
p
p
e e
in the above equation
in the above equation
) cos 1 (
'
=
c m
h
e
31 31 PH 103 PH 103
Here
Here
meters
C
12
10 426 . 2

=
C
mc
h
=
The greatest wavelength change during the Compton effect is
The greatest wavelength change during the Compton effect is
when photon is scattered at an angle of 180
when photon is scattered at an angle of 180
o o
. In this case the
. In this case the
wavelength change will be the twice of the
wavelength change will be the twice of the
Compton wavelength
Compton wavelength
.
.
is wavelength of incident photon
is wavelength of incident photon
is wavelength of scattered photon
is wavelength of scattered photon
'
is known as Compton wavelength of electron

is known as Compton wavelength of electron
) cos 1 (
'
=
C
Above equation was derived by Compton and the phenomenon
Above equation was derived by Compton and the phenomenon
which he observed for the first time is known as Compton effect
which he observed for the first time is known as Compton effect
Strong evidence in support of the quantum theory of radiation.

Strong evidence in support of the quantum theory of radiation.
Change in wavelength in the Compton effect is independent of the
Change in wavelength in the Compton effect is independent of the
wavelength of the incident photon.
wavelength of the incident photon.
32 32 PH 103 PH 103
) cos 1 (
'
=
C
33 33 PH 103 PH 103
Experimental setup to study the Compton Effect
Experimental setup to study the Compton Effect

34 34 PH 103 PH 103
Wave properties of particles
Wave properties of particles
In 1905 particle properties of wave were discovered
In 1905 particle properties of wave were discovered
In 1924 Louis de
In 1924 Louis de
Broglie
Broglie
proposed that moving objects
proposed that moving objects
have wave as well as particle properties.
have wave as well as particle properties.
The existence of de
The existence of de
Broglie
Broglie
wave was experimentally
wave was experimentally
demonstrated in 1927 by
demonstrated in 1927 by
Davisson
Davisson
and
and
Germer
Germer
de
de
Broglie
Broglie
Waves
Waves
A moving body behaves such as it

A moving body behaves such as it
has a wave associated with it.
has a wave associated with it.
A photon of light of frequency has the momentum
A photon of light of frequency has the momentum
h
c
h
p = =
35 35 PH 103 PH 103
Photon wavelength
Photon wavelength
p
h
=
de
de
Broglie
Broglie
suggested that the above equation is applicable
suggested that the above equation is applicable
to photons as well as material particles
to photons as well as material particles
de
de
Broglie
Broglie
wavelength
wavelength
v m
h
=
The greater the particle
The greater the particle
s momentum, the shorter its

s momentum, the shorter its
wavelength
wavelength
The wave and particle aspects of moving bodies can never be
The wave and particle aspects of moving bodies can never be
observed at the same time
observed at the same time
In certain situations a moving body exhibits wave nature and
In certain situations a moving body exhibits wave nature and
in other situations it could exhibit particle nature
in other situations it could exhibit particle nature
It depends on how its de
It depends on how its de
Broglie
Broglie
wavelength compares with its
wavelength compares with its
dimensions and the dimensions of whatever it interacts with
dimensions and the dimensions of whatever it interacts with
36 36 PH 103 PH 103
de
de
Broglie
Broglie
had no direct experimental evidence to support
had no direct experimental evidence to support
his conjecture
his conjecture
Theory of de
Theory of de
Broglie
Broglie
was able to account for the energy
was able to account for the energy
quantization
quantization
restriction to certain specific energy values

restriction to certain specific energy values
Bohr
Bohr
s postulate (1913)
s postulate (1913)
What kind of waves are involved in de
What kind of waves are involved in de
Broglie
Broglie
s
s
matter
matter
waves?
waves?
As in
As in
Water waves
Water waves
height of water surface varies periodically

height of water surface varies periodically
Sound waves
Sound waves
Pressure varies
Pressure varies
Electromagnetic waves
Electromagnetic waves
Electric and Magnetic fields vary

Electric and Magnetic fields vary
What quantity varies in Matter waves?
What quantity varies in Matter waves?
37 37 PH 103 PH 103
The quantity whose variations make up matter waves is
The quantity whose variations make up matter waves is
called the wave function (usually denoted by the symbol )
called the wave function (usually denoted by the symbol )
The value of the wave function associated with a moving
The value of the wave function associated with a moving
body at a particular point
body at a particular point
x
x
,
,
y
y
,
,
z
z
in space at the time
in space at the time
t
t
is
is
related to the likelihood of finding the body there at that
related to the likelihood of finding the body there at that
time
time
The wave function itself has no physical significance.
The wave function itself has no physical significance.
The square of the absolute value of the wave function
The square of the absolute value of the wave function
(i.e. ) is significant. Which is known as probability
(i.e. ) is significant. Which is known as probability
density.
density.
The probability of experimentally finding the body described
The probability of experimentally finding the body described
by the wave function at the point x, y, z at the time
by the wave function at the point x, y, z at the time
t
t
is
is
proportional to the value of there at
proportional to the value of there at
t
t

38 38 PH 103 PH 103
How fast de
How fast de
Broglie
Broglie
waves travel?
waves travel?
What is the velocity of de
What is the velocity of de
Broglie
Broglie
wave?
wave?
Is the velocity of de
Is the velocity of de
Broglie
Broglie
wave same as velocity of the
wave same as velocity of the
body?
body?
If we denote the de
If we denote the de
Broglie
Broglie
wave velocity by
wave velocity by
We equate the quantum expression of energy with the
We equate the quantum expression of energy with the
relativistic formula of total energy
relativistic formula of total energy
=
p
p
h
c m
c m h
2
2
=
=
de
de
Broglie
Broglie
phase velocity
phase velocity
39 39 PH 103 PH 103
=
p
p
de
de
Broglie
Broglie
phase velocity
phase velocity

2
2
c
m
h
h
c m
p
=
=
=
Since the particle velocity must be less then the velocity
Since the particle velocity must be less then the velocity
of light
of light
c
c
,
,
de
de
Broglie
Broglie
waves always travel faster than light !
waves always travel faster than light !
To understand the above unexpected result, we must

To understand the above unexpected result, we must
understand the concepts of
understand the concepts of
phase and group velocities
phase and group velocities
.
.
40 40 PH 103 PH 103
How are waves described mathematically?
How are waves described mathematically?
We consider a string stretched along the x
We consider a string stretched along the x
-
-
axis whose
axis whose
vibrations are in the y
vibrations are in the y
-
-
direction and are simple harmonic in
direction and are simple harmonic in
character. If we choose t = 0 when the displacement y of
character. If we choose t = 0 when the displacement y of
the string at x = 0 is a maximum, its displacement at any
the string at x = 0 is a maximum, its displacement at any
future time
future time
t
t
at the same place is given by the formula

at the same place is given by the formula
t A y 2 cos =
41 41 PH 103 PH 103
A complete description of wave motion in a stretched string
A complete description of wave motion in a stretched string
should tell us what is the value of
should tell us what is the value of
y
y
at any point on the string

at any point on the string
at any time
at any time
t
t
. We need a formula giving

. We need a formula giving
y
y
as a function of
as a function of
both
both
x
x
and
and
t
t
We shake the string at x=0 when t=0, wave start to travel

We shake the string at x=0 when t=0, wave start to travel
down the string in the +x direction with speed .
down the string in the +x direction with speed .
The wave travels distance in time
The wave travels distance in time
t
t
t x
p
=
42 42 PH 103 PH 103
So the time interval between the formation of wave at x = 0
So the time interval between the formation of wave at x = 0
and its arrival at point
and its arrival at point
x
x
is
is
p
x
hence the displacement
hence the displacement
y
y
of the string at
of the string at
x
x
at any time
at any time
t
t
is exactly the same as the value of

is exactly the same as the value of
y
y
at x=0 at the earlier

at x=0 at the earlier
time
time
Desired expression for
Desired expression for
y
y
in terms of
in terms of
x
x
and
and
t
t
is
is
( )
p
x t /
) ( 2 cos
) ( 2 cos

x t A y
or
x t A y
p
=
=
here is the angular frequency and
is wave number
So, wave formula
2 =
p
k
= =
2
) cos( kx t A y =
43 43 PH 103 PH 103
The amplitude of the de
The amplitude of the de
Broglie
Broglie
wave correspond to a
wave correspond to a
moving body
moving body
probability of finding the body at a particular

probability of finding the body at a particular
place at a particular time
place at a particular time
Hence the de
Hence the de
Broglie
Broglie
waves can not be represented by the
waves can not be represented by the
equation
equation
which describes an indefinite series of waves all with the
which describes an indefinite series of waves all with the
same amplitude A.
same amplitude A.
Instead, we expect the wave representation of a moving
Instead, we expect the wave representation of a moving
body that corresponds to a
body that corresponds to a
wave packet
wave packet
or
or
wave group
wave group
.
.
Likelihood of finding the body depends on the amplitude of
Likelihood of finding the body depends on the amplitude of
the wave packet
the wave packet
) cos( kx t A y =
44 44 PH 103 PH 103
A wave packet or wave group
A wave packet or wave group
Example of wave group
Example of wave group
-
-
beats
beats
Superposition of two sound waves of same amplitude but
Superposition of two sound waves of same amplitude but
of slightly different frequencies produces beats.
of slightly different frequencies produces beats.
The resultant sound wave has frequency given by the
The resultant sound wave has frequency given by the
average of the two original frequencies and its amplitude
average of the two original frequencies and its amplitude
rises and falls periodically. This fluctuation occurs as many
rises and falls periodically. This fluctuation occurs as many
times as the difference between the two original
times as the difference between the two original
frequencies.
frequencies.
45 45 PH 103 PH 103
Production of beats
Production of beats
46 46 PH 103 PH 103
Wave group
Wave group
superposition of individual waves of

superposition of individual waves of
different wavelengths whose interference with one another
different wavelengths whose interference with one another
results in variation in amplitude
results in variation in amplitude
If the velocities of the waves are same
If the velocities of the waves are same
the velocity with

the velocity with
which the wave group travels is
which the wave group travels is
phase velocity
phase velocity
If the phase velocity varies with wavelength
If the phase velocity varies with wavelength
dispersion
dispersion
effect
effect
different waves do not proceed together.

different waves do not proceed together.
The wave group has a velocity different from phase
The wave group has a velocity different from phase
velocities of the waves that make it up
velocities of the waves that make it up
the case of de
the case of de
Broglie
Broglie
waves
waves
47 47 PH 103 PH 103
Let us consider that the wave group arises from the
Let us consider that the wave group arises from the
combination of two waves that have the same amplitude
combination of two waves that have the same amplitude
but differ by an amount in angular frequency and
but differ by an amount in angular frequency and
in wave number
in wave number
The resultant displacement y at any time
The resultant displacement y at any time
t
t
and position
and position
x
x
is
is

k
] ) ( ) cos[(
) cos(
2
1
x k k t A y
kx t A y
+ + =
=

( ) ( ) [ ] ) (
2
1
cos 2 2
2
1
cos 2
2 1
x k t x k k t A
y y y
+ + =
+ =

48 48 PH 103 PH 103
since and are small compared with and
since and are small compared with and
so, equation of beats
so, equation of beats
The above equation represents a wave of angular
The above equation represents a wave of angular
frequency and wave number
frequency and wave number
that has superimposed
that has superimposed
upon it a modulation of angular frequency and of
upon it a modulation of angular frequency and of
wave number
wave number

k

k
k k k 2 2
2 2
+
+
) cos( )
2 2
cos( 2 kx t x
k
t A y
k
2 /
2 / k
49 49 PH 103 PH 103
The velocity with which the centre of wave group i.e.
The velocity with which the centre of wave group i.e.
maximum amplitude moves is called the
maximum amplitude moves is called the
group velocity
group velocity
of
of
the wave group.
the wave group.
The amplitude will be maximum when
The amplitude will be maximum when
Then velocity of the group is
Then velocity of the group is
Phase velocity
Phase velocity
is the velocity of the maximum of individual
is the velocity of the maximum of individual
wave
wave
k
0
2 2
=
x
k
t
k dt
dx
g
= =

0 = kx t
k dt
dx
p
= =
50 50 PH 103 PH 103
when and have continuous spreads, then the
when and have continuous spreads, then the
group
group
velocity
velocity
is given by
is given by
k
dk
d
g
2
= k
dk
d
k k
dk
d
p
p p g
+ = = ) (
) / 2 (
2
lim lim
0 0

=

p p
k
p
k
k
dk
d
k

=

) / 2 (
2
lim
2
0
p
d
d
p p
=
=

) ( lim
0

d
d
p
p g
=
Hence
Hence
51 51 PH 103 PH 103
Angular frequency of de
Angular frequency of de
Broglie
Broglie
waves
waves
and the wave number of the de
and the wave number of the de
Broglie
Broglie
wave
wave
2 2
2
0
2
1
2
2
2
c h
c m
h
mc
=
=
=
2 2
0
1
2
2 2
c h
m
h
m
k
=
= =
52 52 PH 103 PH 103
so, the group velocity associated with the body is given by
so, the group velocity associated with the body is given by
Thus, the de
Thus, the de
Broglie
Broglie
wave group associated with a moving
wave group associated with a moving
body travels with the same velocity as the body.
body travels with the same velocity as the body.
The phase velocity does not have any physical meaning.
The phase velocity does not have any physical meaning.
d dk
d d
dk
d
g
= =
=
g
2
c
p
=
c
g
<
c
p
>
53 53 PH 103 PH 103
Davisson
Davisson
Germer
Germer
Experiment
Experiment
In 1927
In 1927
Davisson
Davisson
and
and
Germer
Germer
demonstrated the wave
demonstrated the wave
nature of the electron, confirming the hypothesis of de
nature of the electron, confirming the hypothesis of de
Broglie
Broglie
Davisson
Davisson
and
and
Germer
Germer
designed and built a vacuum
designed and built a vacuum
apparatus for the purpose of measuring the energies of
apparatus for the purpose of measuring the energies of
electrons scattered from a metal surface. Electrons from a
electrons scattered from a metal surface. Electrons from a
heated filament were accelerated by a voltage and allowed
heated filament were accelerated by a voltage and allowed
to strike the surface of nickel metal.
to strike the surface of nickel metal.
The
The
Bragg
Bragg
law for diffraction had been applied to x
law for diffraction had been applied to x
-
-
ray
ray
diffraction, but this was the first application to particle
diffraction, but this was the first application to particle
waves.
waves.
54 54 PH 103 PH 103
55 55 PH 103 PH 103
Results of Davison-Germer Experiment: (Polar Curves)
56 56 PH 103 PH 103
57 57 PH 103 PH 103
Are de
Are de
Broglie
Broglie
waves responsible for these findings of Davison
waves responsible for these findings of Davison
and
and
Germer
Germer
?
?
A beam of 54-eV electrons was directed perpendicularly towards
nickel target and a sharp maximum in the electron distribution
occurred at an angle of 50
o
with the original beam
We apply the
Bragg
Bragg
s formula of X
s formula of X
-
-
ray diffraction
ray diffraction
where d is the interplanar spacing and is 0.091nm for the nickel
crystal,
sin 2d n =
For n=1 the de Broglie wavelength of the diffracted electron is
nm
d
165 . 0
65 sin 091 . 0 2
sin 2
0
=
=
=
58 58 PH 103 PH 103
We may also calculate the value of wavelength using the
We may also calculate the value of wavelength using the
principle of reflection grating
principle of reflection grating
. The nickel crystal can be treated
. The nickel crystal can be treated
as optical grating. In that case we use the formula
as optical grating. In that case we use the formula
n D = sin
Here
Here
D
D
is the inter atomic separation of the nickel crystal and it
is the inter atomic separation of the nickel crystal and it
is
is
0.215nm
0.215nm
and angle
and angle
0
50 =
nm
nm
165 .
50 sin 215 . 0
0
=
=
Now, we use de
Now, we use de
Broglie
Broglie
s
s
formula to find the expected
formula to find the expected
wavelength of the electrons. The electron kinetic energy of 54
wavelength of the electrons. The electron kinetic energy of 54
eV
eV
is small compared with its rest energy of 0.51MeV so
is small compared with its rest energy of 0.51MeV so
we may neglect the relativistic considerations.
we may neglect the relativistic considerations.
So, kinetic energy
So, kinetic energy
2
0
c m
2
2
1
mv KE =
59 59 PH 103 PH 103
Then the electron momentum
Then the electron momentum
mv
mv
is
is
s m kg
KE m m
/ . 10 0 . 4
10 6 . 1 54 10 1 . 9 2
2
24
19 31

=
=
=
The de
The de
Broglie
Broglie
wavelength is therefore
wavelength is therefore
nm
m
h
166 . 0
10 0 . 4
10 63 . 6
24
34
=
= =

which agrees well with the observed wavelength of 0.165nm.

which agrees well with the observed wavelength of 0.165nm.
The
The
Davisson
Davisson
-
-
Germer
Germer
experiment thus directly verifies de
experiment thus directly verifies de
Broglie
Broglie
hypothesis of the wave nature of moving bodies.
hypothesis of the wave nature of moving bodies.
60 60 PH 103 PH 103
Important steps on the way to understand the uncertainty
Important steps on the way to understand the uncertainty
principle are
principle are
wave
wave
-
-
particle duality
particle duality
and the
and the
DeBroglie
DeBroglie
hypothesis
hypothesis
. As you proceed downward in size to atomic
. As you proceed downward in size to atomic
dimensions, it is no longer valid to consider a particle like a
dimensions, it is no longer valid to consider a particle like a
hard sphere, because the smaller the dimension, the more
hard sphere, because the smaller the dimension, the more
wave
wave
-
-
like it becomes. It no longer makes sense to say that
like it becomes. It no longer makes sense to say that
you have precisely determined both the position and
you have precisely determined both the position and
momentum of such a particle. When you say that the
momentum of such a particle. When you say that the
electron acts as a wave, then the wave is the quantum
electron acts as a wave, then the wave is the quantum
mechanical
mechanical
wavefunction
wavefunction
and it is therefore related to the
and it is therefore related to the
probability of finding the electron at any point in space. A
probability of finding the electron at any point in space. A
perfect
perfect
sinewave
sinewave
for the electron wave spreads that
for the electron wave spreads that
probability throughout all of space, and the "position" of the
probability throughout all of space, and the "position" of the
electron is completely uncertain.
electron is completely uncertain.
Heisenberg Uncertainty Principle
Heisenberg Uncertainty Principle
61 61 PH 103 PH 103
62 62 PH 103 PH 103
63 63 PH 103 PH 103
The position and momentum of a particle cannot be
The position and momentum of a particle cannot be
simultaneously measured with arbitrarily high precision. There i
simultaneously measured with arbitrarily high precision. There i
s a
s a
minimum for the product of the uncertainties of these two
minimum for the product of the uncertainties of these two
measurements. There is likewise a minimum for the product of the
measurements. There is likewise a minimum for the product of the
uncertainties of the energy and time.
uncertainties of the energy and time.
This is not a statement about the inaccuracy of measuring
This is not a statement about the inaccuracy of measuring
instruments, nor a reflection on the quality of experimental
instruments, nor a reflection on the quality of experimental
methods; it arises from the wave properties inherent in the
methods; it arises from the wave properties inherent in the
quantum mechanical description of nature. Even with perfect
quantum mechanical description of nature. Even with perfect
instruments and technique, the uncertainty is inherent in the
instruments and technique, the uncertainty is inherent in the
nature of things.
nature of things.
2
h
p x
2
h
t E
64 64 PH 103 PH 103
2
h
p x
t
x
=
t x =
2
2
1
m E =
p m m E = = = ) (
E
p

=
2
h
E
t
2
h
t E
65 65 PH 103 PH 103
Illustration of Uncertainty principle
Illustration of Uncertainty principle
If the wavelength of incident photon is . The momentum
If the wavelength of incident photon is . The momentum
of
of
photon is
photon is
h
p =
If one of the photon bounce off the electron then there will be
If one of the photon bounce off the electron then there will be
change in the momentum. The order of change will be of the
change in the momentum. The order of change will be of the
order of photon momentum
order of photon momentum
h
p
66 66 PH 103 PH 103
Light is a wave phenomenon as well as particle, we can not
Light is a wave phenomenon as well as particle, we can not
expect to determine the location of the electron precisely
expect to determine the location of the electron precisely
regardless the experiment. A reasonable estimate of the
regardless the experiment. A reasonable estimate of the
uncertainty in position
uncertainty in position
x
h
h
x p =

67 67 PH 103 PH 103
meter x
11
10 3 . 5

=
s m kg
x
p / . 10 9 . 9
2
25
=

h
Application of Uncertainty principle in explaining non
Application of Uncertainty principle in explaining non
-
-
existence of electron in the nucleus
existence of electron in the nucleus
Radius of hydrogen atom = 5.3 X 10
Radius of hydrogen atom = 5.3 X 10
- -11 11
meter
meter
If we assume that the electron exists in the nucleus then
If we assume that the electron exists in the nucleus then
the maximum Uncertainty in the position may be
the maximum Uncertainty in the position may be
considered equal to the radius i.e.,
considered equal to the radius i.e.,
eV Joules
m
p
KE 4 . 3 10 4 . 5
2
19
2
= = =

68 68 PH 103 PH 103
Other applications of Uncertainty principle
Other applications of Uncertainty principle
-
-
Ground state energy of harmonic oscillator
Ground state energy of harmonic oscillator
-
-
Size of Hydrogen atom and energy in ground state
Size of Hydrogen atom and energy in ground state
-
-
Finite width of spectral lines
Finite width of spectral lines
Experimentally it is determined that the lowest value of energy
Experimentally it is determined that the lowest value of energy
of
of
electron in hydrogen atom is 13.6
electron in hydrogen atom is 13.6
eV
eV
.
.
Hence our assumption is incorrect i.e., electron can not exist i
Hence our assumption is incorrect i.e., electron can not exist i
n
n
the nucleus.
the nucleus.
69 69 PH 103 PH 103
Problems
Problems
1. Find the de
1. Find the de
Broglie
Broglie
wavelengths of (a) a 46g golf ball
wavelengths of (a) a 46g golf ball
with a velocity of 30
with a velocity of 30
m/s
m/s
and (b) an electron with a velocity
and (b) an electron with a velocity
of 10
of 10
7 7
m/s
m/s
2. Find the kinetic energy of a proton whose de
2. Find the kinetic energy of a proton whose de
Broglie
Broglie
wavelength is 1.000fm, which is roughly the proton
wavelength is 1.000fm, which is roughly the proton
diameter.
diameter.
3. Compute the de
3. Compute the de
Broglie
Broglie
wavelengths of the following
wavelengths of the following
(a) A 1000
(a) A 1000
-
-
kg automobile traveling at 100
kg automobile traveling at 100
m/s
m/s
(b) A smoke particle of mass 10
(b) A smoke particle of mass 10
- -9 9
g moving at 1cm/s
g moving at 1cm/s
(c) An electron with kinetic energy of 1eV
(c) An electron with kinetic energy of 1eV
(d) An electron with kinetic energy 0f 100
(d) An electron with kinetic energy 0f 100
MeV
MeV

Eqm

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Eqm

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Dr. Dr.

Vinod Vinod Patidar Patidar

Dr. Dr. Vinod Vinod Patidar Patidar

They obey the

The maximum value of the wave variable

value at certain place and time of

Height of the water surface relative to its normal

Change in the pressure relative to the normal

gives off visible light

At room temperatures most of the

related to its ability to absorb

An ideal body that absorbs all radiation incident

For small values of i.e. in the higher wavelength li

s Quantum Theory of Light

s formula for photoelectron effect

is known as Compton wavelength of electron

Strong evidence in support of the quantum theory of radiation.

Dr. Dr. Vinod Vinod Patidar Patidar

A moving body behaves such as it

s momentum, the shorter its

restriction to certain specific energy values

height of water surface varies periodically

Electric and Magnetic fields vary

Dr. Dr. Vinod Vinod Patidar Patidar

To understand the above unexpected result, we must

at the same place is given by the formula

at any point on the string

. We need a formula giving

We shake the string at x=0 when t=0, wave start to travel

is exactly the same as the value of

at x=0 at the earlier

probability of finding the body at a particular

superposition of individual waves of

the velocity with

different waves do not proceed together.

which agrees well with the observed wavelength of 0.165nm.

Dr. Dr. Vinod Vinod Patidar Patidar

You might also like