Curs Universitar - 2

Electronics by Eunil Won, Korea University

Electronics - 02
: Capacitors and RC circuit
Capacitors - dynamic description
RC circuit
time domain analysis
step response
integrator and differentiator
frequency domain analysis
lters
Oscilloscope and voltage divider
1
Capacitors - Dynamic viewpoint
2
Capacitors let us build circuits that remember their
recent history
: is an electrical device that can store energy in the electric eld between a pair of closely-
spaced conductors (called plates). When current is applied to the capacitor, electric
charges of equal magnitude, but opposite polarity, build up on each plate
Q = CV
I = C
dV
dt
static dynamic description
From Hallidays and Resnick Fundamentals of Physics
Time domain description
3
Case I: constant current (difcult to implement)
Vcap
time
large I
small I
ramp generator:
+V
I
C
Vcap
+V
C
Vout
-V
charge
discharge
The ramp waveform is relatively rare, because current sources are relatively rare.
constant current
source
Time domain description
4
Case 2: constant voltage source
Vcap
time
+10V
1 ms 2 ms
small I
large I
at 10 V across R: I = 10 mA
dV
dt
=
I
C
=
10 10
3
1 10
6
= 10 V/ms
time (units of time-constants, RC)
0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1
0 1 2 3 4 5
V
o
l
t
a
g
e
+10V
1k
1uF
Vcap
: this is a RC circuit appeared in general
physics
For charging:
V
cap
= V (1 e
t/RC
)
Exact curves
for RC circuits
charge
discharge
Things to remember:
1/e = 0.37
for charging: in one RC, 63% of the way
in ve RC, 99% of the way
M F = s
k F = ms
Reminder: Spice Simulation
5
Spice (Simulation Program with Integrated Circuit Emphasis) is a general
purpose analog circuit simulator. It is a powerful program that is used in IC
and board-level design to check the integrity of circuit designs and to predict
circuit behavior.
Circuit diagram Spice simulation
Differentiators
6
Let us look at the following circuit
If the incoming voltage source is time-varying, we have current through
capacitor:
Vin
C
R
V(t)
I I = C
d
dt
(V
in
V (t)) =
V (t)
R
V
cap
Ohms law
or voltage across cap
dV
in
dt
=
V (t)
RC
+
dV (t)
dt
so,
Now, if RC is small, then we have
V (t) RC
dV
in
dt
: output is differentiation of input
Date/Time run: 07/04/07 14:33:46
* C:\Documents and Settings\sorim_vrvs\Desktop\hyun\shematics\differnfiator.sch
Temperature: 27.0
Date: July 04, 2007 Page 1 Time: 14:56:02
(A) differnfiator.dat
Time
0s 0.2s 0.4s 0.6s 0.8s 1.0s 1.2s 1.4s 1.6s 1.8s 2.0s
V(R1:2)
-500nV
0V
500nV
V(C1:2)
0V
2.0V
4.0V
6.0V
SEL>>
The rst spice simulation
we show in our class:
R = 1 k
C = 1 pF
V
in
V
out
Integrators
7
Let us look at the following circuit
If the incoming voltage source is time-varying, we have current through
capacitor:
I = C
dV (t)
dt
=
V
in
V (t)
R
Vin
R
C
V(t)
I
Vin - V(t)
so,
dV (t)
dt
+
V (t)
RC
=
V
in
RC
Now, if RC is large, then we have
dV (t)
dt

V
in
RC
or
V (t) =
1
RC
t
V
in
(t) dt + constant
Date/Time run: 07/04/07 15:27:43
* C:\Documents and Settings\sorim_vrvs\Desktop\hyun\electronics\shematics\integrator.sch
Temperature: 27.0
(A) integrator.dat (active)
Time
0s 0.5s 1.0s 1.5s 2.0s 2.5s
V(C1:2)
0V
0.5V
1.0V
SEL>>
V(R1:2)
0V
2.0V
4.0V
6.0V
Spice simulation
R = 1 M
C = 1 uF
V
in
V
out
Time vs. frequency domain
8
Mathematically, they are Fourier transformation of each other
time domain frequency domain
-0.8 0 0.8
0.8
-0.8 0 0.8
1
single frequency in time domain becomes a Dirac delta function in frequency domain
0 2.5 0 2.5
RC Filters: qualitative approach
9
Vin
R
C
Vout
Vin
R
C
Vout
How do you think they perform under AC V
in
?
High pass lter Low pass lter
Note: cap cannot conduct a DC current but resistor can
Vin
R
C
Vout
Vin
R
C
Vout
wiggle in...
wiggle out ...
some current ows, but
not long enough for Vcap
to change appreciably
wiggle in...
wiggle out ...
only slow components
pass through resistor
RC Filters: quantitative approach
10
Vin
R
C
Vout
Vin
R
C
Vout
High pass lter Low pass lter
V
out
=
2fRC
[1 + (2fRC)
2
]
1/2
V
in
V
out
=
1
[1 + (2fRC)
2
]
1/2
V
in
0 0.8 1.6 2.4 3.2 4
0.5
1
High pass lter
Low pass lter
At both lters give f =
1
2RC
V
out
V
in
=
1
2
RC=1s
V
out
V
in
:-3dB breakpoint of a lter
(will discuss it later)
Diode and diode circuits
Resistors and capacitors are linear and passive
: linear because a doubling of the applied signal produces a doubling of the response
: passive because they dont have built-in source of power
Diode is a two-terminal passive non-linear device
anode (+) cathode (-)
V
I
forward
reverse
1V 2V
10mA
20mA
1uA
2uA
-50V -100V
Note scale
changes
forward bias: anode is approximately 0.5 V more
positive then the cathode (forward voltage drop)
reverse bias: the reverse current is in 10
-9
A range
Rectication:
ac Rload
0 0.5 1 1.5 2
0.4
0.8
1.2
1.6
11
Zener diode
V
I
diode
conduction
ideal
zener
real
zener
Zener diode: is specially designed so as to have a
greatly reduced breakdown voltage ( 3-5 V)
Zener diode can be used to make constant voltage
from a range of current
ex) a Zener R
dyn
= 10 Ohm @ 10 mA, Zener voltage 5V
10 % change in the applied current gives:
V = R
dyn
I = 10 10mA 0.1 = 10mV
V
V
=
10mV
5V
= 2 10
3
(small!)
Rdyn: the ratio of a small change
in applied voltage to the
resulting change in current
through the device =
V
I
Zener regulator
I =
V
in
V
out
R
V
out
=
R
dyn
R
dyn
+R
V
in
V
out
= R
dyn
I =
R
dyn
R
(V
in
V
out
)
Finally (similar to the voltage divider!)
ex) V
in
within [15,20] V, with zener : IN4733 (5.1 V, R
dyn
= 7 Ohm at 50 mA): We choose R = 300 Ohm, why?
Vin Vout
R
I
(unregulated)
20V 5.1V
300
= 50mA
15V 5.1V
300
= 33mA
V = R
dyn
I = 7(50 33)mA 0.12V
: zener current in [33,50]mA for Vin in [5,20]V
: good enough for you?
12
we want to take it as
max. zenor current
target
voltage
Zener diode : spice simulation
13
Date/Time run: 07/04/07 16:11:58
* C:\Documents and Settings\sorim_vrvs\Desktop\hyun\electronics\shematics\voltage regulator.sch
Temperature: 27.0
(A) voltage regulator.dat (active)
V(D1:2)
-1.0V 0V 1.0V 2.0V 3.0V 4.0V 5.0V
I(R1)
-20mA
-10mA
0A
10mA
20mA
Date/Time run: 07/04/07 16:33:30
* C:\Documents and Settings\sorim_vrvs\Desktop\hyun\electronics\shematics\voltage regulator.sch
Temperature: 27.0
(A) voltage regulator.dat (active)
Time
0s 0.2s 0.4s 0.6s 0.8s 1.0s
I(R1)
-2.0mA
-1.0mA
0A
SEL>>
V(R1:2)
-1.5V
-1.0V
-0.5V
0V
V(V1:+)
-2.0V
-1.5V
-1.0V
-0.5V
Diode V-I
curve
simulated
V
I
Input voltage
(V1)
Current
near R1
Regulated
Voltage
Oscilloscope and Voltage Divider
14
One needs a probe to connect your device under test (DUI) and the scope
An oscilloscope (sometimes abbreviated CRO, for cathode-ray
oscilloscope, or commonly just scope or O-scope) is a type of electronic
test equipment that allows signal voltages to be viewed, usually as a two-
dimensional graph of one or more electrical potential differences
(vertical axis) plotted as a function of time or of some other voltage
(horizontal axis).
10 pF
1 M!
9 M!
Probe tip
10 pF
1 M!
9 M!
Probe cable
Scope
100 pF/m
100 pF
15 pF
Approximation to
calculate effects of loading
10 pF
1 M!
Probe tip
cable capacitance may be
as much as 100 pF/meter
compensation circuit
Without compensation circuit, adding a cable adds 110 pF and a 1 M! resistor to ground
Roles of scope probe tip
1) 10:1 voltage divider
2) capacitance compensation
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:CRT_oscilloscope.png
completely lled
valence band
Summary of physics in Diode
15
Basic Semiconductor Concepts
Semiconductor: a solid material that has electrical conductivity in between that of a conductor and
that of an insulator
Intrinsic semiconductor: no (or very few) impurities compared with the number of thermally
generated electrons and holds
completely empty
conduction band
completely lled
valence band
completely empty
conduction band
completely lled
valence band
completely empty
conduction band
partially lled
conduction band
electron
hole
insulators semiconductors conductors
n : concentration of free electrons
p : concentration of free holes
n
i
: concentration of free electrons or holes in intrinsic silicon
n = p = n
i
in thermal equilibrium
sometimes I use
N
A
, N
D instead of
p, n
16
Diffusion and Drift: two mechanisms by which holes and electrons move through a silicon crystal
Diffusion: random motion due to thermal agitation. The concentration
gradient gives the diffusion current
J
p
= qD
p
dp
dx
J
n
= qD
n
dn
dx
x
h
o
l
e

c
o
n
c
e
n
t
r
a
t
i
o
n
,

p
holes move +x direction
gradient is negative
why (-) sign?
J
p
1.6x10
-19
C
q
current density (A/cm
2
usually)
D
p
diffusion constant (cm
2
/s usually)
Drift: motion due to an electric eld applied across a piece of silicon
v
drift
=
p
E
v
drift : drift velocity

p : mobility (cm
2
/Vs)
E
: electric eld
J
pdrift
= qp
p
E
then current density due to holes and electrons drift is Can you
prove it?
The total current density for electrons and holes are then
J
n
= qn
n
E +qD
n
dn
dx
J
p
= qp
p
E qD
p
dp
dx
J
ndraft
= qn
n
E
17
The pn junction
p-type
silicon
n-type
silicon
Anode (+) Cathode (-)
Extrinsic semiconductor: external impurities (donor: providing electrons such as phosphorous,
arsenic or acceptor: providing holes such as boron) are added
n-type: enriched with mobile electrons
p-type: enriched with mobile holes
Doped atoms near the junction lose their free carriers by diffusion
As these xed atoms lose their free carriers, they build up an electric eld, which opposes
the diffusion mechanism
Equilibrium conditions are reached when

current due to diffusion = current due to electric eld
18
Characterization of the PN junction
Cross section of an ideal pn junction
Due to the junction, there is electric potential when no
external potential is supplied : built-in potential
0
= V
T
ln
N
A
N
D
n
2
i
V
T
=
kT
q
where
symbol for the pn junction
Applying a reverse bias: v
D
= V
R
: depletion region is increased with very little net current
19
Physics of PN Junction
Apply a forward bias voltage to the pn junction
v
D
The voltage across the junction is :

0
v
D
Charge neutrality requires that
W
1
N
A
= W
2
N
D
Poissons equation in one dimension is (will learn in E&M course)
d
2
dx
2
=
=
qN
A
for W
1
< x < 0
= charge density
q = charge of an electron
=
Si
Si
= dielectric constant of silicon
0
= permittivity of free space
where
Integrating Poissons equation gives
d
dx
=
qN
A
x +C
1
The electric eld becomes then
E =
d
dx
=
qN
A
x +C
1
Since there is zero electric eld outside the depletion region, a

boundary condition is
E = 0 for x = W
1
Note that the maximum electric eld occurs at x=0 and
This gives
E
max
=
qN
A
E =
qN
A
(x +W
1
)
Integration of the electric eld gives
=
qN
A
x
2
2
+W
1
x
+C
2
A 2nd boundary condition is obtained by assuming that the
potential of the neutral p-type region is also zero:
(x = W
1
) = 0
This gives
=
qN
A
x
2
2
+W
1
x +
W
2
1
2
(x = 0)
1
We dene
and dene the potential difference from is
(one has to re-solve for the donor)
x = 0 to x = W
2
2
1
=
qN
A
W
2
1
2
2
=
qN
D
W
2
2
2
20
Physics of PN Junction
The total voltage across the pn junction is then
When extra electric potential is added or subtracted, extra
charge is added or removed - we can think of a parallel plate
capacitor or junction capacitance
0
v
D
=
1
+
2
=
q
2
N
A
W
2
1
+N
D
W
2
2
and with W
1
N
A
= W
2
N
D
we get
0
v
D
=
qN
A
W
2
1
2
1 +
N
A
N
D
W
1
=
2(
0
v
D
)
qN
A
(1 +
N
A
N
D
)
W
2
=
2(
0
v
D
)
qN
D
(1 +
N
D
N
A
)
The depletion region width of p side and n side of the
pn junction diode becomes
So the total depletion region width becomes
W = W
1
+ W
2
=
2(
0
v
D
)
qN
A
(1 +
N
A
N
D
)
+
2(
0
v
D
)
qN
D
(1 +
N
D
N
A
)
=
2(
0
v
D
)(N
A
+ N
D
)
qN
A
N
D
C
j
=

W
=
qN
A
N
D
2(
0
v
D
)(N
A
+N
D
)
=
qN
A
N
D
2(
0
v
D
)(N
A
+N
D
)
C
j0
(1
v
D
0
)

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Electronics by Eunil Won, Korea University

Electronics by Eunil Won, Korea University

Equilibrium conditions are reached when

Since there is zero electric eld outside the depletion region, a

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