MLC Deck f1 Handout New

MANAGEMENT LEVEL COURSE FOR MARINE DECK OFFICER-FUNCTION 1
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Function 1 Module 1
1.0 voyage planning and navigation for all conditions
1.1 Plan a Voyage and Conduct Navigation for all conditions by acceptable Methods of Plotting
Ocean Tracks
Objective
To give the trainee an in-depth understanding of the importance of executing an accurate and detailed
voyage plan, covering every aspect of the voyage.
Intoduction
A voyage plan (or passage plan) is a comprehensive, berth to berth guide, developed and used by a
vessels bridge team to determine the most favorable route, to identify potential problems or hazards
along the route, and to adopt bridge management practices to ensure the vessels safe passage.
1.2 Planning the Voyage
Four (4) Stages of Passage Planning
1. Appraisal
gather as much safety and navigation information to give you a safe voyage.
To obtain a clear mental picture of what may be expected along the route. Relevant
information should be noted as necessary in the chart.
Charts and Publications
Only official nautical charts and publications should be used for passage planning
Ensure that they are fully corrected to the latest available notices to mariners and radio
navigational warnings
Any missing charts and publications needed for the intended voyage should be identified from the
chart catalogue and obtained before the ship sails.


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EQUIPMENTS

CHARTS

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Up to Date Nautical Publication

NOTE:
For coastal and pilotage planning:
Each course altersation point (or waypoint )large scale charts should be used.
For ocean passage planning and open water legs:
Smaller scale charts should be used.

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Organize and Brief and Bridge Team
1. The Master should review and approve the plan and each bridge team member should review and
sign the plan indicating they understand it.
2. If a voyage is not proceeding as planned or cannot be accomplished safely under existing
conditions, this should be communicated honestly and quickly within the ships management
system.

2. Planning

A comprehensive voyage plan will include details marked on the appropriate charts (paper or
electronic) as well as voyage planning forms provided by the vessels management company under
their Safety Management Manual.

ROUTE PLANNING DETAILS
TRUE COURSE OF EACH LEG
Leg Distances
No-go Areas
Margins of Safety
Charted Tracks
Course Alteration & Wheel Over
Parallel Indexing
Abort and Contingencies
Natural Transit, Clearing Masks &
Head mark
Clearing Bearings
Leading Lines Charted Tracks


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PLANNING

An ocean passage requires less Navigation in coastal waters requires
concentrated preparations planning of courses etc.

2. Execution
When a route planning process is completed, it is highly recommended that the whole route is validated
and checked against required safety checked against required safety limits.
If an ECDIS is used for route planning, validation against pre-set limits can be executed by the system.
Whatever method of validation is used, always remember that the responsibility for safe routeing remains
the navigator.
4. Monitoring
Whatever method of validation is used, always remember that the responsibility for safe routeing remains
the navigator.
Organize and Brief and Bridge Team
3. Duties should be clearly assigned, limited to those duties that can be performed effectively, and clearly
prioritized.
4. Team members should be asked to confirm that they understand the tasks and duties assigned to them.
The positive reporting on events while undertaking tasks and duties is one way of monitoring the
performance of bridge team members and detecting any deterioration in watchkeeping performance.
1.3 Conduct navigation using the prepared voyage / passage plan in a controlled simulation
facilities
Prepare the bridge according to the plan

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Prior departure all bridge departure checklist should be carried out; including departure draft, squat,
freeboard, inform the engine personnel an hour before or considerable time allotted for engine and
machinery preparation.
Confirm operational condition of all bridge equipments / facilities
All navigational equipments should be tested including radars
Ensure that radar scanner/s are clear from any obstruction.
Echo sounder must be checked and should be in any condition satisfactory, GPS, Horn, Running
lights, aldis lamp.
Ensure that all handheld radio communications are charged with battery for continuous
communications.

Monitor the execution of the plan
Position determination maintained at safety level. Any incoming targets should be assessed in accordance
with good seamanship practices.
1.4 Adopt the General Principles on Ships Routeing
General Principles on Ships routeing
Purpose:
To improve the safety of navigation in converging areas and in areas where the density of traffic is great
or where freedom of movement of shipping is inhibited by restricted searoom
Precise Objectives
1. The separation of opposing streams of traffic so as to reduce the incidence of head-on encounters;
2. The reduction of dangers of collision between crossing traffic and shipping in established traffic lanes;
3. The simplification of the patterns of traffic flow in converging areas;
4. The organization of safe traffic flow in areas of concentrated offshore exploration or exploitation;
5. The organization of traffic flow in or around areas where navigation by all ships or by certain classes of
ship is dangerous or undesirable;
6. The reduction of risk of grounding by providing special guidance to vessels in areas where water depths
are uncertain or critical;
7. The guidance of traffic clear of fishing grounds or the organization of traffic through fishing grounds.


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IMOs responsibility for ships routeing is enshrined in solas chapter v/10, which recognizes the
organization as the only international body for establishing such systems
Elements used in traffic routeing systems include:
Traffic Separation Scheme
Traffic Lane
Separation Line or Zone Line
Roundabout
Inshore Traffic Zone
Recommended Route
Deep-Water Route
Precautionary Area
Area to be Avoided

4 METHODS
Streams of traffic proceeding in opposite or nearly
opposite directions are separated by separation zones
(4) or lines (3)
The outside limits (6) of such traffic separation
schemes are the outer boundaries of the traffic lanes.
The arrows (1) indicate the established direction of
traffic flow.
Figure 1:
Traffic separation by separation zone and line

This method is used where there is a defined area with obstructions such as
islands, shoals or rocks restricting free movement and providing a natural
division for opposing traffic streams.
Figure 2:
Separation of traffic by natural obstructions

Beyond the outside limits of traffic separation schemes, ships may
navigate in any direction. Where such areas lie between the traffic
separation scheme and the coast they may be designated as inshore

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traffic zones with the purpose of keeping local traffic clear of the traffic separation scheme which
should be used by through traffic.
Traffic in inshore traffic zones is separated from traffic in the adjacent
traffic lane by separation zones (4) or by separation lines (3)
This method is used where ships converge at a focal point or a small
area from various directions. Port approaches, sea pilot stations,
positions where landfall buoys or lightvessels are located, entrances to
channels, canals, estuaries, etc., may be considered as such focal
points.
Figure 4:
Sectorial division of adjacent traffic separation
schemes at approaches to focal points
If the need can be demonstrated, a roundabout may be used to guide traffic counterclockwise
round a circular separation zone (4) or specified point

Figure 5:
Separation of traffic at a roundabout

2 JUNCTIONS

Figure 6: Separation of Traffic at a crossing Figure 7:Separation of Trafiic at a junction

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These methods are used where two routes join or cross. The directions of traffic flow are established
in the lanes of the adjoining schemes

Figure 8:
A junction, showing a separation line substituted for a zone,
where there will be crossing traffic

; the separation zone may be inter rupted, as shown in figures 6 and 7, or replaced by a separation line, as
shown in figure 8, in order to emphasize the correct method of crossing by traffic changing from one
scheme to the other.
Traffic separation schemes
7. Where space allows the use of traffic separation zones, the width of the zone should, if possible, be not
less than three times the transverse component of the standard error (measured across the separation
zone) of the most appropriate of the fixing methods listed in paragraph.
Precautionary areas
The traffic lanes are terminated short of the point where traffic is expected to cross and replaced by a
precautionary area within which the recommended directions of traffic flow (2) are indicated. Precautionary
areas may also be used at the termination of any single route.

Figure 11:
Precautionary area at a junction, with recommended directions of
traffic flow


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Other routeing methods

Figure 12 Figure 12 One-way deep water routr (within a traffic lane)
Deep-water route (two-way)

Other routeing methods
Other routeing methods which may be used are :
1. Deep-water routes (figures 12);
2. Areas to be avoided (figures 10 )
3. The existing traffic pattern in the area concerned, including coastal traffic, crossing traffic, naval exercise
areas and anchorage areas;
4. Foreseeable changes in the traffic pattern resulting from port or offshore terminal developments;
5. The presence of fishing grounds;
6. Existing activities and foreseeable developments of offshore exploration or exploitation of the sea-bed
and sub-oil;
7. The adequacy of existing aids to navigation , hydrographic surveys and nautical charts of the area;
8. Environmental factors including prevailing weather conditions, tidal streams and currents and the
possibility of ice concentrations;
9. The existence of environmental observation areas and foreseeable developments in the establishment of
such areas

Rule 10 traffic separation Schemes

1. A vessel using a traffic separation scheme shall:
a. proceed in the appropriate traffic lane in the general direction of traffic flow for that lane;
b. so far as practicable keep clear of a traffic separation line or separation zone;
c. normally join or leave a traffic lane at the termination of the lane, but when joining or leaving from
either side shall do so at as small an angle to the general direction of traffic flow as practicable.


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2. A vessel shall so far as practicable avoid crossing traffic lanes, but if obliged to do so shall cross as
nearly as practicable at right angles to the general direction of traffic flow.
3. Inshore traffic zones shall not normally be used by through traffic which can safely use the
appropriate traffic lane within the adjacent traffic separation scheme. However, vessels of less than 20
metres in length and sailing vessels may under all circumstances use inshore traffic zones.
4. A vessel, other than a crossing vessel or a vessel joining or leaving a lane shall not normally enter a
separation zone or cross a separation line except:
a. in cases of emergency to avoid immediate danger;
b. to engage in fishing within a separation zone.
5. A vessel navigating in areas near the terminations of traffic separation schemes shall do so with
particular caution.
6. A vessel shall so far as practicable avoid anchoring in a traffic separation scheme or in areas near its
terminations.
a. A vessel not using a traffic separation scheme shall avoid it by as wide a margin as is practicable.
7. A vessel engaged in fishing shall not impede the passage of any vessel following a traffic lane
8. A vessel of less than 20 metres in length or a sailing vessel shall not impede the safe passage of a
power-driven vessel following a traffic lane.
9. A vessel restricted in her ability to manoeuvre when engaged in an operation for the maintenance
of safety of navigation in a traffic separation scheme is exempted from complying with this Rule to the
extent necessary to carry out the operation.
a. A vessel restricted in her ability to manoeuvre when engaged in an operation for the laying,
servicing or picking up of a submarine cable, within a traffic separation scheme, is exempted from
complying with this Rule to the extent necessary to carry out the operation.

The fact that a ship is proceeding along a route DOES NOT give that ship any special privilege or
right of way.
Routing Measures: Basic Symbols


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1. Traffic separation scheme; traffic separated by separation zone
2. Traffic separation scheme, traffic separated by natural obstructions
3. Traffic separation scheme with outer separation zone (separating traffic using scheme from traffic
not using it)
4. Traffic separation scheme, roundabout
5. Traffic separation scheme, with "crossing gates"
6. Traffic separation schemes crossing, without designated precautionary area
7. Precautionary area
8. Inshore traffic zone, with defined end-limits
9. Inshore traffic zone without defined end-limits
10. Recommended direction of traffic flow, between Traffic separation schemes
11. Recommended direction of traffic flow, for ships not needed a deep water route
12. Deep water route, as part of one-way traffic lane
13. Two-way deep water route, with minimum depth stated
14. Deep water route, centerline as recommended. One-way or two-way track.
15. Recommended route (often marked by centerline buoys)
16. Recommended route (often marked by centerline buoys)
17. Area to be avoided, around navigational aid
18. Area to be avoided, because of danger of stranding

1.5 Apply ship reporting in accordance with the guidelines and criteria for ship reporting
system

Ships Reporting system
It is used to gather or exchange information about ships such as their position, course, speed and cargo.
It also used for monitoring passing traffic, the information may be used for purposes of search and rescue
and prevention of marine pollution.

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Application and Integration
The use of ship reporting systems should form a part of the passage plan.
Importance of ship position reporting system
To monitor vessel positions and inform authorities and other vessels of an emergency or distress at sea
so that a response can be coordinated among those best able to help.
It is important that distress information be immediately available to Search and Rescue (SAR)
coordinators so that assistance can be obtained with the least delay.
The Standard Marine Communication Phrases (SMCP) has
been compiled:
1. To assist in the greater safety of navigation and of the conduct
of the ship.
2. To standardize the language used in communication for
navigation at sea, in port-approaches, in waterways, harbours and on
board vessels with multilingual crews
3. To assist maritime training institutions in meeting the objectives mentioned above.
Four basic communicative features
Communication Features
avoiding synonyms
avoiding contracted forms
providing fully worded answers to "yes/no"-questions and basic alternative answers to sentence
questions
providing one phrase for one event
structuring the corresponding phrases after the principle: identical invariable plus variable

Vessel Traffic Services (VTS)
Main Purpose:
To make shipping safer in a particular are by monitoring the ships position and provide relevant and
updated information to all ships in the area.


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VTS System
Two Main Groups
1. VTS providing information services only.
2. VTS providing traffic advice and instructions in order to maintain compliance with local regulations
and improve safety to ships in the area.

Message markers
1. Instructions
This indicates that the following message implies the intention of the sender to influence others by
a Regulation.
COMMENT:
This means that the sender, e.g. a VTS - Station or a naval vessel, must have the full authority to
send such a message.
The recipient has to follow this legally binding message unless s/he has contradictory safety
reasons which then have to be reported to the sender.

EXAMPLE:
"INSTRUCTION. Do not cross the fairway.
2. Advice
This indicates that the following message implies the intention of the sender to influence others by
a Recommendation
COMMENT:
The decision whether to follow the ADVICE still stays with the recipient.
ADVICE does not necessarily have to be followed but should be considered very carefully.
EXAMPLE:
"ADVICE. (Advise you) stand by on VHF Channel

3. Warning
This indicates that the following message implies the intention of the sender to inform others
about danger.

COMMENT:
This means that any recipient of a WARNING should pay immediate attention to the danger
mentioned. Consequences of a WARNING will be up to the recipient
EXAMPLE:
"WARNING. Obstruction in the fairway."


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4. Information
This indicates that the following message is restricted to observed facts, situations, etc..
COMMENT:
This marker is preferably used for navigational and traffic information, etc..
Consequences of INFORMATION will be up to the recipient.
EXAMPLE:
"INFORMATION. MV Noname will overtake to the West of you."

5. Question
This indicates that the following message is of interrogative character.

COMMENT:
The use of this marker removes any doubt on whether a question is being asked or statement
being made, especially when interrogatives such as What, Where, Why, Who, How are additionally
used at the beginning of the question. The recipient is expected to return an answer.
EXAMPLE:
"QUESTION. (What is) your present maximum draft?"

6. Answer
This indicates that the following message is the reply to a previous question
COMMENT:
Note that an answer should not contain another question
EXAMPLE:
"ANSWER. My present maximum draft is zero seven metres."

7. Request
This indicates that the following message is asking for action from others with respect to the
vessel.
COMMENT:
The use of this marker is to signal: I want something to be arranged or provided, e.g. ships
stores requirements, tugs, permission, etc..
NOTE: REQUEST must not be used involving navigation, or to modify COLREGS.
EXAMPLE:
"REQUEST. I require two tugs."
8. Intention
This indicates that the following message informs others about immediate navigational action
intended to be taken
COMMENT:

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The use of this message marker is logically restricted to messages announcing navigational
actions by the vessel sending this message.
EXAMPLE:
INTENTION. I will reduce my speed.
Radio reporting points
NOS National Ocean Service (US)

NIMA National Imagery and Mapping Agency (US)

IHO International Hydrographic Organ

IHO/Foreign NIMA
Charts

NOS/NIMA
Radio reporting (calling-in or way)points showing direction(s) of vessel movement with
designation
2.0 Position Fixing and Determining its Accuracy
Lecture:
Laboratory:
2.1 Determine position and the accuracy of resultant position fix by any means within accepted accuracy
levels in all conditions
POSITION LINES AND POSITION
A Fix is the name given to a position obtained of a ship relatively to a shore objects.
Dead reckoning (DR) determines position by advancing a known position for courses and
distances.
Piloting involves navigating in restricted waters with frequent determination of position relative to
geographic and hydrographic features.


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Celestial navigation

involves reducing celestial measurements to lines of
position using tables, spherical trigonometry, and
almanacs.
It is used primarily as a backup to satellite and other
electronic systems in the open ocean.

Coastal Navigation
involves using visual sight of lighthouses and other prominent marks (conspic.)
taking their bearings and estimating their distances with either RADAR or by
using the vertical angle obtained with a sextant.

Radar Navigation

uses radar to determine the distance from or bearing of objects
whose position is known.

Satellite Navigation
is a system of satellites that provide autonomous geo-spatial positioning
with global coverage.
It allows small electronic receivers to determine their location (longitude, latitude, and altitude) to within a
few metres using time signals transmitted along a line-of-sight by radio from satellites.
Receivers calculate the precise time as well as position, which can be used as a reference for scientific
experiments. A satellite navigation system with global coverage may be termed a global navigation satellite
system or GNSS.


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0800
1000
0900
1100
1200
Av. Spd: 14.3kts
Four distinct phases define the navigation process.
1. Pilotage Waters
Piloting in narrow canals
Piloting in channels
Piloting in rivers
Piloting estuaries
2. Harbour Approaches
Navigating the harbour entrance and piloting in harbour approach channels with or without a pilot.
3. Coastal passage
Navigating within 50 miles of the coast or inshore of the 200-meter depth contour.
4. Ocean Passage
The navigators position accuracy requirements, his fix interval, and his systems requirements
differ in each stage of the passage.

Dead Reckoning

Allows a navigator to determine his present position by projecting his past
courses steered and speeds over ground from a known past position.

- The DR position is only an approximate position because it does not allow
for the effect of leeway, current, helmsman error, or gyro error.

The Importance Of Dead Reckoning

Dead reckoning helps in determining sunrise and sunset; in predicting landfall, sighting lights and
predicting arrival times; and in evaluating the accuracy of electronic positioning information.

Rules Of Dead Reckoning

Plotting the DR
Plot the vessels DR position:
1. Atleast every hour on the hour
2. After every change of course or speed.
3. After every fix or running fix.
4. After plotting a single line of position.

Fix expansion


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Fix expansion takes into account possible errors in the DR calculation caused by factors, which
tend to affect the vessels actual course and speed over ground.
One of the basic assumptions of fix expansion is that the various individual effects of current,
leeway, and steering error combine to cause a cumulative error, which increases over time, hence,
the concept of expansion.
DETERMINING AN ESTIMATED POSITION
An estimated position is a DR position corrected for the effects of leeway, steering error, and current.

Factors Affecting DR Position Accuracy
1. Tidal Current is the periodic horizontal movement of the waters surface caused by the tide-affecting
gravitational force of the moon.
2. Current is the horizontal movement of the sea surface caused by meteorological, oceanographic, or
topographical effects

Plotting position
The most common means of fixing a vessel in earlier times and even today without
the assistance of Radar, is by taking three bearings and crossing them to obtain
the ships position.
The only requirement in this type of fixing is the separation angle
between the points taken up for use.
If the angle between any two points is close to 90 then the fix may be
considered to have a higher accuracy than if the intersecting
angles are less than 90. As the intersecting angles become lesser than
90 the fix accuracy decreas

Plotting a position on the chart from simultaneous cross bearings and from a bearing and distance off


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0607
0806
1000
N/N
CMG - 093(T)
Av. Spd. 14.5kts
Days Run 03/06:
CMG - 095(T)
Av. Spd. 14.3kts
Above shows two simultaneous distance offs from two different point of interest

Above shows a single object providing a distance off and the same object providing the bearing to plot a
position.
Plotting And Labelling The Course Line And Positions

3.0 Determine and all0w for compass error
Lecture:
Laboratory:

COMPASS
It is a device used to determine direction on the surface of the earth.

Magnetic compass
It is generally fitted above the bridge on the centreline with a periscope so that the
compass is readable from the helmsman's position.


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Different Magnetic Errors
1. Variation
It is the angle between geographic (true) and magnetic meridians. If a compass is aligned with the
magnetic meridian, compass error and variation are the same.
Variation is the error in the compass caused by the Earth's magnetism. It is always named E or W
according to which direction the card is deflected away from true north.
2. Deviation
It is the angular difference between magnetic North and Compass North. It is expressed in angular units
and named east or west to indicate the side of magnetic north on which the compass north lies.

It is the second of the two errors which affect the magnetic compass

It is caused the magnetic influence of anything near the compass needle.

Deviation is the error in the compass caused by the ship's magnetism. It is always named E or W according
to the direction the card is deflected from true north.

Compare and Contrast the Different Magnetic Error

Variation

Deviation

It is called the magnetic declination in amount
The amount, direction, and annual change of the variation for most
localities on the surface of the earth have been determined, and these
data are recorded on all charts.

It is caused by disturbing magnetic influences in the immediate vicinity
of the compass such as from induced magnetism in metal decks,
bulkheads, masts, stacks, boat davits etc.


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Two types of ship magnetism
Permanent Induced
Magnetism in steel or hard iron that acts as
a permanent magnet.

Magnetism of soft iron, which is only temporary and is
constantly changing depending upon ships heading
and latitude

Methods of determining deviation
Method Reason
Checking the compass on each 15
heading against a properly functioning

Checking the compass on each 15 heading against a
properly functioning

Note: This method is the most convenient method of determining deviation and it is the most
commonly used.
Method Description
deviation. Compare with a magnetic
compass of known

This method is similar to comparison with a
gyrocompass except that it is not necessary to know
the local variation..
This method is used frequently by ships not equipped
with gyrocompasses.

How to determine deviation of compass
Semi-Circular Deviation

Changes sign ( E or W ) approximately each 180 change of heading.

Quadrantal Deviation

Changes sign approximately each 90 change of heading. Caused by
induced magnetism in horizontal soft iron.

Constant Deviation

Deviation is the same in any heading

Residual Deviation

Deviation of a magnetic compass after adjustment or compensation.


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REASONS FOR CORRECTING COMPASS
1. It is easier to use a magnetic compass if the deviations are small.
2. Even known and compensated for deviation introduces error because the
compass operates sluggishly and unsteadily when deviation is present.
3. Even though the deviations are compensated for, they will be subject to
appreciable change as a function of heel and magnetic latitude. Once properly adjusted, the
magnetic compass deviations should remain constant until there is some change in the magnetic
condition of the vessel resulting from magnetic treatment, shock from gunfire, vibration, repair, or
structural changes. Frequently, the movement of nearby guns, doors, gyro repeaters, or cargo
affects the compass greatly.
ADJUSTMENTS & CORRECTORS

Since some magnetic effects are functions of the vessels magnetic latitude and others are not, each
individual effect should be corrected independently.
To make the corrections, use:
1. Permanent magnet correctors to compensate for permanent magnetic fields at the compass.
2. Soft iron correctors to compensate for induced magnetism. The compass binnacle provides
support for both the compass and such correctors.

Typical binnacles hold the following correctors
1. Vertical permanent heeling magnet in the central vertical tube.
2. Fore-and-aft B permanent magnets in their trays.
3. Athwartship C permanent magnets in their trays.
4. Vertical soft iron Flinders bar in its external tube.

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5. Soft iron quadrantal spheres. The heeling magnet is the only corrector which corrects for both
permanent and induced effects. Therefore, it must be adjusted occasionally for changes in ships latitude.

3.2 Gyro Compass
The basis of marine gyrocompass lies in the free gyroscope. It is a
spinning wheel or rotor so mounted in a frame that the axis upon
which the wheel spins may be pointed initially in any preferred direction.

Conventional Gyroscope

It is consists of a comparatively massive, wheel like rotor balanced in gimbals which
permit rotation in any direction about three mutually perpendicular axis through the
center of gravity. The three axes are called the spin axis, the horizontal axis, and the
vertical axis

Causes of gyro compass
2. Tangent Latitude Error
It is approximately proportional to the tangent of the latitude in which the gyrocompass is operating.
The latitude error varies from zero at the equator to a maximum at high northern and southern latitudes.
This error may be compensated for by means of an auxiliary latitude corrector to shift the lubbers line or to
alter the position of a small weight attached to the casing near one end of the axle.

3. Ballistic Deflection Error
An error resulting from movement of the gyro compass in other than an east-west direction.
An error resulting from movement of the gyro compass in other than an east-west direction.
It is also called SPEED-COURSE-LATITUDE ERROR.

3. Ballistic Damping Error
A temporary oscillatory error of a gyro compass introduced during changes of course or speed as a result
of the means used to damp the oscillations of the spin axis


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4. Quadrantal Error
The rolling of a vessel introduces the force needed to start a gyrocompass swinging. The effect reaches a
maximum on inter-cardinal heading, midway between the two horizontal axes of the compass, and changes
direction of error in consecutive quadrants

5. Gimballing Error
The error introduced in a gyro compass by the tilting of the gimbal mounting system of the compass due to
horizontal acceleration caused by motion of the vessel, such as rolling

Correcting gyro error
1. Make the gyro spin axis seek the meridian plane.
2. Make the spin axis horizontal

Due to excessive rolling, the gyro may develop errors by changing the tilt axis of the gyro resulting in a
rolling error. The value of this error is usually the same as the platform error but in the opposite direction .
Additionally, the difference between the master gyrocompass and the repeater used for ARPA!Radar may
have a difference in heading. This needs to be compared with the master gyro and corrected by alignment
of the repeaters. Note that these errors are additional to the gyro error itself which may be high or low. This
error needs to be applied to all bearings measured by radar in addition to the Horizontal Beam Width
correction.

Gyroscope

It is designed so that the flywheel and axle are free to point in any direction.
It is useful in navigation because they are rigid in space; a spinning gyroscope
mounted within a vehicle always points in the same direction.
It provides a means to determine a vehicles orientation, without relying on visual
cues that may not always be available (in fog or at night, for example).

Rate of turn
Rate of turn measurement is used by automatic track-keeping systems to perform controlled turns.
Example:
When ships are manoeuvring, particularly large ships where the distance between the bow and the pivot
point of the ship is considerable, rate of turn indication provides the ship handler with feedback on how
quickly the ship is turning.


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Speed and distance measuring log
Speed logs, depending upon their type, will provide either speed through the water or speed over the
ground measurements
Type of speed measurement
1. Speed through the water - It is used for radar collision avoidance
2. Speed over the ground - It is used for navigation.
Speed made good can also be measured on ships, and represents the speed that the ship has achieved
over a period of time.

Direction of speed measurement
Doppler-type logs can both be single-axis and measure speed in the fore and aft direction or dual-axis and
measure fore and aft and arthwartship movement Coupled with rate of turn measurement, dual-axis logs
are also able to calculate he speed and direction of movement of the bow and stern. Electro-magnetic logs
provide single-axis measurement only.
4.0 Coordinate Search and Rescue Operations

4.1 Respond to a Distress Message

Distress cal
Distress calls are transmitted by a ship in distress and, being implicitly
addressed to all ships and coasts stations within propagation
range of the radio frequency used.
Three emergency phases

1. Uncertainty Phase
2. Alert Phase
3. Distress Phase

Transmission of DSC distress alert

A distress alert should be transmitted if, in the opinion of the Master, the ship or a person or persons on it
is in distress and requires immediate assistance.


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Search and rescue
1. In situations of "grave and imminent danger" when lives are at risk, emergency beacons are activated.
2. Emergency alerts received by the satellites are retransmitted to 38 automatic (unstaffed) ground stations
worldwide. These stations are called Local User Terminals (LUTs).
3. Alerts are routed to a Mission Control Center (MCC) in the country that operates the LUT.
4. After validation processing, alerts are relayed depending on beacon location or country of registration
(406-MHz beacons only) to either another MCC or to the appropriate Rescue Coordination Center (RCC).

Respond to a distress message
1. Ship-to-shore distress alerts
It is used to alert Rescue Co-ordination Centres (RCC) either direct, or through a Coast Radio Station
(CRS) or Land Earth Station (LES), that a vessel is in distress.
2. Ship-to-ship distress alerts
It is used to alert other vessels in the vicinity of the vessel in distress and are based on the use of DSC in
the VHF and MF bands.

Signal proper acknowledgement to distress message
The primary role of the shore based rescue co-ordination infrastructure in the GMDSS also requires that
the coast station or RCC which receives a distress alert shall initiate the transmission of a shore-to-ship
distress relay alert when the method of receipt warrants a broadcast alert to shipping or when the
circumstances of the distress incident indicate that further help is necessary.
The shore-to-ship distress relay call must contain the identification of the station in distress, its position
and all other information that might assist rescue operations.
Acknowledgement of a DSC distress alert by use of DSC is therefore normally made by RCC or CRS
only.
Signal proper acknowledgement to distress message
1. Prepare for receiving the subsequent distress communication by tuning the radiotelephony receiver to
the distress traffic frequency in the same band in which the DSC alert was received, i.e. 2182 kHz on MF,
Ch 16 VHF;
2. Acknowledge the receipt of the distress alert by transmitting the following by radiotelephony on the distress traffic
frequency in the band which the DSC distress alert was received i.e. 2182 kHz on MF, Ch 16 VHF:
3.If NO DSC acknowledgement from a coast station is received within 5 minutes, still acknowledge the
station in distress on RT d. Vessels receiving a DSC distress alert on VHF or MF are not permitted to relay the call
by DSC under any. A vessel receiving a DSC alert from another vessel on any of the HF DSC frequencies shall:
NOT ACKNOWLEDGE
Set watch on the appropriate RT and Telex frequencies

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If the alert is not acknowledged by a coast station within 5 minutes, and no distress communications are
heard between a coast station and the vessel in distress, then the receiving station must relay the distress
alert ashore by any means, but to coast stations only.

SEARCH AND RESCUE RADAR TRANSPONDER
(s.a.R.T)
It is the main means in the GMDSS for locating ships in distress or their survival craft.
It operates in the 9ghz frequency band and generates a series of response signals on being interrogated
by any ordinary 9ghz shipborne RADAR.

HOW TO ACTIVATE S.A.R.T?

1. Remove the S.A.R.T. from it's container
2. Pull the safety pin from the S.A.R.T. 3. Check the RED light is on
4. In onboard the vessel, try and get it as high as possible
5. If in a Liferaft, mount it on top of the liferaft

How they work?
A beacon is activated by a crash, a sinking, or manually by survivors. The beacon's transmission is picked
up by one or more satellites. The satellite transmits the beacon's signal to its ground control station.
- The satellite's ground station processes the signals and forwards the data, including approximate location, to a
national authority. The national authority forwards the data to a rescuing authority. The rescuing authority uses its
own receiving equipment to locate the beacon and makes the rescue or recovery. Once the satellite data is in, it
takes less than a minute to forward the data to any signatory nation.
Distress messages

OBLIGATIONS:
1. Masters obliged to respond to distress messages from any source.
2. Ships can be requisitioned by the master of a ship in distress or the search and rescue authorities.

PROCEDURES
1. The master of a ship at sea which is in a position to be able to provide assistance
on receiving a signal from any source that persons are in distress at sea, is bound to proceed with all
speed to their assistance.

-If possible informing them or the search and rescue service that the ship is doing so. If the ship receiving
the distress alert is unable or, in the special circumstances of the case, considers it unreasonable or
unnecessary to proceed to their assistance, the master must enter in the log-book the reason for failing to

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proceed to the assistance of the persons in distress, taking into account the recommendation of the
Organization, to inform the appropriate search and rescue service accordingly.
2. The master of a ship in distress or the search and rescue service concerned has the right to requisition
one or more of those ships as the master of the ship in distress or the search and rescue service considers
best able to render assistance.
- The master of a ship in distress or the search and rescue service concerned, after consultation, so far as
may be possible, with the masters of ships which answer the distress alert, has the right to requisition one
or more of those ships as the master of the ship in distress or the search and rescue service considers best
able to render assistance, and it shall be the duty of the master or masters of the ship or ships requisitioned
to comply with the requisition by continuing to proceed with all speed to the assistance of persons in
distress.
3. Masters of ships shall be released from the obligation imposed by paragraph 1 on learning that their
ships have not been requisitioned and that one or more other ships have been requisitioned and are
complying with the requisition.
4. The master of a ship shall be released from the obligation imposed by paragraph 1 and, 2 on being
informed by the persons in distress or by the search and rescue service or by the master of another ship
which has reached such persons that assistance is no longer necessary.
5. The provisions of this regulation do not prejudice the Convention for the Unification of Certain Rules of
Law Relating to Assistance and Salvage at Sea, signed at Brussels on 23 September 1910, particularly the
obligation to render assistance imposed by article 11 of that Convention.*
Effective Communications by OSC with RCC or RSC
On-scene Communications
The OSC should ensure that reliable communications are maintained on-scene.
A primary and secondary frequency should be assigned for on-scene communications.
Situation Reports
The OSC uses SITREPs to keep the SMC informed of on-scene mission progress and conditions, and
addresses SITREPS, to keep superiors, others RCC and RSCs and any other interested agencies
informed
International Aeronautical and Maritime search and Rescue Manual (IAMSAR)
Purpose:To assist states in meeting their own search and rescue (SAR) needs, and the obligations they
accepted under the Convention on International Civil Aviation, the International Convention on Maritime
Search and Rescue and the International Convention for the Safety of Life at Sea (SOLAS).

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Today, the Global Maritime Distress and Safety System (GMDSS), together with the provisions of the
International Convention on Maritime Search and Rescue (SAR), should ensure the successful rescue of
persons in distress at sea
Record in logbook the particulars of ships involved
The master deciding not to proceed to the scene of a distress due to sailing time involved and in
the knowledge that a rescue operation is under way should:
If the master had previously acknowledged and responded to the alert, report the decision not to
proceed Make an appropriate entry in the ships logbook.
to the SAR service concerned.
Consider reports unnecessary if no contact has been made with the SAR service.
Reconsider the decision not to proceed nor report to the SAR service when vessel in distress is far
from land or in an area where density of shipping is low.

Adopt to meteorological conditions
Fog will make visual search ineffective if not impossible.
Smog and haze may reduce the effectiveness of daylight search, while night signals are less
affected.
Low clouds may render search ineffective.
Precipitation will reduce visibility and may prevent the search facility from completing it assigned
search area. Snow or heavy rain from side stations ineffective. Precipitation adversely affects both
visual and radar searches.

Control inter-ship communications
On-scene Communications:
It normally take place in the MF and VHF bands on frequencies designated for distress and safety traffic by
radiotelephony or radiotelex.
SAR Coordinating Communications
These are the communications necessary for the co-ordination of ships and aircraft participating in a
search resulting from distress alert and include communications between RCCs and any on-scene
commander or coordinator surface search in the area of distress incident.
Execution of Search and rescue operations
Selecting Search Patterns
The basic technique for searching an area is to move look-outs and /or electronic sensors through the
area, using one of a few standard patterns

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Searches recognized in IAMSAR Manual

Assistance by SAR Aircraft
Suggested procedure for aerial delivery of rafts, supplies and equipment to persons in watercraft or in
water:
1. Approach slightly upward and perpendicular to the wind direction
2. Drop item(s) with 200 m buoyant trail line attached to a position 100 m ahead of survivors
3. Let trail line fall so that it will float downwind to survivors.

SAR pattern when approaching casualty

Things to considered in establishing a datum of geographic reference for the area to be searched:
1. Reported position and time of the SAR incident
2. Any supplementary information such as DF bearings or sightings
3. Time interval between the incident and the arrival of SAR facilities.

Release other vessel offering assistance
Expanded Square
Search
Sector Search
Pattern
Parallel Search
Pattern
Oil-Rig Search
Williamson Turn

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SAR operations enter the conclusion stage when:
1. Information is received that the ship, aircraft, other craft, or persons who are the subject of the SAR
2. Incident are no longer in distress;
3. The ship, aircraft, other craft, or persons for whom SAR facilities are searching have been located and
the survivors rescued; or
4. During the Distress Phase, the proper authority determines that further search has no significant chance
of succeeding.

Closing a SAR Case

The authority to terminate a case sometimes rests with different levels within the SAR organization
depending on the circumstances dictating that the incident be closed or active search suspended in
particular.
The basic steps to closing this type of case are:
1. Notify immediately all authorities, centres, services, or facilities that have been activated
2. Complete a record of the case.

Suspending Search Operations

The decision to suspend a search involves humanitarian considerations, but there is a limit to the time and
effort that can be devoted to each SAR case.
In suspending operation, a through case review should be made and the decision should be based on the
evaluation of the probability that there were survivors in the initial incident.

5.0 Establish Watchkeeping Arrangements and Procedures

5.1 International Regulations for Preventing Collision at Sea (COLREGS)

International regulations for preventing Collisions at sea

OFFICER OF THE WATCH (OOW)

He is the eyes and brain of the
Ship.


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This important aspect should not be forgotten by the OOW.

1. OOW is the ONLY person who would have to take a decision to avoid immediate danger and has
to also take the step to call up the Master for taking over when he cannot handle the situation.
2. OOW has to strictly follow the Rules of the Road (COLREGs) and should not deviate from the
spirit
3. OOW should at all times have the Companys Order Book (for Navigation) as well as the Masters
standing orders open on the Chart table.

5.2 Navigational Watchkeeping
Watch keeping at sea
Principles applying to watch keeping generally
1. The master of every ship is bound to ensure that watch keeping arrangements are adequate for
maintaining a safe navigational watch.
2. Under the masters general direction, the officers of the navigational watch are responsible for
navigating the ship safely during their periods of duty, when they will be particularly concerned with
avoiding collision and stranding.

Protection of Marine Environment

The masters, officers and ratings shall be
aware of serious effects of operational or accidental
pollution of the marine environment.
It shall take all possible precautions to prevent such
pollution, particularly within the framework of relevant
international and port regulations

Principles in Navigational Watch
The officer in charge of the navigational watch is the masters
representative and is primarily responsible at all times for the safe
navigation of the ship and for complying with the International
Regulations for Preventing Collisions at Sea, 1972.


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Look-out
Purpose:
1. Maintaining a continuous state of vigilance by sight and hearing as well as by all
other available means, with regard to any significant change in the operating
environment;
2. Fully appraising the situation and the risk of collision, stranding and other dangers
to navigation
3. Detecting ships or aircraft in distress, shipwrecked persons, wrecks, debris and
other hazards to safe navigation.

Effective Bridge Teamwork procedures
The officer in charge of the navigational watch may be the sole look-out in daylight provided that on
each such occasion:
1. The situation has been carefully assessed and it has been established without doubt that it is safe to do
so;
2. Full account has been taken of all relevant factors including, but not limited to:
- state of weather - visibility
- traffic density - proximity of dangers to navigation
- the attention necessary when navigating in or near traffic separation schemes;
3. Assistance is immediately available to be summoned to the bridge when any change in the situation so
requires.

LOOK OUT
The look-out must be able to give full attention to the keeping of a proper look-out
and no other duties shall be undertaken or assigned which could interfere with that
task.

HELMSPERSON

He shall not be considered to be the look-out while steering, except in small ships
where an unobstructed all-round view is provided at the steering position and there is no
impairment of night vision or other impediment to the keeping of a proper look-out.


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5.3 Effective Bridge Teamwork Procedures
Watch Arrangements

The following shall be taken into account:
1. At no time shall the bridge be left unattended
2.Weather conditions, visibility and whether there is daylight or darkness.
3. Proximity of navigational hazards which may make it necessary for the officer in charge of the watch to
carry out additional navigational duties
4. Use and operational condition of navigational aids such as radar or electronic position-indicating devices
and any other equipment affecting the safe navigation of the ship
5. Whether the ship is fitted with automatic steering;
6. Whether there are radio duties to be performed
7.Unmanned machinery space (UMS) controls, alarms and indicators provided on the bridge, procedures
for their use and limitations
8. Any unusual demands on the navigational watch that may arise as a result of special operational
circumstances.

Taking Over the Watch

Relieving officers shall personally satisfy themselves regarding the:
1. Standing orders and other special instructions of the master relating to navigation of the ship;
2. Position, course, speed and draught of the ship;
3. Prevailing and predicted tides, currents, weather, visibility and the effect of these factors upon course
and speed;
4. Procedures for the use of main engines to manoeuvre when the main engines are on bridge control; and
5. Navigational situation, including but not limited to:
5.1 The operational condition of all navigational and safety equipment being used or likely
to be used during the watch,
5.2 The errors of gyro and magnetic compasses,
5.3 The presence and movement of ships in sight or known to be in the vicinity,
5.4 The conditions and hazards likely to be encountered during the watch, and
5.5 The possible effects of heel, trim, water density and squat on under keel clearance.

Performing Navigational Watch

The officer in charge of the navigational watch shall:
1. Keep the watch on the bridge
2. In no circumstances leave the bridge until properly relieved

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3. Continue to be responsible for the safe navigation of the ship, despite the presence of the master on the
bridge, until informed specifically that the master has assumed that responsibility and this is mutually
understood
4. Notify the master when in any doubt as to what action to take in the interest of safety.

The officer in charge of the navigational watch shall make regular checks to ensure that:

1. The person steering the ship or the automatic pilot is steering the correct course;
2. The standard compass error is determined at least once a watch and, when possible, after any major
alteration of course;
3. the automatic pilot is tested manually at least once a watch;
4. The navigation and signal lights and other navigational equipment are functioning properly;
5. The radio equipment is functioning properly in accordance with paragraph 86 of this section; and
6. The UMS controls, alarms and indicators are functioning properly.

Watch keeping Under Different Conditions and in Different areas
Clear weather
Office in Charge (OIC) :
He shall take frequent and accurate compass bearings of approaching ships
as a means of early detection of risk of collision.
Restricted Visibility
1. Inform the master;
2. Post a proper look-out;
3. Exhibit navigation lights;
4. Operate and use the radar.
IN HOURS OF DARKNESS:
The master and the officer in charge of the navigational watch when arranging look-out duty shall have due
regard to the bridge equipment and navigational aids available for use, their limitations; procedures and
safeguards implemented.


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Coastal and Congested waters

The largest scale chart on board, suitable for the area and corrected with the latest available information,
shall be used.
The officer in charge of the navigational watch shall positively identify all relevant navigation marks.

Navigation with a Pilot on Board
Master and the Pilot
1. He shall exchange
information regarding navigation
procedures, local conditions and
the ships characteristi. cs

Master and Officer in Charge
1. He shall co-operate closely
with the pilot and maintain an
accurate check on the ships
position and movement.

Officer in Charge
1. He shall seek clarification
from the pilot and, if doubt still
exists, shall notify the master
immediately and take whatever
action is necessary before the
master arrives.

Ship Anchor
1. Determine and plot the ships position on the appropriate chart as soon as practicable;
2. When circumstances permit, check at sufficiently frequent intervals whether the ship is remaining
securely at anchor by taking bearings of fixed navigation marks or readily identifiable shore objects;
3. Ensure that proper look-out is maintained;
4. Ensure that inspection rounds of the ship are made periodically
5. Observe meteorological and tidal conditions and the state of the sea;
6. Notify the master and undertake all necessary measures if the ship drags
anchor;
7. Ensure that the state of readiness of the main engines and other machinery is in
accordance with the masters instructions;
8. If visibility deteriorates, notify the master;
9. Ensure that the ship exhibits the appropriate lights and shapes and that
appropriate sound signals are made in accordance with all applicable regulations.
10. Take measures to protect the environment from pollution by the ship and comply with applicable
pollution regulations.


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6.O navigation through the use of raDAR AND ARPA AND MODERN NAVIGATION SYSTEMS To
assist in command decision making
6.1 Safe Navigation Through The Use of Radar and ARPA
Safe navigation through the use of radar and arpa
IMO recognizes that exclusive reliance on any one navigational aid is potentially dangerous.
It is considered to be essential for all masters and officers who have charge of
navigational watch

Radar:
It is vital that the radar observer can understand, interpret and
analyze fully the vector of target echoes on the radar screen.
The fitting of radar on merchant vessels was expected to reduce
the number of collisions.
This expectation was not realized due to lack of appreciation of the
information presented, the inherent errors, capabilities/limitations of radar and widespread bad
practice.

ARPA:
The ARPA simply provides information on which officers act to avoid close quarters situations and
collisions.
To be able to do wthis effectively officers in charge of
navigational atches must have a sound knowledge and
understanding of radar and radar plotting
They must not be misled by the neat vector lines which go
unwaveringly close by own vessel giving a false sense of security.

Plotting
It is the cornerstone for the competent use of radar information enabling full and
accurate interpretation of the display at any given time.
It is also crucially important that the radar observer understands fully the
information displayed by the particular ARPA in use.
6.2 Blind pilotage techniques

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The Parallel Index technique, is also called, Radar Blind Pilotage and has been readily available
to the radar observer since the advent of the reflection plotter.
The radar or bridge simulator is being used in this technique to gain confidence in using it.

Evaluation of information
Inter-relationship and optimum use of all navigational data and bridge resource management

7.1 Management of Operational Procedures, Systems File and Data
Environment Data Display (ECDIS)
It is used for controlling the display of tide, tidal and surface current, and weather
parameter values (weather forecast).

SYSTEM INFORMATION DISPLAY

DRIFT - drift direction and speed. If at least some of the data received
from the positioning system, gyro or log is unreliable or not available,
the drift value is shown in the red colour;

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CURRENT - summary value of the surface and tidal
currents calculated for the current time at the current ship
position;

SF. COUNTOUR - current safety contour value determined by the NS.
When the safety contour is changed automatically, its value is displayed in
the red colour until the associated alarm message is acknowledged;
TRUE WIND - true wind direction and speed (from the wind sensor data). If
unreliable data is received from the wind sensor, its value is shown in the
red colour. In the absence of data from the wind sensor, the words "True
wind" and the last received values are shown in the red colour;

wind direction and speed (from the wind sensor data). If unreliable data is
received from the wind sensor, its value is shown in the red colour. In the
absence of data from the wind sensor, the words "Rel. wind" and the last
received values are shown in the red colour;
REL. WIND - relative

WATER t - water temperature value for the temperature sensor
data. In the absence of data from the temperature sensor, the
words Water t (and the last received value are shown in the red
colour;


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DEPTH - value of water depth under the keel (from the sounder
data). In the absence of data from the sounder, the word Depth
and the last received depth value are shown in the red colour

TIDE HEIGHT - expected tidal height value calculated for the current time at the reference point closest to
the ship position, and the name of this reference point.

PRIMARY STATUS DISPLAY

It is used for presenting the primary positioning system data.


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With the primary (satellite) positioning system:
Source - data source;
Fixed UTC - UTC time which the data is provided for;
Latitude - latitude coordinate;
Longitude - longitude coordinate;
Quality - positioning quality
Satellites - number of satellites used for the
positioning;
HDOP - Horizontal Dilution of Precision) value;
Data age - age of the data;
Station ID - name of the station whose DGPS signal is
used

Schedule Information Display
It serves for presenting information connected with sailing
according to the schedule.

To WP - to select a WP number for the display of associated schedule elements. The line to the right
shows the name of the WP if any was given by the operator;


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Schedule to turn on the display of ETA and TTG calculated
with regard to the prepared schedule;
Current SOG to turn on the display of ETA and TTG
calculated with regard to the current speed (SOG);

ETA (Ship) estimated time of arrival in the selected WP
calculated from the remaining distance and set speed
(UTC/Ship depending on the setting made in the Control
Panel);
TTG - time to go to the specified WP calculated with regard to
the actual ETA;

DTW distance to the specified waypoint;
PTA - planned time of arrival in the specified WP taken from the schedule.
STG - operator-entered planned speed of proceeding to the specified point for the PTA calculations in the
line above;

In the bottom part of the display there is a calculator for calculating speed to go (STG) to the specified
waypoint or planned time of arrival (PTA) in the specified waypoint:
STG operator-entered planned speed of proceeding to the specified point for the PTA calculations in the
window on the right;
Planned time of arrival operator-entered planned time of arrival (PTA) to the specified point for the STG
calculations in the window on the left.
Route Data Display
It is intended for the display of data as the ship is proceeding along the route to the next waypoint.
Route name of the monitored route. As Last WP passed alarm is generated, the word Route is shown
in the red colour;
To WP number and name of the current WP which the ship is proceeding to. The WP name is shown in
the black colour if the WP is selected automatically, and in the blue colour if selected manually;
CSE direction of the monitored route leg which the ship is proceeding by if the leg is of RL type; or the
current course in case of the GC leg.


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XTE actual distance from the current route leg.
BTW bearing to the current WP;
DTW distance to the current WP;
TTG time to go to the current waypoint calculated with
regard to the actual speed (SOG);
ETA the estimated time (UTC/Ship depending on the
setting made in the Control Panel) of arrival in the current
WP, the remaining distance and current speed (SOG)
taken into account;
Next WP number of the next WP;
CSE direction of the next route leg.

Environment Data Display
Tides - to turn on the display of tidal height values;
Tidal Currents - to turn on the display of tidal current vectors;
Weather forecast - to turn on the display of the received weather
forecast display;
Settings to open Weather Parameters page of Config panel for
setting the display of weather parameters.

Surface Currents - to turn on the display of surface current vectors;
Animate - to control the graphic display of weather parameters. Each button is used for the display of a
corresponding group of parameters specified to the left;
Currents velocity values - to turn on the display of currents velocity values.


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7.2 ECDIS Playback Functionality
ROUTE PLANNING, MONITORING AND VOYAGE RECORDING
It should be possible to carry out route planning and route monitoring in a simple and reliable
manner.
ECDIS should be designed following ergonomic principles for user-friendly operation.

Route planning
It should be possible to carry out route planning including both straight and curved segments.
It should be possible to adjust a planned route by, for example:
adding waypoints to a route;
deleting waypoints from a route;
hanging the position of a waypoint;
changing the order of the waypoints in the route.

ROUTE PLANNING, MONITORING AND VOYAGE RECORDING
It should be possible to plan an alternative route in addition to the selected route. The selected
route should be clearly distinguishable from the other routes.
An indication is required if the mariner plans a route across an own ships safety contour.
An indication is required if the mariner plans a route across the boundary of a prohibited area or of
a geographical area for which special conditions exist (see appendix 4).
It should be possible for the mariner to specify a limit of deviation from the planned route at
which activation of an automatic off track alarm should occur.

Route monitoring

It should be possible to display a sea area that does not have the ship on the display
It should be possible to return to the route monitoring display covering own ships position
immediately by single operator action.
ECDIS should give an alarm if the ship, within a specified time set by the mariner, is going to
across the safety contour.
ECDIS should provide an indication when the input from the position-fixing system is lost.
ECDIS should also repeat, but only as an indication, any alarm or indication passed to it from a
position-fixing system
It should be possible to display an alternative route in addition to the selected route. The
selected route should be clearly distinguishable from the other routes.
During the voyage, it should be possible for the mariner to modify the selected sailing route or
change to an alternative

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It should be possible to display:
1. Time-labels along ships track, manually on demand and automatically at intervals selected
between 1 and 120 m
2. An adequate number of: points, free movable electronic bearing lines, variable and fixed-
range markers and other symbols required for navigation purposes .
It should be possible to enter the geographical co-ordinates of any position and then display
that position on demand.
It should also be possible to select any point (features, symbol or position) on the display and to
read its geographical co-ordinates on demand.
It should be possible to adjust the ships geographical position manually. This manual
adjustment should be noted alphanumerically on the screen, maintained until altered by the
mariner, and automatically recorded.

Voyage recording

The following data should be recorded at one-minute intervals:
1. To ensure a record of own ships past track: time, position, heading, and speed;
2.To ensure a record of official data used: ENC source, edition, date, cell and update history.

ECDIS should record the complete track for the entire voyage, with time marks at intervals not
exceeding 4 h.
It should not be possible to manipulate or change the recorded information.
ECDIS should have the capability to preserve the record of the previous 12 h and of the voyage
track.

Accuracy

The accuracy of all calculations performed by ECDIS should be independent of the characteristics
of the output device and should be consistent with the SENC accuracy.
Bearings and distances drawn on the display, or those measured between features already drawn
on the display, should have accuracy no less than that afforded by the resolution of the display.

CONNECTIONS WITH OTHER EQUIPMENT
ECDIS should be provided with means for carrying out on-board tests of major functions either
automatically or manually. In case of a failure, the test should display information to indicate which
module is at fault.
ECDIS should provide a suitable alarm or indication of system malfunction.


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Back-up arrangements
Adequate back-up arrangements should be provided to ensure safe navigation in case of an
ECDIS failure.
1. Facilities enabling a safe take-over of the ECDIS functions should be provided in order to
ensure that an ECDIS failure does not result in a critical situation.
2. A back-up arrangement should be provided facilitating means for safe navigation of the
remaining part of the voyage in case of an ECDIS failure.
Power supply
It should be possible to operate ECDIS and all equipment necessary for its normal functioning
when supplied by an emergency source of electrical power in accordance with the appropriate
requirements of chapter II-I of the
1974 SOLAS Convention.
Changing from one source of power supply to another, or any interruption of the supply for a period
of up to 45 sec., should not require the equipment to be re-initialized manually.


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Function 1 (Module 2)

OBJECTIVE
Upon completion of this module, the candidate shall be able to:
Interpret synoptic chart
Understand characteristics of various weather systems
Understand ocean current systems and apply the same in voyage planning
Calculate tidal conditions
Use all available references in forecasting weather and oceanographic conditions.
Respond appropriately when beaching a ship before and after grounding, refloating a grounding
ship, collision and steering failure
Explain and describe the due diligence or measures that must be observed in damage control
assessment
Determine the arrangements and procedures that will be implemented in an event that own vessel
will be towed due to an emergency.


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Interpretation of Synoptic Chart

UNDERSTAND AND INTERPRET A SYNOPTIC CHART

Ships voluntary participate in weather reporting
Reports from ships are sent to weather centers ashore
Meteorologist use the reports received to construct synoptic charts
and forecasts of a certain area

Data recorded by designated vessels are sent by radio to weather centers ashore, where they are plotted,
along with other observations, to provide data for drawing synoptic charts, which are used to make
forecasts.
Producing better predictions require an understanding of the isobaric patterns associated with fronts and
depressions, anticyclones and high-pressure ridges.
A special effort should be made to provide routine synoptic reports when transiting areas where few ships
are available to report weather observations.

Weather Maps

It is a forecasting tool which allows a meteorologist to see what is
happening in the atmosphere at virtually any location on earth
The key understanding of a weather map is to understand the
weather symbols that are used in the map.

Synoptic Charts / Surface Analysis
Shows the surface distribution of pressure by means of isobars and
associated fronts for the synoptic hour stated

Prognostic Charts
Surface prognostic charts show the anticipated distribution of surface
pressure by means of isobars and related fronts for a future time

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WIND AND PRESSURE SYSTEM
1. Atmospheric Pressure
Measured by means of the barometer, and is usually expressed in hectopascals (hPA) & millibar
(mb)
Mean value at sea level is about 1013 hPa with extremes of around 950 and 1050 hPa.
Pressure decreases with height at a rate of about 1 hPa
A correction to the observed barometer reading so as to calculate what the corresponding
pressure would be at sea level.
WIND
Air naturally flows from high to low pressure; but the wind thus created does not blow directly
across the isobars
Northern Hemisphere Southern Hemisphere
Flow out from anticyclone

Flow out from anticyclone

Clockwise slightly outwards

Anticlockwise slightly outwards

Angle to isobars 18 - 20

Angle to isobars 18 - 20

Shift anticlockwise slightly inwards when
approaching low pressure
Shift clockwise slightly inwards when approaching
low pressure

Angle to isobars 10 - 20 Angle to isobars 10 - 20


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Terminologies

Characteristics of Various Weather Systems

FRONTS
It is a BOUNDARY where air masses with sharply contrasting
temperature and humidity meet. Many kinds of storms occur
along fronts.

TYPES OF FRONTS
Cold Front
Marks the boundary where cold air is replacing warm air. On a weather map, cold fronts
are drawn as a solid blue line with triangles.
It is usually move faster than warm fronts
Weather Fonts
Air Mass

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Warm Front
Marks the region where warm air is replacing cold air. It is best developed in winter

TYPES OF FRONTS

STATIONARY
Fronts that have no movement

OCCLUSION
Frontal system that forms when a cold front overtakes a warm
front or vice versa
Warm or cold occlusion

Non Frontal Depressions
Most depressions of temperate latitudes form on the polar front, and for this reason
emphasis has been placed in the foregoing paragraphs on the formation of these frontal
depressions.

Thermal Depressions
The formation of thermal depression is due to unequal heating of adjacent surface areas, and land
and sea distribution plays a big part in determining their location.
In winter the cooling of the continent induces higher pressure over the land than over the sea. This
effect may be seen by comparing

Air Masses

Air mass is a volume of air defined by its temperature and water vapour content

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Similar horizontal properties
Temperature
Moisture content
Lapse rates

SOURCE REGIONS
Maritime (m) originates over oceans or large bodies of water
Continental (c) originates over land
m or c indicate influence of surface on air mass characteristics (water and land)

THERMAL TYPES
Tropical (T) from low latitudes
Polar (P) from mid-high latitudes
Arctic (A) from high latitudes (> 65N)
P and T suggest importance of latitude of source regions

Low & High Pressure Systems
Northern Hemisphere
Low Pressure System

High Pressure System

Cyclone

Anticyclone

Circulation

Counter-Clockwise

Clockwise

Winds

Inward

Outward

Weather

Bad, warm, moist air

air cool, dry air

Low Pressure Systems
Low pressure systems (cyclones) are areas of air circulating counter-clockwise and rising at the center in
the Northern Hemisphere.
Decreasing air pressure often brings warm and unsettled or rainy weather.
High Pressure Systems
Areas of high air pressure (anticyclones) show a clockwise rotation away from the center in the Northern
Hemisphere due to sinking air at the center.


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Dangerous & Navigable Semicircle

When a typhoon is located in the southern ocean, at a distance from Japan, its storm area has a circular
form. As the typhoon approaches waters neighbouring Japan, the storm area expands significantly, and
tends to expand prominently in the eastern semicircle. Strong winds and high waves are formed in the
typhoon's southeast quadrant
The left-hand semicircle to the path of a typhoon is called the navigable semicircle because wind decreases
due to the forward motion of the typhoon (adverse to wind direction), and the wind blows the ship away
from the typhoon path

Ocean Current Systems
Main Causes
Wind stress acting on the water surface.
Pressure gradients within the water.
Other Causes
Differences in water temperatures
Differences in salinity
Wind induced friction
The Coriolis force which is a consequence of the earth's rotation.

It takes place in three dimensions but the strongest currents occur in an upper layer which is shallow
compared with the ocean depth.
Apart from the relatively small-scale vertical movements associated with waves, the motion near the sea
surface is largely horizontal, but, at depth, it may have a vertical component.
In general, the current varies with depth, a vessels response to the varying currents will represent some
compromise between the responses to the current literally at the surface and that at the depth of the ships
draught


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Main Current of the Oceans

Southern Ocean Currents
Atlantic Ocean Currenst
Indian Ocean
North Atlantic Ocean
Equatorial Counter Current

OCEAN CURRENT PHENOMENA

Ocean Eddies

General patterns of ocean flow are called currents.
Sometimes theses currents can pinch off sections and create
circular currents of water called an eddy.


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1.4 Calculate Tidal Conditions

BASIC THEORY OF TIDES

Basic Theory of Tides.

The factors which cause tides.

1. Tides are
caused by the attractive forces of the sun and moon.
Because of its relative proximity to the earth the effect of
the moon is far greater than that of the sun.
2. The moon
therefore largely controls the time of high and low waters. The relative position of the sun and
moon will determine whether the suns force increases the moons effect on the tide or decreases
its effect.

When the sun and the moon are working together to distort the envelope of water surrounding the earth,
they are either in opposition or conjunction and spring tides are the result. When the effects are opposing
each other the sun and moon are said to be in quadrature and neap tides result. Opposition produces a full
moon and conjunction a new moon. This relationship is illustrated below:

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UKHO Tide Tables

STANDARD & SECONDARY PORT

The Standard Port acts as a reference station where predictions are based on continuous
observation and contain changes in conditions due to Meteorological conditions.
Secondary ports or Subordinate stations are based as near as practicable on Standard port tidal
characteristics in the area.
The predictions for tidal times and heights for secondary ports are made by the application of time
and height differences to the standard port.


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DURATION OF
RISE
DURATION OF
FALL
LOW
WATER
LOW
WATER
RANGE
OF
TIDE
IN
MTRS
HTS
M
E
T
R
E
S
HIGH
WATER
Standard Port Bristol

Secondary Port Cardiff

Tidal Prediction Form

Finding Height of Tide

CHART DATUM
This is the plane from which tidal heights are measured and to which sounding s are referred on a
navigational chart .
It is fixed so that very few tidal heights fall below it.

Lowest Astronomical Tide (LAT)

It is the lowest predictable tide under average meteorological conditions
The actual levels of LAT for Standard Ports are listed in Admiralty Tide Tables.

Relationship of Tides to Chart Datum


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1. Range of Tide is the difference in height between Low Water and High Water.
2. The Duration of Tide is the time interval between successive High Waters.
3. The Duration of Rise is the time interval from Low Water to High Water.
4. The Duration of Fall is the time interval from High Water to Low Water.

Under Keel Clearance
The height of tide is among the factors that effect UKC and the following factors should be considered:
In heavy weather especially on large ships can be expected
to have an increase in draught of about 0.5 m for each
degree of roll
Reliability of depths shown on the chart
Squat increases with speed, therefore ships should reduce
speed if sufficient UKC is not available to reduce the effect
of squat
Cables and pipelines may have a diameter of 1-2 m,
therefore due regard should be given to any such objects in areas of restricted UKC

The formula becomes:
Under keel = (Height of tide + Charted Depth) -
(Vessels Draught)

Remember that a drying height is a negative (-) sounding.
Overhead Clearance
Calculations for overhead clearance are slightly different from calculation of UKC
as the charted clearances for overhead objects are given with regard to HW or
MHWS

Actual Bridge Clearance = (Charted Clearance + Height of MHWS) - (Present of Height of Tide + Height of
Highest Antenna / Mast above Waterline )


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APPLY OCEANIC CURRENT SYSTEMS IN VOYAGE PLANNING

It contain some information on normal locations and strengths of ocean
currents

Apply oceanic current systems in voyage planning.
To predict the behavior of major ocean currents several references are available. The Sailing
Directions Planning Guides contain some information on normal locations and strengths of
ocean currents. Nevertheless, the Pilot Charts are by far the best reference for predicting the
direction and speed of these currents. On these charts, arrows indicate the direction of the
prevailing current; a number printed above the arrow indicates the average speed. Since this information is
based upon historical averages, it won't predict the actual ocean current encountered with 100% accuracy.
Ocean surface currents need not be considered in coastal areas. Usually, when close to the continental
shelf, the horizontal movement of water is defined by two terms:
tidal stream or tidal current: gravitational
current: grafitational, rivers, wind
In order to predict tidal stream one needs to use tide tables in conjunction with a tidal atlas, or a chart
diamond.
Tidal streams are described by drift/rate and set, in which drift/rate is the speed and set is the direction of
the current.
APPLY OCEANIC CURRENT SYSTEMS IN VOYAGE PLANNING

The best reference for predicting the direction and speed of these currents.
arrows indicate the direction of the prevailing current
a number printed above the arrow indicates the average speed
it won't predict the actual ocean current encountered with 100% accuracy.


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TIDAL ATLAS OR A CHART DIAMOND

Use in order to predict tidal stream.

TIDAL STREAMS
It is described by drift / rate and set in which drift/rate is the speed and
set is the direction of the current.

1.5 Use of Appropriate References
INFORMATION ON CHARTS

Tidal stream information is treated in different ways according to the type of tidal stream and the
amount of detailed information available.
Rates and directions at intermediate times can be found by interpolation.
On the more modern charts of the British Isles and on earlier charts which have been modernised,
tidal stream information is normally given in the form of tables, which show the mean spring and
mean neap rates and directions of the tidal streams at hourly intervals from the time of high water
at a convenient Standard Port.

TIDAL CHARTS
Co-tidal and Co~range charts show lines of equal times of
tides and equal range, or data of harmonic constants, for
certain areas around the United Kingdom, North Sea,
Malacca Strait and Persian Gulf.
The reliability of these charts depends on the accuracy and
number of tidal observations taken in the area concerned.

OTHER PUBLICATIONS
Tidal stream information of a descriptive nature in Admiralty Sailing Directions, it is therefore no
longer included on modern charts.
For waters around the British Isles, the general circulation of the tidal stream is given in pictorial
form in a series of Tidal Stream Atlases

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2.0 Respond to navigational emergencies
2.1 PRECAUTIONS WHEN A BEACHING A SHIP
A vessels point of stranding could be at her
bow, her stern, her mid-length, her entire length,
or even all along one side, with the other side
inn deep water.

Currents and weather may be adverse and there may be unfavorable silting up as a result of these
elements; adverse weather may cause her to drive farther aground, and she may also be
damaged.

Circumstances for Beaching a Vessel
If a ship is in imminent danger of foundering any type of beach is welcome.
Ships pumps are unable to cope with the rate of flooding.
Even if an emergency exists, the beaching can still often be controlled
Select the type of beach, method of approach with a view of subsequent refloating

Ideal Conditions for Beaching
Mud, sand and gravel
Firm surface
Free from rocks
Gentle slope
Free from strong currents and scouring
Not too exposed to bad weather
Tidal range

Considerations When Beaching

Ideal for the ship to proceed slowly and on a good heading, rather than to drive her hard ashore
and strain the bottom plating.
Discreet use of the engines to control the degree to which she is beached, just before her keel
closes with the sea-bed.
Possibility of banking up and drawing sand (nature of bottom) into the machinery


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Vessels trim when beaching
Beaching bow-on
With a trim by the stern, beach with a slope steeper than that of her
keel will enable her stern to be kept buoyant while her fore end is
grounded. Beaching stern on
With a trim by the stern she will touch initially aft.
If beaching stern-on with a trim by the head, then again the beach should have a steeper slope
than the keel.

Advantage of beaching broadside on / right angle to the beach

The stern of the vessel will be held into the seas so it can be broach to immediately.

Measures which can be taken to prevent the ship driving further ashore and to assist with
subsequent refloating;
A damaged ship losing buoyancy rapidly, if beached, may well be able to refloat at a later high
water repairs have been done, compartments pumped dry, and her buoyancy restored.

If beached bow-on, her vulnerable, more buoyant, end is exposed to sea and weather. To keep
the stern quiet, ground tackle must be laid out from aft for vessels with stern anchor.
Consider beaching stern-on because it has many advantages. Ballast should be added or
transferred to counteract the tendency to bump on the bottom
All tanks and compartments should be sounded and assessment made of damage to the ship
Soundings should be taken to establish the depth of water around the ship and the nature of the
bottom

Water tanks may be added or transferred in order to provide the required buoyancy. If this action
supplies only a part of the tidal buoyancy the tidal range may produce the remainder.
In a vessel, a vessel which is aground at one end and is being held by the suction of sand or silt
should pump out water compartments or discharge cargoes if this is being done from her buoyant
end.
If the bottom is rocky and the vessel is lively, i.e. she is moving persistently, it may be advisable to
flood some compartments causing her to settle more deeply and become quieter.
This matter should be considered also when the vessel is pounding on the beach under the action
of surf, swell, or heavy weather. Although this action may set up the bottom plating, it is likely to
prevent excessive tearing of the plates.

SOUNDING OF TANKS

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Practically, soon after having found out that the ship is aground, send somebody to sound all tanks
and compare from the last sounding records the difference;
if an empty tank suddenly has got water gradually increasing or filled tanks suddenly has got lesser
soundings, it implies damage somewhere down under. Damage assessment should be made
immediately.

2.0 RESPOND TO NAVIGATIONAL EMERGENCIES

Circumstances for Beaching a Vessel
Imminent danger of foundering
Ships pumps are unable to cope with the rate of
flooding.
Even if an emergency exists, the beaching can still
often be controlled
Select the type of beach, method of approach with a
view of subsequent refloating
There is therefore always an interval of time, however
short, during which the action of beaching can be
considered.
Controlled beaching will solve the problem of refloating
the ship may resolve itself more easily than in the case of
a stranded vessel.
2.1 Precautions When A Beaching A Ship

Ideal Conditions for Beaching
Mud, sand and gravel
Firm surface
Free from rocks
Gentle slope
Free from strong currents and scouring
Not too exposed to bad weather
Tidal range

Considerations When Beaching
Proceed slowly and on a good heading
Discreet use of the engines
Possibility of banking up and drawing sand (nature of bottom) into the machinery


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Trim by the Stern

Beaching bow-on

With a trim by the stern, beach with a slope steeper
than that of her keel will enable her stern to be kept
buoyant while her fore end is grounded.
If her keel has the steeper slope, then her stern will
touch first. Trimmed by the head, she will whatever
the slope of the beach, take the ground forward.

Trim heavily by the Head

Beaching stern on

With a trim by the stern she will touch initially aft.
If beaching stern-on with a trim by the head, then
again the beach should have a steeper slope than
the keel.

Beaching Stern First

Stronger, finer end (bow) exposed to sea and
weather
Anchors ready for use
If beached stern-on she has the advantage of
presenting her stronger, finer end to the forces of
onshore sea and weather. The anchors are ready for
easy laying and later
heaving, they can be carried out direct from the hawse pipes and stressed by the windlass. The anchors
and cables could well be laid out while making her approach to the beach. Provided the beach is firm and
free from rocks, the propellers and rudder will be unharmed but her impact of course, must be gently as
possible


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Advantage of beaching broadside on / right angle to the beach

The stern of the vessel will be held
into the seas so it can be broach to
immediately.

In some localities circumstances may
require that the vessel be beached prior
to low tide and left resting on the bottom
while the tide is out. In this case, the
master should select a position where
the bottom is clear from rocks and
obstructions.

Measures which can be taken to prevent the ship driving further ashore and to assist with
subsequent refloating:
Secure the ship and wait for the arrival of skilled salvage operators.
If beached bow-on, her vulnerable, more buoyant, end is exposed to sea and weather. To keep
the stern quiet, ground tackle must be laid out from aft for vessels with stern anchor.
Consider beaching stern-on because it has many advantages.

If the damage is very severe and foundering is likely to occur on refloating, secure the ship and wait for the
arrival of skilled salvage operators. If rising, the problem is likely to be solved shortly. If falling, and there is
no point in using astern movements. Try to secure the ship with ground-tackle.
A damaged ship losing buoyancy rapidly, if beached, may well be able to refloat at a later high water
repairs have been done, compartments pumped dry, and her buoyancy restored.

Adding or transfer of ballast
Sounding of tanks and compartments
Assessment of damage
Soundings of depth of water around the ship and the nature of the bottom
Water tanks may be added or transferred in order to provide the required buoyancy. If this action supplies
only a part of the tidal buoyancy the tidal range may produce the remainder.
In a vessel, a vessel which is aground at one end and is being held by the suction of sand or silt should
pump out water compartments or discharge cargoes if this is being done from her buoyant end.
If the bottom is rocky and the vessel is lively, i.e. she is moving persistently, it may be advisable to flood
some compartments causing her to settle more deeply and become quieter.

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This matter should be considered also when the vessel is pounding on the beach under the action of surf,
swell, or heavy weather. Although this action may set up the bottom plating, it is likely to prevent excessive
tearing of the plates.
SOUNDING OF TANKS
Practically, soon after having found out that the ship is aground, send somebody to sound all tanks and
compare from the last sounding records the difference;
if an empty tank suddenly has got water gradually increasing or filled tanks suddenly has got lesser
soundings, it implies damage somewhere down under. Damage assessment should be made immediately.
2.2 ACTION TO BE TAKEN IF GROUNDING IS IMMINENT AND AFTER GROUNDING

Actions when Grounding is Imminent

When grounding is imminent the engine
should be stopped and put astern if the tide is falling.
Close watertight doors
Sound General Alarm
Engineers to change over to high-level water intakes
Transmit distress or urgency signal
Prepare survival craft
Sound all tanks and compartments
Inspect ship for damage
Report any discharge or probable discharge of
harmful substances to the nearest coast radio station
Take soundings to establish the depth of water
around the ship and the nature of bottom

2.3 Refloating a Grounded Ship

Refloating Procedures

Actions when grounding is imminent must be carried
out to prevent further damage to the ship and to assist
with subsequent refloating
Ballast or other weights may be moved, taken or
discharged to assist refloating
The vessels anchors may be used for hauling off
Tugs can be requested and used to assist in refloating
The main engine can be used during attempts to refloat
the vessel bearing in mind the danger of building up silt
from its use.

Collision (Actions when imminent and after collision)

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Responsibility of Master after Collision at Sea (Article 98 UNCLOS)

Every state shall require the master of a ship
flying its flag, in so far as he can do so
without serious danger to the ship, the crew
or the passengers, after a collision,
to render assistance to the other ship, its
crew and its passengers and, where
possible,
to inform the other ship of the name of his
own ship, its port of registry and the nearest
port at which it will call.

Every state shall require the master of a ship
flying its flag, in so far as he can do so
without serious danger to the ship, the crew
or the passengers, after a collision, to render
assistance to the other ship, its crew and its
passengers and, where possible, to inform
the other ship of the name of his own ship,
its port of registry and the nearest port at
which it will call.

Action to be taken if collision is imminent and following a collision

Stop engines after impact
Sound general alarm and inform crew of situation
Close watertight doors
In calm weather the colliding ship should generally remain embedded to allow the other ship time
to assess the damage or prepare to abandon ship
Make ready the survival craft for abandoning ship or assisting the crew of the other ship
Transmit distress or urgency signal as appropriate
Any request for important information can be made through Coastal States
If not in danger, own ship should standby to render assistance to the other vessel as long as
necessary
Report any discharge or probable discharge of harmful substances to the nearest coast radio
station
Inform owners all the details of the collision and subsequent actions to be entered in the logbook


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2.5 Damage Control Assessment

DAMAGE CONTROL

It is of utmost importance to determine
damage to own ship
3 basic objectives of shipboard damage
control
Prevention
Minimization
Restoration

Prevention means to take all practical
preliminary measures, such as maintaining
watertight and fumetight integrity, providing
reserve buoyancy and stability, removing fire
hazards, and maintaining and distributing
mergency equipment before damage occurs.
Minimization is to minimize and localize damage by taking measures to control flooding, preserve stability
and buoyancy, combat fire, and provide first-aid treatment to injured personnel.
Restoration is to accomplish, as quickly as possible, emergency repairs or restorations after the occurrence
of damage. Restoration requires measures such as supplying casualty power, regaining a safe margin of
stability and buoyancy, replacing essential structures, and manning essential equipment.

Describe measures to attempt to limit damage and salve own ship

Sound emergency alarm signal
Close all watertight doors portholes, scuppers, storm valves for ash and garbage shoots and all
other equipment necessary to maintain water tightness.
Take soundings of all the cargo, bunker and ballast tanks; cargo hold, pump room and engine
room bilges
Ascertain vessel draft and trim
If vessel is enrolled with emergency response services e.g. Class NK Emergency Technical
Assistance Services, Lloyds Ships Emergency response Services etc, prepare a condition report
in the format suggested by such services.
Secure bilge line, operate pumps in order to discharge water from the assumed flooding zone.
Report to coastal state and other parties
Initiate temporary repairs


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2.6 Emergency Steering

ARRANGEMENTS FOR AUXILIARY STEERING GEAR

Provided with steering gear in the
steering gear compartment
If power operated , it shall also be
operable from the navigation bridge
Independent of the control system
for the main steering gear
Adequate strength and sufficient to
steer the unit at navigable speed
Capable of being brought speedily
into action in an emergency

ACTION TO BE CARRIED OUT IN CASE OF STEERING FAILURE

Inform Master
Prepare for anchoring if in shallow water
Exhibit not under command shapes/lights
Commence sound signaling
Broadcast URGENCY message to ships in the vicinity, if appropriate
Inform engine room
Engage emergency steering
Take way off the ship prepare engines for maneuvering

KEY CONSIDERATIONS MUST BE:

Appropriate remedial action taken and verified as soon as possible.
Notification of all those who need to know of the failure.
The external signs and signals and action required.
Essential checks to be carried out prior to changeover.
Sequences to be followed if a remote control station has to be used.
Checks to be carried out on completion.


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2.7 Emergency Towing Arrangements and Procedures

TOWING ARRANGEMENTS

TOWING PROCEDURES

Permission from the owners or charterers is usually required before towing, except for the purpose
of saving life.
Coastal states may intervene when a disabled ship presents a potential risk to the environment
Early communication should be established between the vessels to agree on the method of
connecting the tow
Vessels should have everything prepared and have agreed on communication before the arrival of
the towing ship
Approach towards a disabled vessel will depend on how the vessel is lying and relative size of the
towing vessel. Pass first connection by line-throwing apparatus or other methods
Same size, position ahead of the disabled vessel and pass line from stern
Different size, approach from downwind and pass towline from your quarter
The tow normally passes a messenger followed by a wire messenger to the towing vessel to haul
across the towing line
Pay out towing wire under control
Towing wire must not develop any tangles, reduced possibility of fouling the propeller and can be
let go quickly in an emergency
Wire is usually shackled to the anchor cable of the tow
Preparations for disabled ship
Towing wire should be protected from chafing at fairleads
Wires and cables should be inspected frequently
Procedure for taking the weight of the tow
Decide on the towing speed
Procedure for disconnecting tow on arrival at destination


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Emergency towing arrangements for all tankers of not less than 20,000dwt

Since 1 January 1996 all new tankers of 20,000 dwt and above have had to be fitted with an emergency
towing arrangement fitted at either end of the ship

OBJECTIVES


Manoeuver and handle a ship in all conditions simulated in real time with the use of a full mission
bridge simulator that can simulate physical and behavioral realism.

Understand the principles and sage operating limits of marine power plants as well as ships
auxiliary machineries; determine technical specifications of the various parts of the marine power
plants and auxiliary machineries and their location.

3.0 Manoeuver and Handle a ship in all condition

3.1 Maneuvering Characteristics


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The following maneuvering information must be prominently displayed in the pilothouse on a fact sheet
1. For full and half speed, a turning circle diagram to port and starboard that shows the time and the
distance of advance and transfer required to alter the course 90 degrees with maximum rudder
angle and constant power settings.
2. The time and distance to stop the vessel from full and half speed while maintaining approximately
the initial heading with minimum application of rudder
3. For each vessel with a fixed propeller, a table of shaft revolutions per minute for a representative
range of speeds.
4. For each vessel with a controllable pitch propeller, a table of control settings for a representative
range of speeds.
5. For each vessel that is fitted with an auxiliary device to assist in maneuvering, such as a bow
thruster, a table of vessel speeds at which the auxiliary device is effective in maneuvering the
vessel.
6. The maneuvering information must be provided for the normal load and normal ballast condition
for:
(i) Calm weather-wind 10 knots or less, calm sea; No current;
(iii) Deep water conditions-water depth twice the vessel's draft or greater; and
(iv) Clean hull.
7. At the bottom of the fact sheet, the following statement must appear: WARNING

Wheelhouse Poster


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Accelerating

It is the manoeuver of accelerating the ship from the rest or from any specified ahead speed to a higher
ahead speed.

Coasting

It refers to decelerating without using backing power
It is very important for a ship handler to decelerate the ship at the least sustainable ahead power
at which the ship will retain steering ability.

Backing

It is the manoeuver of accelerating the ship from rest to a given astern speed or distance.

Stopping

It is the manoeuver of decelerating the ship by use of full

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backing power from any given ahead speed until the ship
comes to rest.

Stopping ability is measured by the "track reach"
and "time to dead in water" realized in a stop
engine-full astern maneuver performed after a
steady approach at full test speed. Lateral
deviations are also of interest, but they are very
sensitive to initial conditions and wind disturbances.

The IMO Standards stipulate the following stopping ability criterion to be complied with:

The track reach in the full astern stopping test should not exceed 15 ship lengths. However, this value may
be modified by the Administration where ships of large displacement make this criterion impracticable, but
should in no case exceed 20 ship lengths.

3.2 Propulsion and Maneuvering System

The ENGINE generates a torque, controlled by its fuel index to drive the shaft which turns the
propeller.
The propulsion system consists of two basic control loops, one for propeller pitch and one for shaft
speed.
CPP (Controllable Pitch Propeller)and FPP (Fixed Pitch Propeller)

CPP FPP

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FPP = thrust is controlled by changing the engine revolution and its rotating direction. When the
propeller is turned astern while rotating to ahead, the engine must be stopped & re-started in
reverse with compressed air.
CPP= pitch & thrust are controlled by rotating the blades about their length axis using a hydraulic
servomotor installed in the boss.
It allows for the engine to work in a constant direction.
CPP can provide smooth speed control.

3.2 Maneuvering propulsion

By convention the engines are designed to have a clockwise turning shaft when going ahead and when
viewed from astern.

- For this reasons, right handed propellers are nearly universal in single screw ships. Twin screw ships
invariably have outward turning screw, ie the propeller on the right is right handed and the propeller on
the left is left handed.

When going astern both propellers naturally turns inward.
Triple screw ships are usually maneuvered on the two outer propellers and the central one is use
to increase ahead or astern power.
The thrust of the propeller blades creates what is known as TRANSVERSE THRUST or SIDE
FORCE.
Side force is the lateral force caused by propeller rotation its direction is the side where propeller
would walk along the bottom due to its rotation.

Single screw ship right handed fix propellers
with rudder amidship, when going ahead the
bow cants to port and when going astern the
bow cants to stbd.

Single screw ship left handed fix propellers with
rudder amidship, when going ahead the bow cants
to starboard and when going astern the bow cants
to port


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Twin screw ships both engine going ahead or astern
and at the same revolution the two transverse thrust
cancel each other and the bow does not cant in either
direction.

Twin screw ship cants the bow to port by going astern
on left hand and ahead on the right hand and to cant
the bow to starboard ahead on the left hand and astern
on right hand

3.3 Constant rate of turn techniques

Turning rate should be maintained within 10 deg/min for safe ship handling except in special cases
of manuevering requiring a higher Rate of Turn.
The vessels lateral motion will also develop and increase on the opposite direction of the turn if the
rudder is maintained for some period of time.
Correcting helm should be made pointing the rudder towards the side of lateral motion.

RUDDER

A rudder is a device to control the horizontal
motion of a ship
The control force exerted by a rudder at the
stern of a ship creates a moment on the ship
that causes the ship to rotate and to orient
itself at an angle of attack to the flow.


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RUDDER AT THE STERN

A rudder is a lifting surface with a rudder force consisting of two components: drag and lift.
Drag is directed along the chord of the rudder while lift is perpendicular to it.
Lift force is directed perpendicular to the longitudinal axis.
Lift force is caused by the difference in hydrodynamic pressures, which result from the different
fluid velocities on the two sides of the rudder when it is deflected. Therefore, lift is only present on
the deflected rudder.
Once the rudder is deflected, a moment is created by the rudder lift force. This moment deviates
the vessel from its original course. Once there is an angle between the course and the center line
of the vessel, lift is developed on the hull.
The force on the rudder is usually small in comparison to forces on the hull, so the rudder is only
the initiator of a turn, while the hull lift force actually makes the vessel turn.
The hull works as a lifting surface with a very small ratio between chord and span.
It should be noted that despite the good steering qualities of a single screw ship, the rudder is
almost ineffective when the ship has her headway reduced by astern engine movements, due to
the resulting turbulance.
Under sternway considerable way must be gathered in order for the rudder to effective, and even
then steering is likely to be unreliable.
The best that can be hoped for is a trend in the right direction.

Ships Turning Path

When a vessel alters her course under helm through 360 degrees she moves on a circular path
called turning circle.
During the turn a line drawn from the centre of curvature of the path, perpendicular to the ships fore
and aft line, meets the latter at a point called pivot point.
Pivot point = is about one third of the length from the forward.


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- For practical purposes it maybe taken as being just forward of the bridge. When the vessel moves
under sternway the pivoting moves aft, very close to astern.

The advance is the distance of the ship's center of gravity along the original course from
commencement of rudder deflection to the point when the ship has turned 90.
The transfer is the distance from the original approach course to the ship's center of gravity when
it has turned 90.
The tactical diameter is the distance from the approach course to the ship's center of gravity when
it has turned 180.
The steady turning diameter is the diameter of the ship's trajectory when it has settled down to
the steady turning motion.

NOTE:

The great majority of merchant ships have tactical diameters between three and four ship lengths at hard-
over rudder (35).

Turning Lag to a New Course

Due to the turning lag, it is not possible to bring the ship on to the intended course changing path if
the rudder is put over when the ship has reached the course-changing point.

The rudder should be put over before reaching the course-changing point, taking the turning lag
into account.
The distance to new course is the distance along the original approach course, from the
commencement of rudder deflection to the course-changing point.


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Most navigators use the following procedure to change course safely.

3.4 Approaching Pilot Station

It is the responsibility of the master to ensure that the pilot can board the ship safely. At sea, unless the
freeboard is very low the boarding will be by:
pilot ladder
pilot ladder and accommodation ladder
Pilot hoist
Helicopter

From Ship Handling Point:
As long as space is available and the traffic situation allows it, the ships hull will protect the pilot
from wind and waves.
During boarding, the propeller should be stopped in order to avoid danger from propeller suction if
anyone should fall into the sea.
In conditions where strong wind is causing large sea waves, it is possible to use the ships wake in
a tight turn to flatten the sea.

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SIMULATOR EXERCISE

Briefing
De briefing

OBJECTIVES

Maneuver and handle a ship in all conditions simulated in real time with the use of a full mission

3.5 Ship Handling in Restricted Waters

Shiphandling in confined waters with the ever-increasing size of ships as exemplified in tankers and bulk
carriers, potential hazards of collision and grounding attract attention, and control errors may result in
personal injury and costly damage to both the ship and the surrounding environment.

At greater ratios, shallow-water effects on maneuvering performance become rapidly less
significant as the water deepens.
Restricted waters may be defined as narrow channels or canals, waterways with vertical or
overhanging banks or areas that include piers and breakwaters which introduce a substantial
change in maneuvering characteristics or requirements.
Most restricted waters include shallow water, and many include significant currents and tides. In
restricted waters, areas available for navigation are limited, further complicating the problems of
maneuvering and control of the ship.


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Effect on Turning Capability

When a ship is turning in shallow water, the turning diameter increases considerably due to the
bluntness of hull response at the initial stage of the turn and the increase of the turning moment of
resistance.

The results of 280,000-DWT, ship length 320 meter
VLCC tanker simulations in water Depth 1.5 times
ship draft (H/d=1.5), ship speed 15.7 knots, full-loaded
condition.

Effect of Water Depth on Turning Performance

About 75% increase in tactical diameter
(turning diameter) is observed as compared
to the tactical diameter (turning diameter) in
deep water.
Turning circle in shallow water gets bigger in
the direction of vessel side than advance.

And the same effect on wake is observed in
coasting turn and acceleration turn in shallow
water.

This change in maneuvering characteristics is
very important from the viewpoint of manoeuvering
safety, due to increasing importance of manoeuvering
ability in shallow water such as in harbors and other
restricted waterways.

3.6 Maneuvering in shallow water

Effects on Hull Sinkage and Change of Trim

When a ship is proceeding, surrounding water is displaced towards the side and the bottom of the
ship, exerting.
The pressure distribution that develops around the ship moving through the water distorts the
water line by raising the level of the high pressure regions ahead of the bow and
Aft of the stern, while, because of the relative velocity increase, lowering it along the length of the
hull, particularly amidships.

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Effect on Hull Resistance and Ship Speed

When a ship moves into shallow water, ship speed is reduced due to increased wave making resistance
and the deterioration of propulsive efficiency.

Recognizing the Signs of Squat

A ships officer on watch will notice the following tendencies in the ships behaviour when the ship comes
into shallow water:
Hull resistance is increased and the ship begins to slow down as it becomes affected by squat.
The close proximity of the propeller to the seabed tends to create greater hull vibration.
Speed is the most influential factor governing squat, so slowing the ship will have the most
immediate effect in reducing squat and improving control over the ship, provided that steerage way
is maintained.

Required Under Keel Clearance

For safe navigation in shallow water, it is essential to keep sufficient clearance between the ship's
bottom and the seabed depending on the conditions of the ship, the ship's manoeuvreability and
the conditions of the sea area.

Underkeel Clearance


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Factors in Determining UKC

1. Hull sinkage and change of trim

When navigating shallow water, the amount of bow sinkage should be kept in mind as ships tend to be
trimmed by the head.

2. Sinkage of the fore and aft perpendiculars ,and bottom bilges due to ship oscillation

When the encountered wave period synchronizes with a ship's natural period of pitch or roll, the amount of
sinkage should be taken into consideration for fore and aft perpendiculars or the bottom bilges.

3. Accuracy of charted depth
The following is the international standard for permissible error in surveying:
Permissible error of 0.3 m for water depth of 20 m or less
Permissible error of 1.0m for water depth between 20 m and 100m

3.7 Interaction Between Two Ships

Close passage of two ships and the resulting hydrodynamic interactions between the two are
operationally important for situations such as:
Overtaking or meeting in a restricted channel
Maneuvering to avoid collision
Passing a ship moored adjacent to a narrow channel
Both ships are making high speed and the speed difference between the ships is small.
Both ships are in an overtaking situation and have sufficient time to interact; this differs from a
meeting situation.
Both ships are running parallel with close passage.
Both ships are navigating shallow waters or restricted waters that are susceptible to interaction.


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To prevent the danger induced by ship interactions, it is necessary to reduce speed (less than l0
knots), and to keep a sufficient lateral separation distance of at least one ship length in the parallel
run.

Interaction between Moored and Passing Ships

Interaction between Moored and Passing Ships

The longitudinal force has two peaks in opposite direction the first forward, the second afterward.
The lateral force is characterized by initial repulsion, followed by attraction between the ships and
repulsion again at the end of the passage.
The yawning moment goes through four phases-bow repulsion, bow attraction, bow repulsion and
bow attraction.

Bank Effect

If a ship is proceeding along the center line of a canal whose cross section is constant and
symmetrical about its vertical center plane, then there is flow symmetry port and starboard and the
ship is subjected to no yaw moment or side force.
As the ship moves closer to one bank it produce a streamlining or venture effect which arises due
to the restricted flow of water on one side of the ship.
The stern moves towards the bank and the bow away from it. These sheers are called bank
suction and bow cushion.
Correcting helm should be applied facing the direction of the bank suction side. But must be
extremely alert to reduce the correcting helm when the suction have been eliminated.

- Take note that there will be no cushioning unless the speed of the vessel is so high as to cause a
build up of water level at the inshore bow.
Correcting helm should be applied facing the direction of the bank suction side. But must be
extremely alert to reduce the correcting helm when the suction have been eliminated.
- A ship wishing to make a right hand turn in a river bend to starboard, can, by keeping well into the
port bank, use the effect of bank cushion forward to assist her turn. She will turn quite easily with

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the rudder kept amidships. If the cushioning effect becomes excessive port helm may have to be
used in spite of the fact that the turn is to starboard.

Bank Effect


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TIMING ARRIVAL HOLDING IN A CHANNEL
THE MASTER CAN:

Anchor to a short scope of chain with a head tide.
Steam on an anchor at slow engine speeds and hold a position and heading in the channel even if
there is a moderate wind from abeam.
Hold with a tug on each bow, using the engine as needed while the tugs minimize headway.
Back and fill as necessary with surprisingly little advance up a channel.

- For a number of reasons it may be necessary to plan a vessels passage to arrive at a berth, turning
basin, or lock at a specified time.
The master or pilot may wish to dock at slack water, or the tugs or berth may not be available until a
particular time.
This is a routine navigational problem.
- When timing arrivals, the mariner often attempts to arrive exactly as scheduled and allows no time for
unforeseen delays. Any reluctance to arrive early and have to maneuver the ship to hold her in position in a
channel for some period of time is natural but unnecessary. The ship can easily take an hour to go the last
mile to a desired point so there is no reason not to allow some extra time when planning a passage.

GOOD BRIDGE PRACTICES

Several important at aspects of the ship handlers work have been touched upon here, all of which are as
important as the technical skills in docking ship.
The docking master did not move in the bridge while working.
Hand signals were given to clarify all helm orders.
The pilot remained calm and unexcited throughout the docking.
- The configuration of the berth, including any special problems such as poorly located dolphins, ships to be
maneuvered around or between, and any unusual space restrictions. This is the time to learn of potential
problems and to cancel the docking if you dont feel it can be done safely. Dont wait until the ship is
halfway up the slip and being set down on the vessel in the berth astern.

DISCUSSING DOCKING PLANS

Discuss the approach and docking plans well before reaching the berth.
The docking master appreciates the opportunity to brief you and to be assured that the ship and
crew are ready to respond as required.
Dont expect him to predict each bell and helm order in detail but do get an understanding of:
The approach, including any
special maneuvers or engine requirements.
The placement of tugs.
Any special requirements such as
a need for the anchor or for any unusual leads for the mooring lines.
The current and wind to be
expected at the berth.

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- This is often different from that indicated in the current tables and can best be ascertain from the docking
master who has the local knowledge required to make accurate predictions.

Assessment of wind effect and drift
When the ship is nearly stopped about one ships length from the berth, this is the time to assess the
amount of set, wind effect and drift affecting the ship, so that allowances can be made if needed in the final
manoeuver to berth the ship.

BERTHING
When berthing a ship, plan the final approach to the berth heading one third of the space available
for berthing.
As you close the berth, plan to bring the ship parallel to the berth by using the transverse thrust
produced by the engine and rudder application.
Once you are all stopped off the berth and you have the lines out that you require, then bring the
ship alongside by heaving on the lines and into position to make fast.
When berthing a ship which is a right hand single fix propeller port side alongside.
- The berth is approach a fine angle heading on the one third of the forward space available for
berthing bring the bow as close as you can to the berth on a slow speed, when the bow is nearly
close to the berth a headline should be sent. midship the wheel and reverse the engine.
- This will created a transverse thrust which will swing the aft to port close to the berth and swing
the bow out to starboard bringing the vessel parallel to the berth.
UNBERTHING
When stbd side alongside and fix pitch propeller, right handed propeller, head - out:
Let go all stern lines and all headlines, keeps springs fwd.
Give kick astern until 25-30 deg additional to your original heading when alongside.
When aft is clear you may heave your anchor or order the tug to pull you away from the berth.
Keep spring fwd if you intend to steer your vessel away from berth.

- When leaving a berth with no significant wind or tide, probably the most popular manoeuver to hold
onto the forward spring it must be absolutely tight so when the engine is work slowly ahead it will
not part.
- The spring maybe made tight by heaving on the headline.
Rudder is put hard over towards the shore side and kick ahead on the engines to cant the stern off further.

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When the stern is sufficiently canted off, stop the engines and reversed it with rudder amidship and let go
all lines while continueing with reverse engine until the bow also clears of the berth with a right hand fix
propeller which the vessel bow swings to starboard when engine is work astern.
Bear in mind that as the ship picks up sternway its centre of turn will move aft, which will reduce the turning
effect of the transverse thrust.
When port side alongside and fix pitch propeller, right handed propeller, head - out:
Let go all stern lines , keeps two head and two springs fwd.
Give kick ahead until 25-30 deg reduction from your original heading when alongside.
When aft is clear you may heave your anchor or order the tug to pull you away from the berth.
Keep spring fwd if you intend to steer your vessel away from berth.
Make sure vessel is clear before letting go the last spring lines.

Ship and TUG Interaction
When the tug is overtaking the large vessel to change station from the stern to the bow, the tug is
affected by interaction considerably more than the large ship. The tug is moving in water flow that
is dominated by the streamlines of the pressure field surrounding the large ship.

1. The tug approaching the stern of the
large ship will experience suction force
and bow-in (towards the large ship)
moment.

2. The rudder is to be deflected outwards.


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1. When the tug is approaching abreast of
the large ship, the tug will experience
suction force and bow-out moment, and
the rudder is to be deflected inwards.
2. The suction force and bow-out against
the large ship

1. When the tug is approaching the bow of
the large ship, the tug will encounter
increasing pressure and an increase of
engine output is required to overcome
the resistance barrier.
2. Due to the greatly increased suction
force and bow-out moment, enhanced
inward rudder deflection is required

1. Suction force changes rapidly into
repulsive force and bow-out moment into
bow-in moment.
2. To cope with the bow-in moment, the
rudder is to be deflected outward

SIMULATOR EXERCISE

Briefing
De briefing


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ANCHORING

ANCHORING OPERATIONS

Serious casualties have often
been occurring while vessels were engaging in anchoring operations, which resulted in the loss of
anchors and chains.
As you well know, the anchor is an important piece of equipment in order to have a safe operation.
If an anchor is lost, the vessel not
only suffers an economical loss but also loses sea worthiness.
In this regard, we are summarizing some essential points concerning the anchoring operation.

Preparation of Anchoring

When anchoring, prior investigation of the following conditions for anchorage is required:

1. Direction and strength of wind and current
2. Depth of water
3. Type of seabed (Select a type of seabed with good anchor holding characteristics)
4. Location of lee-shores, shoals, or hazards such as submarine cables and other obstacles.
5. Maneuvering room after anchoring
6. Swinging room after anchoring.
7. Conditions affecting visibility, weather and currents.

Types of Anchoring Methods


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It is the most common method


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ANCHORING OPERATIONS

Approach to an Anchor Berth

Riding to a single anchor by dropping anchor (letting go the anchor under sternway) is normally
used because of its handling simplicity when letting go or weighing anchor.
The ship proceeds in accordance with the speed reduction plan, and the engine is stopped before
arriving at the anchor berth, advancing solely by inertia
Anchoring in water of 20 meters or less depth
The engine is put astern just before the intended location so that the ship may come to a stop in
the anchor berth.
The anchor is let go and the cable is paid out under sternway.

Anchoring in water of 20 to 50 meters depth
When anchoring in water of 20 to 50 meters depth, the free-fall anchoring from the cock-bill
position may cause the cable to attain a dangerous speed as it runs out, the result being a parting
of the entire cable.

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To prevent such hazards, walk back the anchor into the water until it reaches about 5 meters
above the bottom, then let go the anchor.

- Afterwards, the proper brake should be applied to control cable running out speed, and sternway of the
ship should be maintained within the permissible range.

Anchoring in water of 50 meters or greater depth (Deep anchoring)
When anchoring in water of 50 meters or greater depth, the anchor and the amount of cable
intended for use are paid out by the walk-back method
In large ships, sternway over the ground should not exceed 0.5 knot after the anchor has been
embedded in the bottom.
- This is because if the ship's sternway is greater than the walk out speed of the cable, parting the cable or
damage to the windlass may occur due to excessive strain on the cable.


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Anchor position
When anchoring is completed, the precise anchor position should be plotted on the chart taking into
account the distance from the bow to the navigation bridge and the amount of cable paid out.
Permissible water depth for anchoring
It is not determined by the total length of equipped cable, but by the capacity of the windlass.
Generally, a windlass has a lift capacity of 3 to 4 shackles with an anchor.
It will be in the range between 82 to 110 meters.
Anchoring Under Wind and Current Effects
ln an anchorage where the effects of wind and for current are strong, there is risk of dragging
anchor due to excessive strain on the cable.
There also is risk of holding failure of the anchor, as the cable is often laid out meanderingly along
the bottom, which hinders the anchor's ability to embed and hold.
When approaching the anchorage, well-chosen landmarks, beam references and the ship's speed
meter are to be used to reckon the ship's movement, as the precise speed over the ground is
difficult to confirm.
Approaching with head-to-wind/stream
When riding to a single anchor, the approach is made head-to-wind or head-to-stream, and then
the anchor is let go

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To allow the anchor to embed and hold, a length of cable more than twice the depth of the water
should be allowed at first to run out freely, after which a sufficient length of cable should be paid
out under brake to prevent the anchor from being dragged.

Approaching with wind or current on the beam

When approaching with wind or current on the beam, sufficient speed is required to maintain the
vessel's predetermined track because leeway or current set increases drastically as the ship's
speed decreases .
The ship should stem the wind or current just before letting go the anchor, at which time
preparation for making bold alteration of course is necessary since the vessel rapidly loses way.
The weather anchor should be let go with the ship stopped, and as the ship drifts downstream the
cable should be paid out gradually (if necessary the astern engine may be used) in such a way as
to keep the ship head-to-wind or head-to-stream.

Approaching with wind or current on the stern

Anchoring with wind or current on the stern should be avoided because control of headway is
difficult and the cable may be subjected to an excessive strain.
If there is no other alternative, then make the approach with headway as slow as possible, and let
go the turning side anchor just before the location of the anchorage.

Swing Motions and Dragging Anchor

To control swing motion, the following measures are taken:

1. Deepens ship's draft by ballasting to reduce wind-affected area
2. Adjust ship's trim by-the-head while keeping the propeller under water
3. Use a swing-check anchor with another anchor, lowering it to one-and-half depths of water on its cable

Anchor Watch

When the master detects signs of dragging anchor, the following counter measures are taken
(depending on the situation):

1. Letting go the swing-check anchor
2. Paying out an extra length of the cable

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3. Keeping the ship's head to the wind and easing cable tension using the main engine and rudder or bow
thruster.

Methods of detecting anchor dragging

Checking the ship's position by radar or other instruments
Checking the course recorder
Checking the ship's swing behavior
Checking tightening sequences of the cable
Checking the indicator of the Doppler log

The following phenomena can be regarded as early signs of the anchor being dragged:
The course recorder indicates a distorted curve instead of a regular sine curve
The periodical swing motion of the hull is stopped, and the ship is gradually swept down with wind
on one side of the hull
The Doppler log indicates the ship is moving in a certain direction at a rate of one knot or more
over the ground

Early signs of the anchor being dragged

the cable remains taut at all times
abnormal vibration is felt on the hull
the relative positions of other ships in the vicinity change markedly

- taut means stretched tightly.

As stated , the most important thing is early detection of dragging anchor when lying at anchor and
act accordingly.

Dry-docking


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BEFORE ENTERING A DRYDOCK THE FOLLOWING ITEMS SHOULD BE GIVEN ATTENTION

STABILITY ASPECTS, DRAUGHT AND TRIM
REPAIRS, MOVABLE WEIGHTS
STRUCTURAL FEATURES
DERRICKS, GANGWAYS, ANCHORS
SHORES,FIRE ARRANGEMENTS,TELEPHONE,ELECTRICITY
DRAUGHT MARKS, TANKS, ANCHOR CABLES
PAINTING, CATHODIC PROTECTION

General procedures and precautions in dry dock:

Check the stability of the vessel, especially during critical period.
Check the vessel at required draft. It is better to have a stern trim
No list.
Prepare mooring lines.
Unused mooring lines stowed.
Standby for dock master and dock mooring gang.
Proper flags displayed as required.

While entering dry-dock:
Times of the followings to be logged down:
When vessel enters dock.
When the gate closed
When pumping out commenced.
When vessel sewed
When pump out completed.

When leaving the Dry dock

The times of the followings to be logged down:
o The time when flooding
commenced.
o The time when the vessel floated.
o The time the gate is opened and
when the vessel left the dock.

After vessel docked:

Tanks and bilge soundings throughout the vessel.
Records to be kept with copy to dock-master.
Hull high pressure wash as the level goes down.

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Initial inspection of the hull to be done :

The extend of the hull damage if any.
The extend of the rudder and propeller damage
Suitable and efficient shoring arrangements
Suitable and efficient keel blocks
Plugs to be removed, if draining of the tanks to be required.
All removed plugs to be in safe custody of C/O.
Bridge equipments, gyro shut down, heading recorded.

Dry docking with full cargo onboard:

Followings things to be considered while docking with full cargo:
Vessel is subjected to more severe stress and strains than normal dry dock.
Uneven distribution of weight.
Additional weight of the vessel
Unable to achieve required draft for entering.
Certain extra precautions to be taken.

Docking with cargo aboard

In such cases the ship is likely to be subjected to severe stresses and be strained certain
precautions must therefore be taken. The pressing up of tanks beneath holds will add weight to the
ship but should help to distribute the weight of cargo evenly over to the inner bottom, and avoid
local loading. As soon as the vessel is sewed,divers maybe employed to build up the bilge blocks
before further pumping is allowed. This makes sure that the vessel is well supported before too
much of her weight is transferred to the keel blocks. In such a case, bilge block should be
underneath a longitudinal side girder to avoid plate buckling, extra shores have to be employed
throughout the ship lenght and at her ends. If the damage or repair work is in a suitable position it
may be possible to pump out only some of the dock water, i e, sufficient to expose the area in
question , and leave the vessel partly waterborne. This reduces not only the reaction of the blocks
but also any tendencies for the end to droop(hogging), and also tendencies for the bottom plating
to sag between the lines of blocks. Dock master must initially be furnished with detailed loading
plan.

OBJECTIVES


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Understand the principles and usage operating limits of marine power plants as well as ships

Introduction

The metric system of units, which is intended
to provide international unification of physical
measurements and quantities, is referred 10
as SI units.

3.2 PROPULSION PLANT AND ENGINEERING SYSTEMS AND SERVICES

SI Units (SI units (System International d'Unites)

as SI units.

Three classes of units

BASE UNITS


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Function 1 (Module 3)
OBJECTIVES
Table of Contents
3.0Manoeuver and Handle a ship in all condition
3.13 Handling of ships in heavy weather
3.14 Maneuvering to launching rescue boats or survival craft in bad weather
3.15 Methods of taking on board survivors from rescue boats and survival craft

Meteorological Information

When navigating under threat of a tropical depression or typhoon, a ship must collect information
from meteorological organizations and then utilize these data.
A rough method of detecting the center of a storm is known as Buys Ballot's Law: stand with your
back to the wind
The center of low pressure will be from 15 to 30 degrees forward from your left hand in the
Northern hemisphere, and on your right hand in the Southern hemisphere.
The rate of change in wind direction becomes greater when the distance between the ship and the
center of the typhoon is smaller. Conversely, its rate of change becomes smaller when the distance
between the ship and the center of typhoon grows larger.
A large rate of change in wind direction also foretells abrupt and drastic directional change in wind
direction

Avoiding Tropical Storms (Typhoons)

1. Dangerous and navigable semicircles
The right-hand semicircle to the path of a typhoon (facing the direction toward which the typhoon is moving)
is known as the dangerous semicircle; here, wind speed increases because wind direction and direction of
typhoon movement are the same, and the ship may be blown towards the center of the typhoon


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High-wave area prevails in the southeastern quadrant. The left-hand semicircle to the path of a typhoon is
called the navigable semicircle because wind decreases due to the forward motion of the typhoon (adverse
to wind direction), and the wind blows the ship away from the typhoon path .

General rules for avoiding tropical storms (typhoons)

If the wind changes to clockwise, the ship must be in the dangerous semicircle. If possible, the ship
should place the wind on the starboard bow (45" relative), hold course and make as much way as
possible to get out of the dangerous zone.
If the wind backs the ship, the ship is in the navigable semicircle. The ship should place the wind
on the starboard quarter (135" relative), hold course and make as much way as possible. (This
method of avoidance is called scudding.)
If the wind remains steady or nearly steady in terms of direction, the ship should be in the path of
the typhoon, ahead of the storm's center.
If the ship is in the center, or near the center of the typhoon, the ship should heave-to with the wind
on the starboard bow.


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It shows the methods for avoiding typhoons in the
Northern hemisphere; alphabetical symbols in the
figure correspond with those above.

METEOROLOGICAL AGENCY
They provides ships with information on oceanic meteorological conditions:
surface weather charts
upper-air charts
ocean wave charts
photographs from weather satellites

Heavy weather navigation
A vessel heading into a bow sea heels over towards advancing wave crests, and part of his roll is
damped. When running before a quarterly seas reverse is true and she heels away from oncoming
seas.
In this condition resistance to rolling are least and larger angle of roll are attained, in addition to
which the wave transverse the ship length more slowly than if they were approach from ahead.
combination of these two factors renders the ship liable to shift heavy seas aft, A process known as
pooping.
When steaming head to sea vessel is subjected to pitching, racing of propellers, longitudinal stress,
slamming and pounding at the fore end due to wave impact, and shipping of water forward. Ideally
the ship should be trimmed by the stern a little so that screw and rudder are immersed to maximum
and the bow resist to bury itself.
All the hazards of pitching and slamming and longitudinal stress are reduced by lowering the
speed of the vessel.
When running before the sea a vessel usually experiences difficulty in steering and the stern is
lifted by the sea producing an alarming yaw.
Under these condition with the sea astern. If the vessel is situated in the trough of the sea which is
overtaking her and breaking she is likely to be pooped.
The process of slewing is known as Broaching-to. The sudden addition of top weight water when
heeled over to a large inclination may reduce the angle at which positive stability disappears to the
existing angle of heel, and capsizing is then likely.

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In these circumstances it is wise to reduce speed so that the seas overtake the vessel rather than
run the risk of surfing and broaching-to. Ideally, the speed should be found at which the danger of
pooping is also least.
With a sea abeam, allowance must be made for lee drift, which may have a rate in excess of 2
knots. If the wake is sighted and its direction compared with the course steered the angular
difference will give a close approximation to the necessary upwind alteration of the ships head.
Alterations of speed will have little effect on behaviour in a beam sea. But course alteration will
reduce the amplitude of rolling.

LOWER LIFEBOAT IN HEAVY WEATHER CONDITION

PREPARATION:
Some steadying method to be used so that the life boat does not land hard against the ship side.
Prevent the fall blocks to hit ship crew or lifeboat.
Boat crews must wear life jacket, helmet, immersion suit in cold climate for rescuing operation.
Sea quelling oil may be used to reduce the seas.
Vessel to create a good lee. Wind to be on the opposite bow.
Lower lifeboat into the trough of a wave.
Ship plugs.
On the next rising crest, release the hooks immediately and simultaneously.
PREPARATION:
Cast off the painter once clear.
Bear off the ship's side with tiller, oars or boat hook.
Engine is started before the release of blocks and kept neutral
Once lifeboat is underway, tiller put against ship's side and with full throttle clear off the ship.
Rig fenders, mattresses or mooring ropes to prevent the boat from being stoved-in during an
adverse roll.
A cargo net, slung between davits and trailing in the water for crew to hang on in case the boat
capsize alongside. It should not hamper the operation of the boat.
The painter is rigged and kept tight throughout so as to keep the boat in position between the falls.
The falls are loosely tied with a line, led to the deck and manned. When the boat is unhooked, the
line will steady the falls and prevent accidental contact with the boat crews.

RESCUING SURVIVORS

Rescue vessel can bring the survivors floating in a craft, by any or several of the following means.
Hoisting the survivors boat with all the personnel.
Boats are not too heavy
The weight of the boat with the personnel are within the SWL of the
hoisting crane / derrick.
Suitable lifting gears are available.

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Lower the vessel's own rescue boat, transfer the survivors and hoist them
aboard.

Survivors may not have sufficient energy to climb. In that case they may be hoisted by:
Canvas slings.
Bosuns chair.
Canvass baskets
Cargo baskets.
Whips rove through blocks on davit heads.

NAVIGATION IN ICE
Entry in the pack of ice is usually made in right angles to the lee edge where the ice is broken and
loose. The vessel enters on a very low speed and then the speed is work gradually to safe level
endeavoring never to lose way, For then the floes will close on the propeller and rudder .


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NAVIGATION IN ICE
BESET= vessel is hemmed in and sorrounded by ice, ship cannot be
controlled, but not necessarily under pressure from the ice.
NIPPED = A ship which is beset and under pressure from ice.
BORING= the operation of forcing a way through ice under the ships
motive power.
SLEWING = the act of forcing a ship through close pack by working the
engines ahead and the rudder from side to side. the floes are forced
apart.
WORKING = BORING OR SLEWING through the ice.
LEAD = A long narrow, navigable channel within an ice field

APPROACHING ICE
Readiness for Ice
Experience has shown that ships that are not ice strengthened and
with a speed in open water or about 12 kn often became firmly beset
in light ice conditions, whereas an adequately powered ice-
strengthened ship should be able to make progress through 6/10 to
7/10 first-year ice.

Example of satellite imagery with a resolution of 0.9 km

Ships operating in ice should be ballasted and trimmed so that the
propeller is completely submerged and as deep as possible, but
without excessive stern trim which reduces manoeuverability.
Ballast and fresh water tanks should be kept no more than 90%
full to avoid risk of damage to them from expansion if the water
freezes.
Good search lights should be available for night navigation. With
or without icebreaker escort.


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NAVIGATION IN ICE
Avoid being BESET or NIPPED

When beset vessel will be out of control, and vessels with straight sides are especially vulnerable.
A ship beset in early winter is in grave danger from a build of pressure within the pack, and from
bergs working through the field.

NAVIGATION IN ICE

When nipped there is likely to be considerable damage to the hull, rudder, and propeller.
A ship beset and suffering increasing pressure from the pack may have her entire hull bottom
nipped off, leaving her lying on the ice. when the ice parts in the spring, or before if winds and
currents are suitable, the ship founders.

SIGNS OF ICEBERGS
CAUTION:
There are no infallible signs of the proximity of an iceberg. Complete reliance
on radar or any of the possible signs can be dangerous. The only sure way is
to see it.

UNRELIABLE SIGNS
Changes of air or sea temperature cannot be relied upon to indicate the vicinity of an iceberg.
However, the sea temperature, if carefully watched, will indicate when the cold ice-bearing current
is entered.
Echoes from a steam whistle or siren are also unreliable because the shape of the iceberg may be
such as to prevent any echo, and also because echoes are often obtained from fog banks.
Sonar has been used to locate icebergs, but the method is unreliable since the distribution of water
temperature and salinity, particularly near the boundary of a current, may produce such excessive
refraction as to prevent a sonar signal from reaching the vessel or iceberg.


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A tabular iceberg Pinnacled iceberg.

LIKELY SIGNS
In the case of large Antarctic icebergs
The absence of sea in a fresh breeze indicates the presence of ice to windward if far from the land.
When icebergs calve, or ice otherwise cracks and falls in the sea, it produces a thunderous roar,
or sounds like the distant discharge of guns.
The observation of growlers or smaller pieces of brash ice is an indication that an iceberg is in the
vicinity, and probably to windward; an iceberg may be detected in thick fog by this means.
When proceeding at slow speed on a quiet night, the sound of breakers may be heard if an
iceberg is near and should be constantly listened for.

VISIBILITY OF ICEBERGS

Despite their size, icebergs can be very difficult to see under certain circumstances, and the
mariner should invariably navigate with caution in waters in which they may be expected.
In fog with sun shining an icebergs appears as a luminous white mass, but with no sun it appear s
close aboard as a dark mass, and the first signs may well be the wash of the sea breaking on its
base.

- On a clear night with no moon icebergs may be sighted at a distance of 1 or 2 miles, appearing as black
or white objects, but the ship may then be among the bergy bits and growlers (See photo below) often
found in the vicinity of an iceberg. On a clear night, therefore, lookouts and radar operators should be
particularly alert, and there should be no hesitation in reducing speed if an iceberg is sighted is high and full

OBJECTIVES


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Precautions to avoid damage caused by own ships bow wave and stem wave
Ship Motion in Head and Bow Seas

A ship among waves is repeatedly subjected to heaving, pitching and rolling; hogging, sagging and twisting
(torsional moment) can also be generated depending on the ship's relative position to the waves;

- i.e. whether the waves crest or trough amidships, or the ship is among oblique .


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The ship's pitching motion is less significant when wavelength is shorter than ship length because
the influence wave is small.
Pitching is restrained; the bottom of the bow does not emerge from the water, and the bow does
not dip severely enough to take green water.

When wavelength is longer than ship length, the ship pitches and heaves easily following the fore
and aft wave profile..


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When wavelength is equal to ship length pitching motion is at its most intense. Heaving of the ship
on a crest and plunging of the bow into the next wave will accelerate.

- Fluctuations of water levels relative to waves at the bow and stern grow greater , leading to phenomena
such as propeller racing, shipping water and slamming

PROPELLER RACING

As the relative motion between water level and the stern increases, the stern lifts out of the water and
exposes part of the propeller, causing it to race. This great and abrupt reduction of propeller load results in
a sudden increase in propeller revolutions, generating intense vibration.


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SHIPPING WATER FORWARD

It refers to green water sweeping down the upper decks beyond the forecastle bulwark.
The impact force of shipping water has two effects:
Direct dynamic pressure created
by the shipped green water
Impact force caused by the sweep
of green water against deck machinery and other appliances.

BOTTOM SLAMMING

It occurs when, due to heavy bow motion relative to waves, the forward part of a ship's bottom
emerges from the water and then slams down heavily into the rising water of the next oncoming
wave.

BOW FLARE SLAMMING


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BREAK WAVE IMPACT

HEAVY SLAMMING

Heavy slamming will not only damage the ship's bow forward bottom plating and bow flare, but the
cargo as well. Immediately after slamming, high-frequency vibratory stresses, called whipping, will
take place elsewhere in the hull, causing damage to the hull and various appliances.

Frequency of slamming on a coastal ship in light condition

FINDINGS:
Appropriate reduction of
speed is effective in reducing
slamming.
Altering course to change
encounter angle is also
effective in reducing
slamming.

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A ship in light condition with
trim-by-the-stern is more
susceptible to slamming
compared to a ship in full-load
condition.
Slamming is likely when the
ship is close to resonant
pitching in head waves slightly
longer than its own length.

FINDINGS:
Critical operation diagram for
slamming on a full-loaded
container ship of 40,000 gross
tons.
It shows that a container ship
heading into a seaway of
Beaufort scale 10 (average
wave height 9 meters) will
suffer slamming 2 times per
hour if the ship is making 13
knots.
(When course is altered to 45
degrees starboard or port, the
ship can make 19 knots.)
Occurrence of slamming
relative to ship type and speed
is examined in Table 4-3.


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SHIPS ROUTEING

OBJECTIVE

The PURPOSE of Ships Routeing is to improve the safety of navigation in converging areas and in areas
where the density of traffic is great or where the freedom movement of shipping in inhibited by restricted
sea room, the existence of obstructions to navigation, limited depths or unfavorable meteorological
conditions.

Routeing Systems

IMO is recognized as the sole body responsible for establishing and recommending, measures on
an international level concerning ships routeing.
These measures, together with details of all routeing systems adopted by IMO (which include
deep water routes, traffic separation schemes, precautionary areas, inshore traffic zones and areas
to be avoided by certain ships) are given in Ships Roueting, published by an obtainable from IMO.-

Traffic Separation Schemes Adopted by IMO

Roueting systems are intended for use by day and by night in all weathers, in ice-free water or
under light ice conditions where no extraordinary manoeuvres or assistance by icebreaker or
icebreakers are required.
They are recommended for use by all ships unless stated otherwise.

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Bearing in mind the need for under-keel clearance, a decision to use a routeing system must take
into account the charted depth, the possibility of changes in the seabed since the time of the last
survey, and the effects of meteorological and tidal conditions on water depths.
The existence of a Traffic Separation Scheme does not imply that the traffic lane have been better
surveyed the adjacent areas, and Masters of deep-draught vessels should not infer that they have
been adequately surveyed for such vessels without studying charted depths and source data
diagrams .
Rule 10 of the International Regulations for Preventing Collisions at Sea (1972), applies to all
vessels in or near traffic separation schemes adopted by IMO, but does not relieve any vessel for
her obligation under any other rule.
Authorities establishing a roueting system that is not adopted by IMO lay down the regulations
governing its use. Such regulations may not only modify Rule 10 of the International Regulations
for Preventing Collisions at Sea (1972) but also other Steering and Sailing Rules.

Areas to be Avoided

Certain areas are designated to be avoided by certain ships. They may be established for any of a
number of reasons;
For example, the area being inadequately surveyed, or local knowledge being required to navigate
in it, or because unacceptable damage to wildlife might result from a casualty.

Charting of Traffic Separation Schemes

Admiralty charts show all deep-water routes, traffic separation schemes and areas to be avoided
by certain ships, adopted by IMO, and in addition traffic separation schemes established by
individual nations within, or in the vicinity of their own territorial waters.
Admiralty charts show all deep-water routes, traffic separation schemes and areas to be avoided
by certain ships, adopted by IMO, and in addition traffic separation schemes established by
individual nations within, or in the vicinity of their own territorial waters.

VESSEL TRAFFIC MANAGEMENT AND PORT OPERATIONS

Vessel Traffic Services have been established in principal ports and their approaches, both to
reduce principal of collision and to expedite the turn round of ships.
Where vessel Traffic Services exist, they may provide from one or more traffic Centers a number
of services, including information to ships operating in the area on the arrival, berthing, anchoring
and departure of other vessels, as well as details of any navigational hazards, weather and port
operations.

Sources Information

Details of communications, pilotage arrangements and port operations are also given in this
volume for minor ports.
Pilot boarding stations and certain vessel Traffic Service information are also shown
diagrammatically on Mariners Roueting Guide charts: 5500 English Channel and Southern North
Sea and 5501 Gulf of Suez.

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Firing and Exercise Areas

Chart and Sailing Directions

In view the responsibility of range authorities to avoid accidents, limits of practice areas are not as
a rule shown on navigational charts and descriptions of areas do not appear in Admiralty Sailing
Directions. General remarks about exercise areas may, however, be made in Sailing Direction to
alert the Mariners to the possibility of encountering concentrations of naval craft.

Submarine Exercise Areas

Charting

If permanently established, submarine exercise areas are invariably charted and mentioned in
Sailing Directions.
The legend Submarine Exercise Area on certain charts should not, however, be read to mean that
submarines do not exercise outside such areas.

Minelaying and Mineclearance Exercise Area

Details of Areas

Certain areas in the North Sea, English Channel and waters around the British Isles are used for
minelaying and mineclearance practices.
Details of the areas and procedures used are given in Annual Summary of Admiralty Notices to
Mariners. The areas are not shown on charts nor mentioned in Admiralty Sailing Directions.

Caution

Ships engaged in mine clearance operations show the lights or shapes prescribed by the
International Regulations for Preventing Collisions at Sea (1972).
They may be operating divers and should not be approached within 1000 m.

MINEFIELDS

Minefields were laid in many parts of the world during the World War of 1939-45 and during the
Korean War of 1950-51. Many of these minefields have been swept; others have had routes swept
through them. These routes are mostly marked by buoys and have been used safely by shipping
for many years.

Navigation through these minefields whether they have been swept or not, is now considered no
mote dangerous from mines than from any other of the usual hazards to navigation, due to the
lapse of time.


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Anchoring, fishing or any form of submarine or seabed activity in the unswept areas is still
considered dangerous. Furthermore, uncharted wrecks and shoals may lie in these areas, some of
which are not covered by modern surveys.
Caution

Even in swept waters and routes there is a remote risk that mines may still remain having failed to
respond to orthodox sweeping methods.

The Mariner is therefore advised to anchor in port approaches and established anchorages, rather
than in the unswept areas.

Minefields laid later than 1951 are still considered dangerous to surface navigation. The Mariner
should keep strictly to any swept routes through them.

MINES

Drifting mines are occasionally sighted and even though many are only exercise mines, which are
broken adrift, they are all best left for Naval experts to dispose of
Re moored mines, which have drifted from deeper water trailing a length of cable, are liable to
become re-activated if the cable fouls an obstruction
If a drifting or remoored mine sighted, the time and the position of the mine should be reported
immediately to Naval authorities via the Coastguard service or normal communication channels,
and the report broadcast on VHF Channel 16 so that other shipping in the vicinity is warned.
Annual Summary of Admiralty Notices to Mariners describes the best way for fishermen operating
from ports of the United Kingdom to dispose of mines and other explosive weapons encountered at
sea, or recovered in trawls.

Simulator Exercise

Briefing
Simulator Exercise
Debriefing

OBJECTIVES

Understand the principles and usage operating limits of marine power plants as well as ships


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Introduction

as SI units.
3.2 PROPULSION PLANT AND ENGINEERING SYSTEMS AND SERVICES

SI Units (SI units (System International d'Unites)

as SI units.

Three classes of units

BASE UNITS

SUPPLEMETARY UNITS

Plane Angle Radian rad
Solid Angle Steradian sr

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NOTE: All remaining units used are derived from the base units.

DERIVED UNITS

It is coherent in that the multiplication or division of base units produces the derived unit.

Note: There are in use certain units which are non-SI but are retained because of their practical
importance.
Examples are: time days, hours, minutes and speed knots.

To express large quantities or values of prefixes is used. The use of prefix implies a quantity
multiplied by some index of 10. Some of the more common prefixes are:

TABLE A.1
QUANTITY UNIT
Force Newton (NA) = kg.m/s2
Pressure Pascal (Pa) = N/m2
Energy, Work Joule (J) = N.m
Power Watt (W) = J/s
Frequency Hertz (Hz) = I/s

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MASS

Mass is the quantity of matter in a body and is proportional to the product of volume and density.
The unit is the kilogram and the abbreviation used is kg.

LARGE QUANTITIES are often expressed in tonnes: (t) where 1 tonne = 10 kg.

FORCE

Acceleration or retardation of a mass results from an applied force.
When unit mass is given unit acceleration then a unit of force has been applied.
The unit of force is the newton (N).
force = mass x acceleration
N kg m/s2
Masses are attracted to the earth by a gravitational force which is the product of their mass and
acceleration due to gravity y.
The value of g is 9.81 m/s.

The product of mass and g is known as the weight of a body and for a mass w kg would be x
g=9.81 new-tons.

WORK

When a force applied to a body causes it to move then work has been done. When unit mass is
moved unit distance then a unit of work has been done.
The unit of work is the joule (J).


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POWER

This is the quantity of work done in a given time or the rate of doing work.
When unit is done in unit time of power has been used.
The unit of power is the watt (W).

ENERGY

This is the stored ability to do work and is measured in units of work done i.e. joules.

PRESSURE

The intensity of force or force per unit area is known as pressure.
A unit of pressure exists where unit force acts on unit area.
The unit of pressure is the Newton per square metre and has the special name pascal (Pa).

Another term often used by engineers is the bar where 1 bar is equal to 105 Pa.

PRESSURE

Another term often used by engineers is the bar where 1 bar is equal to 105 Pa.
The datum or zero for pressure measurements must be carefully considered.
The complete absence of pressure measurements is a vacuum and this is therefore the absolute
zero of pressure measurements.

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However, acting upon the earths surface at all times is what is known as atmospheric pressure
The pressure gauge, which is the usual means of pressure measurement also accepts this
atmospheric pressure and considers it the zero of pressure measurements. Thus:

Readings of pressure are considered to be absolute unless followed by the word gauge indicating
a pressure gauge value.
The actual value of atmospheric pressure is usually read from a barometer in millimeters of
mercury:

VOLUME

It is the amount of physical space occupied by a body
The unit of volume is the cubic metre (m3).
Other units are also in use, such as litre (1) and cubic
1m3 = 10001 = 10000 000 cm
TEMPERATURE
It is a degree of hotness or coldness of a body related twosome zero value
The Celsius scale measure in C simply relates to the freezing and boiling points of water dividing
the distance shown on a thermometer into 100 equal divisions.
An absolute scale has been devised based on a point 273.16 Kelvin (0.01C) which is the triple
point of water.
At the triple point the three phases of water can exist, i.e. ice water and water vapour.
The unit of the absolute scale is the Kelvin.


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VOLUME
The unit values in the Kelvin and Celsius scale are equal the measurements of temperature are
related, as follows:

HEAT
Heat is energy in motion between a system and its surroundings as a consequence of a
temperature difference between them.
The unit, as with other forms of energy, is the joule (J).
POWER OF MEASUREMENT
o ENGINE POWER
1. Indicated Power
It is the power developed within the engine cylinder and can be measured by an engine indicator.
2. Shaft Power
It is the power available at the output shaft of the engine and can be measured using a torsion
meter or with a brake.

TORSION METER
If the torque transmitted by a shaft is known,
together with the angular velocity, then the
power can be measured,i.e.
The torque on shaft can be found by measuring
the shear stress or angle of twist with a torsionmeter.


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INDICATED POWER

The area can be measured by an instrument
known as a planimeter or by the use of the
mid-ordinate rule.
The area is then divided b the length of the
diagram in order to obtain a mean height.

Mean Height
When multiplied by the spring scale of the indicator mechanism gives the indicated mean effective pressure
for the cylinder
Mean Effective or Average Pressure
It is now used to determine the work done in the cylinder 25

MECHANICAL EFFICIENCY
The power lost as a result of friction between the moving parts of the engine results in the
difference between shaft and indicated power.
The ratio of shaft power to indicated power for an engine is known as the mechanical efficiency.

POWER UTILIZATION
The engine shaft power is transmitted to the propeller with only minor transmission losses.
The operation of the propeller results in a forward thrust on the thrust block and the propulsion of
the ship at some particular speed.
The propeller efficiency is a measure of effectiveness of the power conversion by the propeller.


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The slip of the propeller is measured as a ratio or

FUEL ESTIMATION
The fuel consumption of an engine depends upon the power developed.
The power estimation method described previously can therefore be modified to provide fuel
consumption values.
The rate of fuel consumption is the amount of fuel used in a unit time, e.g. tonne/day
The specific fuel consumption the amount of fuel used in unit time to produce unit power, e.g.
kg/kW hr.

Where conditions vary on different voyages or over particular distances, then:


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DIESEL ENGINE

Is an engine which uses a low-grade of oil for fuel and ignites this by the heat
of air compression.

BASIC PRINCIPLE OF OPERATION
Diesel engine operates when a change of fuel oil is injected into heated air in the working cylinder.
The heat ignites the oil, forms gas, raises the temperature expands, and moves the piston.
Air is compressed until it attains a temperature high enough to ignite the fuel oil.
The temperature required depends upon the kind and the density of the oil used and the design of
the engine; but ignition generally occurs at between (426.67 C) and 537.78 C.
The air pressure required to produce the required temperature from (24.12 bar) to (34.46 bar).

CLASSIFICATION OF AN ENGINE BASED ON:


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Cylinder Arrangement
a. In-Line
Simplest arrangement with all cylinders parallel in line
This construction is used for engines having one up to 10 cylinders.

b. V - Type
Have two rows of cylinders in a horizontal plane with one row of cylinders or bank.
Have two connecting rod attached to each crank pin to permit reducing the engine length by
thus, making it more rigid, with a stiffed crankshaft.
Common arrangement for engines with 8 to 16 cylinders.
Angle between banks vary from 30 to 120 degrees.

c. Vertical Shaft Type
An engine with four (4) connecting rod attached to one crankpin. The four cylinders are in a
horizontal plane, the crankshaft thus being vertical
d. Flat Engine
A V engine with an angle of 180 degrees between banks.

e. Multi-Unit Engines
Two or four complete engines, combined in one unit with each engine connected to a main drive
shaft by means of clutches and gears.

Combustion Gas Action (Action of Pressure on Piston)
Based upon a consideration of whether the pressure created by the combustion gases acts upon
one of two surface of a single piston or against single surface of two separate and opposed
pistons.
The manner in which the pressure of combustion gases. Acts upon the piston to move it in the
cylinder of an engine.


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Single- Acting Engine

Those which have one piston per cylinder and in which the pressure of combustion gases acts only
on the one surface of the piston.
Its piston is of the trunk-type (length greater than diameter) one end is closed (crown) and the other
end (skirt) is open.

Single- Acting Engine

Only the crown serves as part of the combustion space so that pressure of combustion can act
only on one end of the crown.

Double-Acting Engines

Engines which uses both ends of the cylinder and both faces of the piston for the development of
power.

Opposed Piston Engine
Engines which have two pistons and combustion space in each cylinder.
Pistons are arranged in opposed position, crown to crown with the combustion space in between.
When combustion takes place, the gases acts against the crowns of both pistons, driving them in
opposite directions.

Speed
Low-speed Engine
Medium-speed Engine
High-speed Engine

ACCORDING TO OPERATING CYCLE
Two-Stroke Cycle Engine

The two-stroke cycle engine differs from the more common four-stroke cycle by having only two
strokes (linear movements of the piston) instead of four, although the same four operations (intake,
compression, power, exhaust) still occur.
Thus, there is a power stroke per piston for every engine revolution, instead of every second
revolution.


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ACCORDING TO OPERATING CYCLE

FOUR STROKE ENGINE

The engine is made up of a piston which moves up and down in a cylinder which is covered at the
top by a cylinder head.
The fuel injector, through which fuel enters the cylinder, is located in the cylinder head
The inlet and exhaust valves are also housed in the cylinder head and held shut by springs.
The piston is joined to the connecting rod by a gudgeon pin
The bottom end or big end of the connecting rod is joined to the
crankpin which forms part of the crankshaft.
With the assembly the linear up and down movement of the piston
is converted into rotary movement of the crankshaft.
The crankshaft is arranged to drive through gears the crankshaft,
which either directly or through push rods operates rocker arms
which open the inlet and exhaust valves.
The crankshaft is timed to open the valves at the correct point in
the cycle.
The crankshaft is surrounded by the crankcase and the engine framework which supports the
cylinders and houses the crankshaft bearings.
The cylinder and cylinder head are arranged with water-cooling passages around them.

FOUR STROKE CYCLE
The four-stroke cycle is completed in four strokes of the piston, or two revolutions of the crankshaft.
In order to operate this cycle the engine requires a mechanism to open and close the inlet and
exhaust valves.
1. Suction Stroke

It draws air into the cylinder


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2. Compression Stroke
compresses the air
3. Power Stroke
Burning of gases
4. Exhaust Stroke
Expand the burned gas

Series of Events in the Four-Stroke-Cycle Diesel Engine.

1. First, the air-inlet valve opens, permitting air to be drawn into the cylinder by the downward stroke of the
piston.
2. Second, the valve is closed and the piston starts upward, compressing the air for producing the heat
needed to ignite the fuel oil.
3. Third, the fuel valve opens and the fuel oil is injected into the air where it ignites.
4. Fourth, the burning fuel form gases which create pressure and send the piston downward; this is the
power stroke of the engine.
5. Fifth, the burning fuel form gases which create pressure and send the piston downward; this is the power
stroke of the engine.
6. Sixth, when the piston has completed its power stroke, the exhaust valve opens and permits the burned
gases to escape.
7. Seventh, the piston returning upward forces out the remaining gases in the cylinder. The exhaust valve
closes and the cycle repeats.


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HANDOUT
The Four Stroke Cycle

SUPER CHARGING
Process of pushing a higher pressure air charge into the cylinder greater than atmospheric
pressure, thus increasing power output of the engine.
Advantages Gained:
Higher Input
Better Combustion
Less specific fuel consumption
Improved Thermal effieciency
Less weight /space/ cost to produce a particular power
Lower exhaust temperature

TURBO CHARGERS

Consist of a turbine installed in the exhaust manifold of an engine and connected to a compressor
wheel in the inlet manifold.
A turbocharger has no mechanical drive
When the load increases on an engine, more fuel is injected, leading to a rise in the volume of the
exhaust gases.

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HANDOUT
The modern turbocharger serves a system known as constant pressure charging
Turbochargers per engine are all that is required the more complicated pulse charging system
used on earlier engines on some lower powered medium speed engines often needed three or
more turbochargers.

NOTE:
Very effective pressure charging. Utilizes 20% of waste heat in exhaust gas which contains 35% of
fuel heat. It consist of two parts, the blower and exhaust turbine side fitted in one motor shaft.

ADVANTAGES
Higher plant efficiency.
Power demand low.
No separate power source required.
Attempts to cater for overloading condition.
More efficient than other forms of supercharging.

DIESEL ENGINE CONTROL
Control System
It is an arrangement of elements, or devices, such as sensors, amplifiers, converters, actuators,
human operators, and so on.
These devices are interconnected and interact in such a way as to maintain or to affect in a
prescribed manner, some condition of a body, process or machine which forms part of a system.

141
HANDOUT
Automatic Control System
It is a system is one which does not include a human operator. If a human operator is included the
system is a manual control system.
These are many different media for control, and the most common on ships are:
Mechanical using shafts, gears and wires
Hydraulic using special hydraulic oils
Pneumatic using low pressure compressed air
Electrical using electric motors and relays
Electronic using computers and logic devices

ENGINE CONTROL
The degree of control required depends upon two factors;
The engine performance characteristics
The type of load which it drives

GOVERNOR
It is essentially a speed-sensitive device, designed to
control the speed of an engine under varying load
conditions.


142
HANDOUT
STARTING SYSTEM

Uses direct current because this could be stored in a storage battery and
drawn upon when needed.

The main components of the system are the storage battery, starting motor, and the
associated control and safety devices.
The battery is the source of direct current to operate the starting motor.
These batteries could be connected in series or in parallel.
HYDRAULIC SYSTEM
It uses hydraulic pressure to crank the engine through
hydraulic motor, usually high pressurized hydraulic oil.
The primary components are; hydraulic motor, a piston
type accumulator, a manually operated hydraulic pump
and a reservoir for hydraulic fluid.
COOLING SYSTEM
OPEN COOLING SYSTEM
It uses salt water as coolant
It is a pump draws water from the sea, circulates it through the engine and discharges it
back to the sea.
CLOSED COOLING SYSTEM
It fresh water as coolant circulating directly through the engine.
It is composed of two entirely separate circuit, the salt water circuit and fresh water circuit.
The fresh water is cooled by the salt water before it is circulated through the engine.

143
HANDOUT

LUBRICATING SYSTEM

SPLASH LUBRICATION SYSTEM
Oil pockets are employed to distribute oil to the engine bearings.

DRIP FEED LUBRICATION SYSTEM
It uses distribution pipes which have their ends directed to the moving parts.

144
HANDOUT
FORCE LUBRICATION SYSTEM
This type of lubrication sends oil under pressure to all be4arings of the engine.
It is composed of the following; pump tank; pressure pump; lube oil cooler; strainers and
filters.
FUEL OIL SYSTEM

INTAKE/EXHAUST SYSTEM

Composed of main blower with air intake filter and silencer.
The blower draws air from the atmosphere through the air filter and silencer and forces it to
the air manifold for distribution to the individual cylinder.
The blower is usually driven by exhaust turbine driven by exhaust gases from the engine.

EXHAUST SYSTEM

It is used to convey the exhaust gases from
the engine to the atmosphere through the
exhaust ports or valves, exhaust manifold,
turbo charger, economizer, exhaust muffler
and to the atmosphere.


145
HANDOUT
ENGINE PERFORMANCE AND RATING
a. Indicated Power (IP) input power or power developed by the engine.

In four-stroke cycle, there is one power stroke in every four strokes, that is one power stroke in
every two revolutions, Hence,
N = RPM 2 or RPS 2
In two- stroke cycle, there is one power stroke in every two strokes, that is, one power stroke in
every two strokes, that is, one power stroke in every revolutions, hence,
N = RPM or RPS

BRAKE POWER

power output of the engine
useful power
power delivered to the engine flywheel or shaft coupling

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MANAGEMENT LEVEL COURSE FOR MARINE DECK OFFICER-FUNCTION 1

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