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Definition of Respiration
Respiration
process that occurs in cells
breakdown food molecules
yield ATP.

Types of respiration
Aerobic Respiration
A metabolic process involving oxygen in the
breakdown of glucose

Anaerobic Respiration
A metabolic process that does not involve
oxygen in the breakdown of glucose.
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AEROBIC RESPIRATION
There are four main stages which are locate in
difference places :
1. Glycolysis

in the cytosol.

2. The link reaction (pyruvate oxidation)

in the matrix of the mitochondria.

3. The Krebs cycle

within the mitochondrial matrix.

4. Electron transport systems

in inner membranes of mitochondria/cristae

4

Glycolysis

Glycolysis
Glucose is
phosphorylated,
receives a high energy
phosphate from ATP to
increase its energy
level to become
glucose-6-phosphate,
more reactive.
Glucose-6-phosphate is
rearranged to become
fructose-6-phosphate.
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 Fructose-6-phosphate
is activated by the
addition of phosphate
from ATP to form
fructose-1,6diphosphate.
Fructose-1,6diphosphate is split into
glyceraldehyde-3phosphate and
dihydroxyacetone
phosphate.
8

 Glyceraldehyde-3phosphate is oxidised,
H atoms are removed,
NAD+ is reduced to
become NADH.
It produced 1,3biphosphoglycerate.
1 phosphate from 1,3biphosphate is
transferred to ADP to
form ATP.
It produced 3phosphoglycerate

 3-phosphoglycerate is
rearranged to form 2phosphoglycerate.
Removal of water
produces
phosphoenolpyruvate.
Phosphate is
transferred to ADP to
form ATP.
Phosphoenolpyruvate is
converted to pyruvate.
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The Link Reaction

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12

The Link Reaction

(pyruvate oxidation)

Occurs in the matrix of the mitochondria

Links glycolysis with the Krebs cycle.

During the link reaction the

1.
Pyruvate combines with coenzyme A to form acetyl coenzyme A.
2.
One molecule of carbon dioxide and hydrogen atom are removed forming
acetyl (2C).
3.
Acetyl (2C) and coenzyme A will associate, forming acetyl CoA which will
then enter the Krebs cycle.

13

Cellular respiration
(summary)

14

Krebs Cycle

15

Hydrogen carrier

NAD
Nicotinamide adenine
dinucleotide
FAD
Flavine adenine
dinucleotide
FMN
Flavin
mononucleotide
16

Krebs Cycle
1.

Acetyl (2C) is transferred from

acetyl-CoA to oxaloacetate (4C)
forming citrate (6C).

2.

Citrate (6C) was rearranged to

form isocitrate(6C).

3.

Isocitrate (6C) is oxidized and

decarboxylated to form ketoglutarate (5C).

4.

-ketoglutarate (5C) is oxidized

and decarboxylated forming
succinyl CoA (4C) by adding CoA.

Oxidized
*hydrogen atom removed to from NADH or FADH2
Decarboxylated
*carbon removed to form CO2

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5.

CoA was released from

succinyl CoA (4C) forming
succinate (4C) and generates
one molecule of ATP.

6.

Succinate (4C) is oxidized to

form fumarate (4C).

7.

Fumarate (4C) was changed

to malate (4C) by adding one
molecule of water.

8.

Finally, malate (4C) is

oxidized. This regenerates
oxaloacetate (4C) (starting
material), completing the
cycle.
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Cellular respiration
(summary)

19

Electron Transport Chain

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Electron Transport Chain

1. A collection of molecules (mostly proteins) embedded in the
inner membrane of mitochondria.
2. Folding of the inner membrane into cristae increases surface area
of inner membrane (increases the number of electron transport
chains).

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Electron Transport Chain

The flow of ETC :
i.

The hydrogen atoms removed from glycolysis and the Krebs cycle are
transferred to specific carriers of the electron transport chain on the inner
membrane of mitochondria by NADH and FADH2.

ii.

The hydrogen are passed along carriers and then split into their protons (H+)
and electrons along the chain.

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iii. The chain consist of 3 protein complexes;

a) NADH dehydrogenase complex
b) Cytochrome b complex
c) Cytochrome oxidase complex and 2 mobile carriers;
i. Ubiquinone (Q)
ii. Cytochrome c (cyt c)

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iv. Ubiquinone (Q) and cytochrome c (Cyt c) move rapidly

(carrying electrons) along the mitochondria membrane between
the 3 complexes.
v. Electrons are passed from one carrier to another.

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vi. The carrier molecule gaining an electron is reduced and the

carrier molecule losing the electron is oxidised and able to accept
more electrons.
vii. Energy released from passing electrons down the chain are used
to pump H+ out of the matrix into intermembrane space.

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viii. Now, there is a greater concentration of H+ outside of the matrix.

ix. H+ flow back into the matrix through the channels in ATP
synthase molecules in the membrane.

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x.

The energy released as H+ flow back into the ATP synthase channel are then
used to phosphorilate ADP into ATP.

xi.

The above process is called oxidative phosphorylation because

phosphorylation occurs from energy associated with the transfer of electrons
from food to oxygen.

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xii. The final electron aceptor at the end of the chain is O2 which combines with
H+ to form H2O

Chemiosmosis
the use of H+ gradient to transfer energy from redox reactions to
work (phosphorylation of ATP).

28

Cellular respiration
(summary)

29

Cellular respiration
(summary)
Aspects

Electron
transport
chain

Glicolysis

Link reactions

Krebs cycle

Location

Cytoplasm

Matrix of
mitochondia

Matrix of
mitochondia

Inner
membrane of
mito chondrion

Products

2 NADH
2 ATP
2 pyruvate

2 NADH

6 NADH
2 FADH2
2 ATP

32 ATP
Or
34 ATP

2 ATP

32 ATP
Or
34 ATP

Net ATP

Reactions

2 ATP

C6 H12 O6 + 6 O2 6 CO2 + 6 H20 + 36 or 38 ATP

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31

ATP Production in aerobic respiration

When electrons flow through the ETC, a
proton gradient is generated and
ATP is produced by chemiosmosis
1 NADH can generate 3 ATP
1 FADH2 can generate 2 ATP

32

ATP Production in aerobic respiration

(active cells or in heart muscle )
Glycolysis
2 ATP
2 NADH (will enter ETC)

Link reaction
2 NADH (will enter ETC)

Krebs cycle
2 ATP
6 NADH (will enter ETC)
2 FADH2 (will enter ETC)

Electron Transport Chain (ETC)

2 NADH (glycolysis)
2 NADH (link reaction)
6 NADH (Krebs cycle)
2 FADH2 (Krebs cycle)

= 2 X 3 ATP = 6 ATP
= 2 X 3 ATP = 6 ATP
= 6 X 3 ATP = 18 ATP
= 2 X 2 ATP = 4 ATP

Number of ATP produced in ETC = 34 ATP

TOTAL ATP= 34 +2 + 2 = 38 ATP
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ATP Production in aerobic respiration

(ordinary cells)
Glycolysis
2 ATP
2 NADH (will enter ETC)

Link reaction
2 NADH (will enter ETC)

Krebs cycle
2 ATP
6 NADH (will enter ETC)
2 FADH2 (will enter ETC)

Electron Transport Chain (ETC)

2 NADH (glycolysis)
2 NADH (link reaction)
6 NADH (Krebs cycle)
2 FADH2 (Krebs cycle)

= 2 X 2 ATP = 4 ATP
= 2 X 3 ATP = 6 ATP
= 6 X 3 ATP = 18 ATP
= 2 X 2 ATP = 4 ATP

Number of ATP produced in ETC = 32 ATP

TOTAL ATP= 32 +2 + 2 = 36 ATP
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Shuttle
In most cells, ATP yield is lower from an NADH
produced during glycolysis.
Mitochondrial membrane is impermeable to
NADH.
Its electrons must be carried across the membrane by
one of the several shuttle mechanism.
Shuttle mechanisms transport metabolites between
mitochondria and cytosol.
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Shuttle
Shuttle
1. Glycerol phosphate shuttle

Found in most cells

2 ATP are produced in mitochondria for each cystolic
NADH

2. Malate-Aspartate shuttle

Found in mamalian kidney, liver, and heart

3 ATP are produced in mitochondria for each cystolic
NADH
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Malate-Aspartate Shuttle
(active cells)
Oxaloacetate

Malate

Cytoplasm
Glutamate

Aspartate

-ketoglutarate
Inner membrane
-ketoglutarate

Aspartate

Malate

Matrik of
mitochondrion

Glutamate
Oxaloacetate

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Glycerol phosphate shuttle

(ordinary cells)
(from glycolysis)
NADH

NAD+

Dihydroxyacetone
phosphate

Glycerol phosphate

Glycerol phosphate

Dihdroxyacetone
phosphate

FADH2

Cytoplasm

Matrix of
mitochondrion

FAD+

(to ETC)
38

ATP
(adenosine triphosphate)

39

 The immediate source of energy that powers cellular

work is ATP.
ATP is a type of nucleotide consisting
nitrogenous base adenine
sugar ribose
three phosphate groups.

40

 The bonds between phosphate groups can be

broken by hydrolysis.
Hydrolysis of the end phosphate group forms
adenosine diphosphate (ADP)
ATP
ADP + Pi

41

 Phosphate bonds of ATP are referred to highenergy phosphate bonds, these are actually
fairly weak covalent bonds.
They are unstable however and their hydrolysis
yields energy as the products are more stable.
The phosphate bonds are weak because each of
the three phosphate groups has a negative
charge.
42

 In the cell the energy from the hydrolysis of

ATP is coupled directly to endergonic processes
by transferring the phosphate group to another
molecule.
This molecule is now phosphorylated.
This molecule is now more reactive.

43
Copyright 2002 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings

 ATP is a renewable resource that is continually

regenerated by adding a phosphate group to
ADP.
The energy to support renewal comes from catabolic
reactions in the cell.

Regeneration, an endergonic process, requires

an investment of energy.

44

ANAEROBIC RESPIRATION

45

ANAEROBIC RESPIRATION
Anaerobic Respiration
A metabolic process that does not involve
oxygen in the breakdown of glucose.

46

Fermentation
Anaerobic respiration is generation of ATP from
glucose in absence of O2
In fermentation, glucose only goes through the steps of
Glycolysis
2 Pyruvates that are formed does not enter krebs cycle
or electron transport chain
THUS, only 2 ATP are produced per molecule of
glucose
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Importance of fermentation in industry

Alcohol Fermentation
In alcohol fermentation, pyruvate is converted to ethanol
in two steps.

First, pyruvate is converted to a two-carbon compound,

acetaldehyde by the removal of CO2.
Second, acetaldehyde is reduced by NADH to ethanol.
Alcohol fermentation by yeast is used in brewing and
winemaking.

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Lactic acid fermentation

During lactic acid fermentation, pyruvate is reduced
directly by NADH to form lactate (ionized form of lactic
acid).
no release of CO2
carried out by human muscle cells when O2 is depleted;
accumulation of lactate in muscle causes pain/fatigue

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Lactic acid fermentation by some fungi and bacteria is used to

make cheese and yogurt.
Muscle cells switch from aerobic respiration to lactic acid
fermentation to generate ATP when O2 is scarce.

The waste product, lactate, may cause muscle fatigue, but ultimately it is
converted back to pyruvate in the liver.

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Alternative sources of
energy

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52

 Glycolysis can accept a wide

range of carbohydrates.
Polysaccharides, like starch or
glycogen, can be hydrolyzed to
glucose monomers that enter
glycolysis.
Other hexose sugars, like
galactose and fructose, can also
be modified to undergo
glycolysis.

53

 The other two major fuels,

proteins and fats, can also enter
the respiratory pathways,
including glycolysis and the
Krebs cycle, used by
carbohydrates.

54

Carbohydrate, Fats, and Proteins Metabolism

Amino acid

Glycerol, fatty acid

Glycogen
(Liver)

Gluconeogenesis

glycogenolysis
glycogenesis

digestion

Carbohydrate

insulin

Blood glucose

Glucose-6-phosphate

Glucose-1-phosphate

(Tissue and liver)

Glycogen
(Muscle)

Pyruvate
anaerobic
Lactate + energy

aerobic
CO2 + H2O + energy
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Fats (lipid) metabolism

Fats in the liver can be modified for
respiration and can be stored in the body
cells

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Fats
The energy of fats can also be
accessed via catabolic pathways.
Fats must be digested to glycerol and
fatty acids.
Glycerol can be converted to
glyceraldehyde phosphate, an
intermediate of glycolysis.
The rich energy of fatty acids is accessed
as fatty acids are split into two-carbon
fragments via beta oxidation.
These molecules enter the Krebs cycle as
acetyl CoA.

57

Carbohydrate, Fats, and Proteins Metabolism

Amino acid

Glycerol, fatty acid

Glycogen
(Liver)

Gluconeogenesis

glycogenolysis
glycogenesis

digestion

Carbohydrate

insulin

Blood glucose

Glucose-6-phosphate

Glucose-1-phosphate

(Tissue and liver)

Glycogen
(Muscle)

Pyruvate
anaerobic
Lactate + energy

aerobic
CO2 + H2O + energy
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Fats

In fact, a gram of fat will

generate twice as much ATP as
a gram of carbohydrate via
aerobic respiration.

59

Protein Metabolism
Protein being recycled are first broken down into amino
acids.
Hepatocytes (liver cells) convert amino acids to fatty
acid, ketone bodies, glucose or oxidize them to carbon
dioxide and water
There are two ways of protein metabolism
Deamination
a conversion consists of removing the amino group from the amino
acids and converting it to ammonia

Transamination
the transfer of an amino group from an amino acid to pyruvic acid or to
an acid in the Krebs cycle-can synthesized nonessential amino acids

Ornithine Cycle shows the formation of urea

60

Metabolism of excess amino acid

Excess amino acid
deamination
Keto acid + NH3

Production of organic base

CO2
Krebs
cycle

Glycogen
H2O + CO2

Ornithine
cycle

Glucose

Nucleotide synthesis

Fats
urea
Nucleic acid synthesis
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Ornithine cycle (urea cycle)

fumarate

arginine

H2O

urea

arginosuccinate

ornithine

AMP + PPi

Carbamoyl phosphate
2 ADP + Pi

ATP
Pi
NH3

citruline

NH3

2 ATP

+ CO2 + H2O

aspartate
62
Deamination of amino acid

 Carbohydrates, fats,
and proteins can all
be catabolized
through the same
pathways.

63

The needs for energy and the role

of respiration in living organism

64

Metabolic reaction (metabolism)

Biochemical reactions that occur in living
organisms
Metabolic reaction
1. Anabolic reaction (anabolism)
Anabolic pathways consume energy to build complicated
molecules from simpler compounds

2. Catabolic reaction (catabolism)

Catabolic pathways release energy by breaking down
complex molecules to simpler compounds.
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The importance of ATP

ATP provides the energy for :
Substrate level phosphorylation
Chemiosmosis
Muscle contraction
Urea synthesis
Protein synthesis
Active transport systems
Calvin cycle (dark stage of photosynthesis)
Nitrogen fixation
involves the ATP-driven reduction of molecular nitrogen
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 A cell does three main kinds of work:

Mechanical work
beating of cilia, contraction of muscle cells, and movement of
chromosomes

Transport work
pumping substances across membranes against the direction of
spontaneous movement

Chemical work
driving endergonic reactions such as the synthesis of polymers
from monomers.

In most cases, the immediate source of energy that

powers cellular work is ATP.
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Thats all for this topic

68

QUESTIONS

69

Final exam 2005/2006

Question number : 6

Describe how one molecule of glucose is able to

produce 36 ATP via aerobic respiration.
[14 marks]
Explain the production of lactic acid during
anaerobic respiration.
[6 marks]
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Final exam 2004/2005

Question number : 6
a) Compare between aerobic and anaerobic
respirations.
[8 marks]
b) Describe the stages in the production of NAD
and its role in cellular respiration.
[12 marks]
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Final exam (January intake) 1999/2000

Question number : 3
a) Describe the structure of ATP and its functions
in cellular metabolism.
[6 marks]
b) Aerobic respiration produced more ATP
compared to anaerobic respiration. Explain this
statement.
[14 marks]
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Final exam (Jun intake) 1999/2000

Question number : 4
Glucose undergo three phase of oxidation
during cellular respiration
i. Glycolysis
ii. Krebs cycle
iii. Oxidative phosphorylation
Complete the table below with suitable answer.
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Aspect

Glycolysis

Krebs cycle

Oxidative
phosphorylation

1.

Location

Cytoplasm

(i)

(ii)

2.

Products

Two main
products
(iii)
(iv)

3.

4.

Net amount
of ATP

Equation for
cellular
respiration

(vii)

Two main
products
(v)
(vi)

Two main
products
ATP
Water

(viii)

(ix)
(ix)

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