The Petroleum System Concept

Introduction
The petroleum system is a unifying concept that encompasses all of the disparate elements and
processes of petroleum geology. Practical application of petroleum systems can be used in
exploration, resource evaluation, and research. This chapter discusses its application to petroleum
exploration.

What is a petroleum system?
A petroleum system encompasses a pod of active source rock and all genetically related oil and gas
accumulations. It includes all the geologic elements and processes that are essential if an oil and gas
accumulation is to exist.
Petroleum describes a compound that includes high concentrations of any of the following
substances:
o Thermal and biological hydrocarbon gas found in conventional reservoirs as well as in
gas hydrates, tight reservoirs, fractured shale, and coal
o Condensates
o Crude oils
o Natural bitumen in reservoirs, generally in siliciclastic and carbonate rocks

System describes the interdependent elements and processes that form the functional unit that
creates hydrocarbon accumulations.


Elements and processes
The essential elements of a petroleum system include the following:
o Source rock
o Reservoir rock
o Seal rock
o Overburden rock
Petroleum systems have two processes:
o Trap formation
o Generationmigrationaccumulation of hydrocarbons

These essential elements and processes must be correctly placed in time and space so that organic
matter included in a source rock can be converted into a petroleum accumulation. A petroleum
system exists wherever all these essential elements and processes are known to occur or are thought
to have a reasonable chance or probability to occur.

Petroleum system investigation
A petroleum system investigation identifies names, determines the level of certainty, and maps the
geographic, stratigraphic, and temporal extent of a petroleum system. The investigation includes
certain components:
o Petroleumpetroleum geochemical correlation
o Petroleumsource rock geochemical correlation
o Burial history chart
o Petroleum system map
o Petroleum system cross section
o Events chart
o Table of hydrocarbon accumulations
o Determination of generationaccumulation efficiency







Identifying a Petroleum System

Introduction
Before a petroleum system can be investigated, it must be identified as being present.
Petroleum system identification
To identify a petroleum system, the explorationist must find some petroleum. Any quantity of
petroleum, no matter how small, is proof of a petroleum system. An oil or gas seep, a show of oil or
gas in a well, or an oil or gas accumulation demonstrates the presence of a petroleum system.

Procedure: Identifying a petroleum system

The table below outlines the steps required to identify a petroleum system.

Step Task
1 Find some indication of the presence of petroleum.
2 Determine the size of the petroleum system by the following series of steps:


a Group genetically related occurrences of petroleum by using geochemical
characteristics and stratigraphic occurrences.
b Identify the source using petroleumsource rock correlations.
c Locate the general area of the pod of active source rock responsible for the
genetically related petroleum occurrences.
d Make a table of accumulations to determine the amount of hydrocarbons in
the petroleum system and which reservoir rock contains the most petroleum.
3 Name the petroleum system.


Naming a Petroleum System


Introduction
A unique designation or name is important to identify a person, place, item, or idea. As geologists,
we name rock units, fossils, uplifts, and basins. The name for a specific petroleum system separates
it from other petroleum systems and other geologic names.

Parts of a petroleum system name

The name of a petroleum system contains several parts that name the hydrocarbon fluid system:
1. The source rock in the pod of active source rock
2. The name of the reservoir rock that contains the largest volume of in-place petroleum
3. The symbol expressing the level of certainty



Basin and Petroleum System Modelling
Basin and petroleum system modelling (BPSM) reconstructs the deposition of source, reservoir, seal
and overburden rocks and the processes of trap formation and hydrocarbon generation, migration and
accumulation from past (left) to present (right).



Fig: Simulating geologic, thermal and fluid-flow processes in sedimentary basins over time


Comprehensive modelling software incorporates data to simulate the interrelated effects of deposition
and erosion of sediments and organic matter, compaction, pressure, heat flow, petroleum generation
and multiphase fluid flow.

In essence, basin and petroleum system modelling (BPSM) tracks the evolution of a basin through
time as it fills with fluids and sediments that may eventually generate or contain hydrocarbons.

In concept, BPSM is analogous to a reservoir simulation, but with important differences. Reservoir
simulators model fluid flow during petroleum drainage to predict production and provide information
for its optimization. On the other hand, BPSM simulates the hydrocarbon-generation process to
calculate the charge, or the volume of hydrocarbons available for entrapment, as well as the fluid
flow, to predict the volumes and locations of accumulations and their properties.

Basin and petroleum system modelling brings together several dynamic processes, including sediment
deposition, faulting, burial, kerogen maturation kinetics and multiphase fluid flow.


Basin and petroleum system modelling consists of two main stages: model building and forward
modelling. Model building involves constructing a structural model and identifying the chronology of
deposition and physical properties of each layer. Forward modelling performs calculations on the
model to simulate sediment burial, pressure and temperature changes, kerogen maturation and
hydrocarbon expulsion, migration and accumulation. Calibration compares model results with
independent measurements to allow refinement of the model.




Fig: The multiple and interrelated steps of BPSM


Logging

Wireline logging can be used in a number of ways by a number of people to provide solutions to
questions they have about a particular well. Some of the ways different people in an office will use
these logs are:

Geophysics look to logs for:
Where are my tops (as predicted?)
Does seismic interpretation agree with log data?
How is my synthetic doing with this new information?

Geologists look to logs for:
Where are my tops?
Do I have any reservoir?
Is there any Hydrocarbon in the well?
What type of Hydrocarbon(s) is there?
How good is my reservoir?
What kind of reserves do I have?
How does this tie in to my offsets?

Drilling Engineers are looking for:
What is my hole volume (cement)?
What is my dog leg severity?
Where can I get a good packer seat for testing?
Where can I set up my whip-stock?

Production Engineers are looking for:
Where should complete this well?
What will be my expected production rates?
Will I have to deal with water?
How should I complete this well?
Do I need to stimulate this well?
How should I stimulate it?














Bentiu 1 (1228-1232 mKB)
Test#4 (1228-1232
mKB)
Swab 44 bbl oil with
90% water cut
Net pay 3.1m
30%
Sw 38%
























































Test#3 (1393.5-1400 mKB)
Swab 91.4 bbl of oil with 50% water
cut
API 37.1
Net pay 7 m
25%
Sw 22%
Bentiu 2 (1393.5-1403 mKB)







WELL BY WELL REVIEW

No. of wells in the field
Categorise all wells in the following manner















If a well is producing at less than 40 BOPD without nay above reason, should be
closed.
Q< 100 BOPD, work-over can be recommended.
For Q<100BOPD wells and EFFECTIVE IDLE wells need a clear plan. Generally
going for effective idle well to work over instead of producing wells. They are
economically favourable.

INFORMATION GATHERING:
A. GEOLOGICAL DATA
1. Location map of well in problem
Zones (like aredebia, bentie, abugabra)

WELL
PRODUCING NON-PRODUCING
Q > 100 BOPD
GOOD WELL
Q < 100 BOPD
SICK WELL
IDLE WELL DEPLETED
Energy is down having
no more potential to
produce, high WC/GOR

NON-EFFECTIVE WELL

Well having mechanical
problem like
Need fishing
Casing parted etc.
EFFECTIVE

1. High water cut
2. High GOR
3. Sand producing


Note:-
If up-dip well is not producing then down-dip well may not produce
If down-dip well is producing then up-dip well will definitely produce.
For two nearby wells on same elevation, if one is not producing then there may
be fault in between them.

2. LOG DATA ( Wire-line and Mud (master) log)

Petro physical surveys
Top-bottom
Porosity
Saturation
Permeability
Gross pay thickness
NTG ratio
Net pay thickness

If a new zone in being looked for opening then details of petro-physical data will be
required. Sometime it is better to consult petro-physicist (experienced person).
Location of OWC, ODT, WUT etc.
From resistivity curve (LLS, LLD, MSFL)

3. Cross section (X- section) / well correlation
To show sand continuity
Important for IOR
To check performance from nearby wells

B. Reservoir data from R.E

1. Well testing report
Well testing reports are available only for exploratory and/or appraisal well.
Generally tests are not allowed to conduct for development wells as not
economically favourable. But sometime PLT (Production Logging Tool) is
conducted for development well if oil has been found in exploratory well and
another well is not producing.

2. Well history
Well history is very necessary to understand the particular well. It includes work-
over jobs (WOJs), completion date, recompletion date, any pump installation etc.
After every work-over a final well report is prepared.









BOTTOMs UP STRATEGY FOR COMMINGLE COMPLETION

Completion
When a well is drilled through pay zone then it is cased, cemented and perforated to
connect the reservoir to surface facility through well bore. It facilitates a pathway
through damaged (invaded) zone. To extract the reserve from reservoir it is
recommended to complete the well very carefully to prevent early water production.

Commingle Completion

When more than one pay zone are completed together called commingle
completion. Completion is made for the following reason-

Depletion strategy
To maximise oil recovery
To recover investment
Cost reduction
For multilayer reservoir

Along with advantages it have some disadvantages
Cross flow
Very difficult to understand each reservoir individually (difficult to collect PVT
sample).
In case of sand/ water production it is very difficult to control.

BOTTOM-UP STRATEGY

BOTTOM-UP strategy is to complete the well from down to upward direction. This strategy is
to maximise recovery with minimum investment.
If structurally lower (down dip) well is producing then there is much more chances that
structurally up (up dip) well will produce. But if structurally up (up dip) well is producing oil
then structurally lower (down dip) well may/may not produce oil. So while development it is
advisable to exploit from bottom to up direction i.e bottom first and/or along with upper
zones.

Say a reservoir is having three zones. If zone 1 is produced from top then while abandon it
will be squeezed and will need to be drilled again to open the zones beneath the 1
st
zone. In
simple note this strategy is to-
Save time of completion


Minimises investment required for completing a multilayer.
Helps in recovering maximum reserves.
Sometime lower zone producing high water cut can be closed just placing a DBP
(Drillable Bridge Plug) or RBP (Retrievable Bridge Plug)

Case study: