Field Wiring and Noise Considerations for Analog Signals

Cableado de campo y consideraciones de ruido para seales analgicas

http://zone.ni.com/devzone/cda/tut/p/id/3344#1
n!ortunately" measuring analog signals #ith a data ac$uisition device is not al#ays as simple as #iring the signal
source leads to the data ac$uisition device. %no#ledge o! the nature o! the signal source" a suitable con!iguration o!
the data ac$uisition device" and an appropriate cabling scheme may be re$uired to produce accurate and noise&!ree
measurements. 'igure 1 sho#s a bloc( diagram o! a typical data ac$uisition system. )he integrity o! the ac$uired
data depends upon the entire analog signal path *n order to cover a #ide variety o! applications" most data
ac$uisition devices provide some !le+ibility in their analog input stage con!iguration. )he price o! this !le+ibility is"
ho#ever" some con!usion as to the proper applications o! the various input con!igurations and their relative merits.
)his note helps clari!y the types o! input con!igurations available on data ac$uisition devices" e+plains ho# the user
should choose and use the con!iguration best !or the application" and discusses inter!erence noise pic( up
mechanisms and ho# to minimize inter!erence noise by proper cabling and shielding. ,n understanding o! the types
o! signal sources and measurement systems is a prere$uisite to application o! good measurement techni$ues" so #e
#ill begin by discussing the same. -esa!ortunadamente" la medicin de seales analgicas con un dispositivo de
ad$uisicin de datos no siempre es tan simple como el cableado de la !uente de seal conduce al dispositivo de
ad$uisicin de datos. .l conocimiento de la naturaleza de la !uente de seal" una con!iguracin adecuada del
dispositivo de ad$uisicin de datos" y un es$uema de cableado adecuado puede ser re$uerido para producir
mediciones precisas y libre de ruido. /a !igura 1 muestra un diagrama de blo$ues de un sistema de ad$uisicin de
datos t0pico. /a integridad de los datos obtenidos depende de la trayectoria de la seal analgica de toda el !in de
cubrir una amplia variedad de aplicaciones" la mayor0a de los dispositivos de ad$uisicin de datos proporcionan
cierta !le+ibilidad en su con!iguracin analgica etapa de entrada. .l precio de esta !le+ibilidad es" sin embargo"
alguna con!usin en cuanto a las aplicaciones apropiadas de las con!iguraciones de entrada di!erentes y sus m1ritos
relativos. .n esta nota se ayuda a clari!icar los tipos de con!iguraciones de entrada disponibles en los dispositivos de
ad$uisicin de datos" se e+plica cmo el usuario debe elegir y utilizar la me2or con!iguracin para la aplicacin" y se
analiza el ruido de inter!erencia recoger a los mecanismos y la !orma de minimizar el ruido de inter!erencia de
cableado adecuado y proteccin. /a comprensin de los tipos de !uentes de seal y sistemas de medicin es un
re$uisito previo a la aplicacin de buenas t1cnicas de medicin" por lo $ue vamos a empezar hablando de lo mismo.
Table of Contents
1. )ypes o! 3ignal 3ources and 4easurement 3ystems
5. 4easuring 6rounded 3ignal 3ources
3. 4easuring 'loating 78onre!erenced9 3ources
4. 4inimizing 8oise Coupling in the *nterconnects
:. ;alanced 3ystems
<. 3olving 8oise =roblems in 4easurement 3etups
>. 3ignal =rocessing )echni$ues !or 8oise ?eduction
@. ?e!erences
Types of Signal Sources and Measurement Systems Tipos de fuentes de seal y sistemas de medicin
;y !ar the most common electrical e$uivalent produced by signal conditioning circuitry associated #ith sensors is in
the !orm o! voltage. )rans!ormation to other electrical phenomena such as current and !re$uency may be
encountered in cases #here the signal is to be carried over long cabling in harsh environments. 3ince in virtually all
cases the trans!ormed signal is ultimately converted bac( into a voltage signal be!ore measurement" it is important to
understand the voltage signal source. Con mucho" el e$uivalente el1ctrico mAs comBn producido por los circuitos de
acondicionamiento de seales asociado con los sensores estA en la !orma de la tensin. /a trans!ormacin a otros
!enmenos el1ctricos" como intensidad y !recuencia se pueden encontrar en los casos en $ue la seal se llevarA a
trav1s de un cableado de largo en ambientes hostiles. -ado $ue en prActicamente todos los casos la seal
trans!ormada !inalmente se convierten de nuevo en una seal de tensin antes de la medicin" es importante
comprender la !uente de seal de tensin.
?emember that a voltage signal is measured as the potential di!!erence across t#o points. )his is depicted in 'igure
5. ?ecordemos $ue una seal de tensin se mide como la di!erencia de potencial a trav1s de dos puntos. .sto se
muestra en la 'igura 5.
Figure 2. Coltage 3ignal 3ource and 4easurement 3ystem 4odel
'uente de la seal de tensin y modelo de 3istema de 4edicin
, voltage source can be grouped into one o! t#o categoriesDgrounded or ungrounded 7!loating9. 3imilarly" a
measurement system can be grouped into one o! t#o categoriesDgrounded or ground&re!erenced" and ungrounded
7!loating9. na !uente de volta2e se pueden agrupar en dos categor0as&tierra o sin cone+in a tierra 7!lotante9. -el
mismo modo" un sistema de medicin se pueden agrupar en dos categor0as&tierra o tierra&re!erencia" y sin cone+in
a tierra 7!lotante9.
rounded or round!"eferenced Signal Source 3eal de tierra o re!erencia a tierra&'uente
, grounded source is one in #hich the voltage signal is re!erenced to the building system ground. )he most common
e+ample o! a grounded source is any common plug&in instrument that does not e+plicitly float its output signal. 'igure
3 sho#s a grounded signal source. na !uente conectada a tierra es una en la $ue se hace re!erencia a la seal de
tensin a la tierra del sistema de construccin. .l e2emplo mAs comBn de una !uente de tierra comBn es cual$uier
instrumento plug&in $ue e+pl0citamente no !lotar su seal de salida. /a 'igura 3 muestra una !uente de seal a tierra.
Figure #. 6rounded 3ignal 3ource
3eal !uente puesta a tierra
)he grounds o! t#o grounded signal sources #ill generally not be at the same potential. )he di!!erence in ground
potential bet#een t#o instruments connected to the same building po#er system is typically on the order o! 1E mC to
5EE mCF ho#ever" the di!!erence can be higher i! po#er distribution circuits are not properly connected. /os motivos
de dos !uentes de seal a tierra no serA generalmente al mismo potencial. /a di!erencia de potencial de tierra entre
dos instrumentos conectados al sistema de construccin misma potencia es t0picamente del orden de 1E mC a 5EE
mC" sin embargo" la di!erencia puede ser mayor si los circuitos de distribucin de energ0a no estAn conectados
correctamente.
$ngrounded or Nonreferenced %Floating& Signal Source 3in cone+in a tierra o 8onre!erenced 7!lotante9 'uente
de la 3eal
, !loating source is a source in #hich the voltage signal is not re!erred to an absolute re!erence" such as earth or
building ground. 3ome common e+amples o! !loating signal sources are batteries" battery po#ered signal sources"
thermocouples" trans!ormers" isolation ampli!iers" and any instrument that e+plicitly floats its output signal. ,
nonre!erenced or !loating signal source is depicted in 'igure 4. na !uente !lotante es una !uente en la $ue la seal
de tensin no se re!iere a una re!erencia absoluta" tal como tierra o suelo del edi!icio. ,lgunos e2emplos comunes de
!uentes de seales !lotantes son pilas" bater0as !uentes de seal de potencia" termopares" trans!ormadores"
ampli!icadores de aislamiento" y cual$uier otro instrumento $ue e+pl0citamente !lota su seal de salida. na !uente
de seal nonre!erenced o !lotante se representa en la 'igura 4.
Figure '. 'loating or 8onre!erenced 3ignal 3ource
3eal !lotante o 8onre!erenced 'uente
8otice that neither terminal o! the source is re!erred to the electrical outlet ground. )hus" each terminal is
independent o! earth. 8tese $ue ni terminal de la !uente se re!iere al suelo toma de corriente el1ctrica. ,s0" cada
terminal es independiente de la tierra.
(ifferential or Nonreferenced Measurement System -i!erencial o sistema de medicin 8onre!erenced
, di!!erential" or nonre!erenced" measurement system has neither o! its inputs tied to a !i+ed re!erence such as earth
or building ground. Gand&held" battery&po#ered instruments and data ac$uisition devices #ith instrumentation
ampli!iers are e+amples o! di!!erential or nonre!erenced measurement systems. 'igure : depicts an implementation
o! an @&channel di!!erential measurement system used in a typical device !rom 8ational *nstruments. ,nalog
multiple+ers are used in the signal path to increase the number o! measurement channels #hile still using a single
instrumentation ampli!ier. 'or this device" the pin labeled ,* 68-" the analog input ground" is the measurement
system ground. n di!erencial" o nonre!erenced" sistema de medicin no tiene ni una de sus entradas atados a una
re!erencia !i2a" tal como tierra o suelo del edi!icio. -e mano" $ue !uncionan con bater0as de instrumentos y
dispositivos de ad$uisicin de datos con ampli!icadores de instrumentacin son e2emplos de di!erencial o
nonre!erenced sistemas de medicin. /a 'igura : representa una aplicacin de un sistema di!erencial @&canal de
medicin utilizado en un dispositivo t0pico de 8ational *nstruments. 4ultiple+ores analgicos se utiliza en la ruta de
seal para aumentar el nBmero de canales de medicin sin de2ar de utilizar un ampli!icador de instrumentacin
clave. =ara este dispositivo" el pasador de eti$uetado ,* 68-" la tierra de entrada analgica" es la tierra del sistema
de medicin.
Figure ). ,n @&Channel -i!!erential 4easurement 3ystem
n nio de @ canales di!erenciales del 3istema de 4edicin
,n ideal di!!erential measurement system responds only to the potential difference bet#een its t#o terminalsDthe 7H9
and 7I9 inputs. ,ny voltage measured #ith respect to the instrumentation ampli!ier ground that is present at both
ampli!ier inputs is re!erred to as a common&mode voltage. Common&mode voltage is completely re2ected 7not
measured9 by an ideal di!!erential measurement system. )his capability is use!ul in re2ection o! noise" as un#anted
noise is o!ten introduced in the circuit ma(ing up the cabling system as common&mode voltage. =ractical devices"
ho#ever" have several limitations" described by parameters such as common&mode voltage range and common&
mode re2ection ratio 7C4??9" #hich limit this ability to re2ect the common&mode voltage. n sistema de medicin
di!erencial ideal responde solamente a la di!erencia de potencial entre sus dos terminales&los 7H9 y & los insumos 79.
Cual$uier tensin medida con respecto a la tierra del ampli!icador de instrumentacin $ue estA presente en ambas
entradas del ampli!icador se re!iere como un volta2e de modo comBn. Colta2e de modo comBn es completamente
rechazado 7no medida9 por un sistema de medicin di!erencial ideal. .sta capacidad es Btil en el rechazo de ruido" el
ruido no deseado a menudo se introduce en el circuito $ue componen el sistema de cableado" volta2e de modo
comBn. /os dispositivos prActicos" sin embargo" tienen varias limitaciones" descritas por parAmetros tales como la
gama de volta2e en modo comBn y en modo comBn relacin de rechazo 7C4??9" $ue limitan esta capacidad de
rechazar la tensin en modo comBn.
Common&mode voltage Ccm is de!ined as !ollo#s: -e modo comBn Ccm tensin se de!ine como sigue:
Ccm J 7C
H
H C
I
9/5
#here C
H
J Coltage at the noninverting terminal o! the measurement system #ith respect to the measurement system
ground" C
I
J Coltage at the inverting terminal o! the measurement system #ith respect to the measurement system
ground and C4?? in d; is de!ined as !ollo#s: donde C H J tensin en el terminal no inversor del sistema de
medicin con respecto a la tierra del sistema de medicin" en C J volta2e en el terminal inversor del sistema de
medicin con respecto a la tierra del sistema de medicin y C4?? en d; se de!ine como sigue:
C4?? 7d;9 J 5E log 7-i!!erential 6ain/Common&4ode 6ain9.
, simple circuit that illustrates the C4?? is sho#n in 'igure <. *n this circuit" C4?? in d; is measured as 5E log
Ccm/Cout #here C
H
J C
I
J Ccm.
Figure *. C4?? 4easurement Circuit
)he common&mode voltage range limits the allo#able voltage s#ing on each input #ith respect to the measurement
system ground. Ciolating this constraint results not only in measurement error but also in possible damage to
components on the device. ,s the term implies" the C4?? measures the ability o! a di!!erential measurement system
to re2ect the common&mode voltage signal. )he C4?? is a !unction o! !re$uency and typically reduces #ith
!re$uency. )he C4?? can be optimized by using a balanced circuit. )his issue is discussed in more detail later in
this application note. 4ost data ac$uisition devices #ill speci!y the C4?? up to <E Gz" the po#er line !re$uency. .l
rango de tensin en modo comBn limita la oscilacin de tensin admisible en cada entrada con respecto a la tierra
del sistema de medicin. /a violacin de esta restriccin resulta no slo en el error de medicin" sino tambi1n en los
posibles daos a los componentes del dispositivo. Como el t1rmino lo indica" el C4?? mide la capacidad de un
sistema de medicin de la di!erencia para rechazar la seal de tensin en modo comBn. /a C4?? es una !uncin de
la !recuencia y t0picamente reduce con !recuencia. .l C4?? puede optimizarse mediante el uso de un circuito
e$uilibrado. .ste tema se discute con mAs detalle mAs adelante en esta nota de aplicacin. /a mayor0a de los
dispositivos de ad$uisicin de datos se especi!icarA el C4?? de hasta <E Gz" la !recuencia de la l0nea de
alimentacin.
rounded or round!"eferenced Measurement System 4edicin de puesta a tierra o re!erencia a tierra&3istema
, grounded or ground&re!erenced measurement system is similar to a grounded source in that the measurement is
made #ith respect to ground. 'igure > depicts an @&channel grounded measurement system. )his is also re!erred to
as a single-ended measurement system. n sistema de medicin a tierra o tierra&re!erenciada es similar a una
!uente conectada a tierra en $ue se e!ectBa la medicin con respecto a tierra. /a 'igura > representa un sistema de
medicin de @&canal conectado a tierra. .sto tambi1n se conoce como un sistema de medicin de una sola terminal.
Figure +. ,n @&Channel 6round&?e!erenced 3ingle&.nded 7?3.9 4easurement 3ystem
'igura >. n nio de @ canales de tierra con re!erencia a un solo e+tremo 7?3.9 del 3istema de 4edicin
, variant o! the single&ended measurement techni$ue" (no#n as nonre!erenced single&ended 78?3.9" is o!ten !ound
in data ac$uisition devices. , 8?3. measurement system is depicted in 'igure @. na variante de la t1cnica de
medicin de una sola terminal" conocido como nonre!erenced de una sola terminal 78?3.9" se encuentra a menudo
en los dispositivos de ad$uisicin de datos. n sistema de medicin 8?3. se representa en la 'igura @.
Figure ,. ,n @&Channel 8?3. 4easurement 3ystem
*n an 8?3. measurement system" all measurements are still made #ith respect to a single&node ,nalog *nput 3ense
7,* 3.83.9" but the potential at this node can vary #ith respect to the measurement system ground 7,* 68-9. 'igure
@ illustrates that a single&channel 8?3. measurement system is the same as a single&channel di!!erential
measurement system. .n un sistema de medicin 8?3." todas las mediciones todav0a se hacen con respecto a un
sentido de entrada de un Bnico nodo analgica 7,* sentido9" pero el potencial en este nodo puede variar con
respecto a la tierra del sistema de medicin 7,* 68-9. /a !igura @ ilustra $ue un sistema de un solo canal 8?3.
medicin es el mismo $ue un sistema di!erencial de un solo canal de medicin.
8o# that #e have identi!ied the di!!erent signal source type and measurement systems" #e can discuss the proper
measurement system !or each type o! signal source. ,hora $ue hemos identi!icado el tipo de seal de origen
di!erente y sistemas de medicin" podemos discutir el sistema de medicin adecuado para cada tipo de !uente de
seal.
Measuring rounded Signal Sources Medicin de puesta a tierra Fuentes de Seal
, grounded signal source is best measured #ith a di!!erential or nonre!erenced measurement system. 'igure K
sho#s the pit!all o! using a ground&re!erenced measurement system to measure a grounded signal source. *n this
case" the measured voltage" Cm" is the sum o! the signal voltage" Cs" and the potential di!!erence" -Cg" that e+ists
bet#een the signal source ground and the measurement system ground. )his potential di!!erence is generally not a
-C levelF thus" the result is a noisy measurement system o!ten sho#ing po#er&line !re$uency 7<E Gz9 components in
the readings. 6round&loop introduced noise may have both ,C and -C components" thus introducing o!!set errors as
#ell as noise in the measurements. )he potential di!!erence bet#een the t#o grounds causes a current to !lo# in the
interconnection. )his current is called ground&loop current. na !uente de seal a tierra se mide me2or con un
di!erencial o sistema nonre!erenced medicin. /a 'igura K muestra la trampa de utilizar un sistema de medicin de
terreno con re!erencia para medir una !uente de seal a tierra. .n este caso" el volta2e medido" Cm" es la suma de la
tensin de la seal" Cs" y la di!erencia de potencial" -C6" $ue e+iste entre el suelo y la !uente de la seal de tierra
del sistema de medicin. .sta di!erencia de potencial no es generalmente un nivel de corriente continua" por lo $ue
el resultado es un sistema de medicin ruidoso menudo mostrando la l0nea de potencia de !recuencia 7<E Gz9
componentes en las lecturas. -el circuito a tierra ruido introducido puede tener tanto componentes ,C y -C" por lo
tanto la introduccin de errores de desplazamiento as0 como el ruido en las mediciones. /a di!erencia de potencial
entre los dos motivos provoca $ue !luya una corriente en la intercone+in. .sta corriente se denomina suelo&bucle
de corriente.
Figure -. , 6rounded 3ignal 3ource 4easured #ith a 6round&?e!erenced 3ystem *ntroduces 6round /oop
'igura K. na !uente de seal a tierra 4edido con un sistema de tierra con re!erencia presenta bucle de tierra
, ground&re!erenced system can still be used i! the signal voltage levels are high and the interconnection #iring
bet#een the source and the measurement device has a lo# impedance. *n this case" the signal voltage
measurement is degraded by ground loop" but the degradation may be tolerable. )he polarity o! a grounded signal
source must be care!ully observed be!ore connecting it to a ground&re!erenced measurement system because the
signal source can be shorted to ground" thus possibly damaging the signal source. Liring considerations are
discussed in more detail later in this application note. n sistema de tierra con re!erencia todav0a se puede utilizar si
los niveles de volta2e de seal son altos y el cableado de intercone+in entre la !uente y el dispositivo de medicin
tiene una ba2a impedancia. .n este caso" la medicin de la tensin de la seal se degrada por bucle de tierra" pero
la degradacin puede ser tolerable. /a polaridad de una !uente de seal a tierra debe ser cuidadosamente
observado antes de conectarlo a un sistema de medicin de suelo&re!erenciada por$ue la !uente de seal puede ser
en cortocircuito a tierra" por lo tanto la posibilidad de daar la !uente de seal. Consideraciones sobre el cableado se
discuten con mAs detalle mAs adelante en esta nota de aplicacin.
, nonre!erenced measurement is provided by both the di!!erential 7-*''9 and the 8?3. input con!igurations on a
typical data ac$uisition device. Lith either o! these con!igurations" any potential di!!erence bet#een re!erences o! the
source and the measuring device appears as common&mode voltage to the measurement system and is subtracted
!rom the measured signal. )his is illustrated in 'igure 1E. na medicin nonre!erenced se proporciona por tanto el
di!erencial 7-*''9 y las con!iguraciones de entrada 8?3. en un dispositivo de ad$uisicin de datos t0pico. Con
cual$uiera de estas con!iguraciones" cual$uier di!erencia de potencial entre las re!erencias de la !uente y el
dispositivo de medicin aparece como tensin en modo comBn para el sistema de medicin y se resta de la seal
medida. .sto se ilustra en la 'igura 1E.
Figure ./. , -i!!erential 4easurement 3ystem sed to 4easure a 6rounded 3ignal 3ource
'igura 1E. n sistema de medicin di!erencial utilizado para medir una !uente de seal a tierra
Measuring Floating %Nonreferenced& Sources
Medicin flotantes %Nonreferenced& Fuentes
'loating signal sources can be measured #ith both di!!erential and single&ended measurement systems. *n the case
o! the di!!erential measurement system" ho#ever" care should be ta(en to ensure that the common&mode voltage
level o! the signal #ith respect to the measurement system ground remains in the common&mode input range o! the
measurement device. 'uentes !lotantes de seal se puede medir con di!erencial y una sola terminal sistemas de
medicin. .n el caso del sistema de medicin di!erencial" sin embargo" debe tenerse cuidado para asegurar $ue el
nivel de volta2e en modo comBn de la seal con respecto a la tierra del sistema de medicin se mantiene en el rango
de entrada en modo comBn del dispositivo de medicin.
, variety o! phenomenaD!or e+ample" the instrumentation ampli!ier input bias currentsDcan move the voltage level
o! the !loating source out o! the valid range o! the input stage o! a data ac$uisition device. )o anchor this voltage
level to some re!erence" resistors are used as illustrated in 'igure 11. )hese resistors" called bias resistors" provide a
-C path !rom the instrumentation ampli!ier inputs to the instrumentation ampli!ier ground. )hese resistors should be
o! a large enough value to allo# the source to !loat #ith respect to the measurement re!erence 7,* 68- in the
previously described measurement system9 and not load the signal source" but small enough to (eep the voltage in
the range o! the input stage o! the device. )ypically" values bet#een 1E (M and 1EE (M #or( #ell #ith lo#&impedance
sources such as thermocouples and signal conditioning module outputs. )hese bias resistors are connected bet#een
each lead and the measurement system ground. na variedad de !enmenos&por e2emplo" el ampli!icador de
instrumentacin corrientes de polarizacin de entrada&puede mover el nivel de volta2e de la !uente !lotante !uera del
rango vAlido de la etapa de entrada de un dispositivo de ad$uisicin de datos. =ara anclar este nivel de tensin en
cierta re!erencia" las resistencias se utilizan como se ilustra en la 'igura 11. .stas resistencias" denominadas
resistencias de polarizacin" proporcionan un camino de CC de las entradas del ampli!icador de instrumentacin a la
tierra del ampli!icador de instrumentacin. .stas resistencias deben ser de un valor su!icientemente grande para
permitir la !uente a !lotar con respecto a la re!erencia de medicin 7,* 68- en el sistema de medicin se ha descrito
anteriormente9 y no cargar la !uente de seal" pero lo su!icientemente pe$ueo como para mantener la tensin en el
intervalo de la entrada de la etapa del dispositivo. 8ormalmente" los valores entre 1E (L y 1EE (L !unciona bien con
!uentes de ba2a impedancia como termopares y salidas del mdulo de acondicionamiento de seal. .stas
resistencias de polarizacin estAn conectados entre cada conductor y el suelo del sistema de medicin.
Warning0 'ailure to use these resistors #ill result in erratic or saturated 7positive !ull&scale or negative !ull&scale9
readings. ,dvertencia: 3i no utiliza estas resistencias se traducirA en la irregularidad o saturado 7positivos a gran
escala o negativo a gran escala9 lecturas.
*! the input signal is -C&coupled" only one resistor connected !rom the 7I9 input to the measurement system ground is
re$uired to satis!y the bias current path re$uirement" but this leads to an unbalanced system i! the source impedance
o! the signal source is relatively high. ;alanced systems are desirable !rom a noise immunity point o! vie#.
Conse$uently" t#o resistors o! e$ual valueDone !or signal high 7H9 input and the other !or signal lo# 7I9 input to
groundDshould be used i! the source impedance o! the signal source is high. , single bias resistor is su!!icient !or
lo#&impedance -C&coupled sources such as thermocouples. ;alanced circuits are discussed !urther later in this
application note. 3i la seal de entrada estA acoplado CC&" slo una resistencia conectada desde la entrada 7&9 a la
tierra del sistema de medicin se re$uiere para satis!acer el re$uisito de sesgo camino de la corriente" pero esto
conduce a un sistema dese$uilibrado si la impedancia de la !uente de la !uente de seal es relativamente alta.
3istemas e$uilibrados son deseables desde un punto de vista inmunidad al ruido. .n consecuencia" dos resistencias
de igual valor" uno para la seal de alto 7H9 de entrada y el otro para la seal de ba2a 7&9 de entrada a tierra se debe
utilizar si la impedancia de la !uente de la !uente de la seal es alta. na resistencia de polarizacin solo es
su!iciente para ba2a impedancia acoplados -C&!uentes tales como termopares. Circuitos e$uilibrados se discuten
mAs adelante en esta nota de aplicacin.
*! the input signal is ,C&coupled" t#o bias resistors are re$uired to satis!y the bias current path re$uirement o! the
instrumentation ampli!ier. 3i la seal de entrada estA acoplada en ,C" dos resistencias de polarizacin son
necesarios para satis!acer el re$uisito de sesgo camino de la corriente del ampli!icador de instrumentacin.
?esistors 71E (M N ? N 1EE (M9 provide a return path to ground !or instrumentation ampli!ier input bias currents" as
sho#n in 'igure 11. Only ?5 is re$uired !or -C&coupled signal sources. 'or ,C&coupled sources" ?1 J ?5.
?esistencias 71E ( N? N1EE (L9 proporcionan una v0a de retorno a tierra para las corrientes de polarizacin de
entrada del ampli!icador de instrumentacin" como se muestra en la 'igura 11. ?5 3lo es necesario para !uentes
de seal acoplados a CC. =ara C, acoplados a las !uentes" ?1 J ?5.
Figure ... 'loating 3ource and -i!!erential *nput Con!iguration
'igura 11. 'uente !lotante y con!iguracin de entrada di!erencial
*! the single&ended input mode is to be used" a ?3. input system 7'igure 15a9 can be used !or a !loating signal
source. 8o ground loop is created in this case. )he 8?3. input system 7'igure 15b9 can also be used and is
pre!erable !rom a noise pic(up point o! vie#. 'loating sources do re$uire bias resistor7s9 bet#een the ,* 3.83. input
and the measurement system ground 7,* 68-9 in the 8?3. input con!iguration. 3i el modo de entrada de una sola
composicin se va a utilizar" un sistema de entrada ?3. 7'igura 15a9 se puede utilizar para una !uente de seal
!lotante. 8 bucle de tierra se crea en este caso. .l sistema de entrada 8?3. 7'igura 15b9 tambi1n se puede utilizar
y es pre!erible desde un punto de captacin de ruido de vista. 'uentes !lotantes no re$uieren resistencia de
polarizacin 7s9 entre la entrada 3.8)*-O ,* y la tierra del sistema de medicin 7,* 68-9 en la con!iguracin de
entrada 8?3..
Figure .2. 'loating 3ignal 3ource and 3ingle&.nded Con!igurations
, graphic summary o! the previous discussion is presented in )able 1.
Table .. ,nalog *nput Connections
Warning0 ;ias resistors must be provided #hen measuring !loating signal sources in -*'' and 8?3. con!igurations.
'ailure to do so #ill result in erratic or saturated 7positive !ull&scale or negative !ull&scale9 readings.
*n general" a di!!erential measurement system is pre!erable because it re2ects not only ground loop&induced errors"
but also the noise pic(ed up in the environment to a certain degree. )he single&ended con!igurations" on the other
hand" provide t#ice as many measurement channels but are 2usti!ied only i! the magnitude o! the induced errors is
smaller than the re$uired accuracy o! the data. 3ingle&ended input connections can be used #hen all input signals
meet the !ollo#ing criteria.
*nput signals are high level 7greater than 1 C9
3ignal cabling is short and travels through a noise&!ree environment or is properly shielded
,ll input signals can share a common re!erence signal at the source
-i!!erential connections should be used #hen any o! the above criteria are violated.
Minimi1ing Noise Coupling in t2e 3nterconnects
.ven #hen a measurement setup avoids ground loops or analog input stage saturation by !ollo#ing the above
guidelines" the measured signal #ill almost inevitably include some amount o! noise or un#anted signal Ppic(ed upP
!rom the environment. )his is especially true !or lo#&level analog signals that are ampli!ied using the onboard
ampli!ier that is available in many data ac$uisition devices. )o ma(e matters #orse" =C data ac$uisition boards
generally have some digital input/output signals on the */O connector. Conse$uently" any activity on these digital
signals provided by or to the data ac$uisition board that travels across some length in close pro+imity to the lo#&level
analog signals in the interconnecting cable itsel! can be a source o! noise in the ampli!ied signal. *n order to minimize
noise coupling !rom this and other e+traneous sources" a proper cabling and shielding scheme may be necessary.
;e!ore proceeding #ith a discussion o! proper cabling and shielding" an understanding o! the nature o! the
inter!erence noise&coupling problem is re$uired. )here is no single solution to the noise&coupling problem. 4oreover"
an inappropriate solution might ma(e the problem #orse.
,n inter!erence or noise&coupling problem is sho#n in 'igure 13.
Figure .#. 8oise&Coupling =roblem ;loc( -iagram
,s sho#n in 'igure 13" there are !our principal noise Ppic( upP or coupling mechanismsDconductive" capacitive"
inductive" and radiative. Conductive coupling results !rom sharing currents !rom di!!erent circuits in a common
impedance. Capacitive coupling results !rom time&varying electric !ields in the vicinity o! the signal path. *nductive or
magnetically coupled noise results !rom time&varying magnetic !ields in the area enclosed by the signal circuit. *! the
electromagnetic !ield source is !ar !rom the signal circuit" the electric and magnetic !ield coupling are considered
combined electromagnetic or radiative coupling.
Conducti4ely Coupled Noise
Conductively coupled noise e+ists because #iring conductors have !inite impedance. )he e!!ect o! these #iring
impedances must be ta(en into account in designing a #iring scheme. Conductive coupling can be eliminated or
minimized by brea(ing ground loops 7i! any9 and providing separated ground returns !or both lo#&level and high&level"
high&po#er signals. , series ground&connection scheme resulting in conductive coupling is illustrated in 'igure 14a.
*! the resistance o! the common return lead !rom , to ; is E.1 M" the measured voltage !rom the temperature sensor
#ould vary by E.1 M Q 1 , J 1EE mC" depending on #hether the s#itch is closed or open. )his translates to 1ER o!
error in the measurement o! temperature. )he circuit o! 'igure 14b provides separate ground returnsF thus" the
measured temperature sensor output does not vary as the current in the heavy load circuit is turned on and o!!.
Figure .'. Conductively Coupled 8oise
Capaciti4e and 3nducti4e Coupling
)he analytical tool re$uired !or describing the interaction o! electric and magnetic !ields o! the noise and signal
circuits is the mathematically nontrivial 4a+#ellSs e$uation. 'or an intuitive and $ualitative understanding o! these
coupling channels" ho#ever" lumped circuit e$uivalents can be used. 'igures 1: and 1< sho# the lumped circuit
e$uivalent o! electric and magnetic !ield coupling.
Figure .). Capacitive Coupling bet#een the 8oise 3ource and 3ignal Circuit" 4odeled by the Capacitor Ce! in the
.$uivalent Circuit
Figure .*. *nductive Coupling bet#een the 8oise 3ource and 3ignal Circuit" 4odeled by the 4utual *nductance 4 in
the .$uivalent Circuit
*ntroduction o! lumped circuit e$uivalent models in the noise e$uivalent circuit handles a violation o! the t#o
underlying assumptions o! electrical circuit analysisF that is" all electric !ields are con!ined to the interior o! capacitors"
and all magnetic !ields are con!ined to the interior o! inductors.
Capaciti4e Coupling
)he utility o! the lumped circuit e$uivalent o! coupling channels can be seen no#. ,n electric !ield coupling is
modeled as a capacitance bet#een the t#o circuits. )he e$uivalent capacitance Ce! is directly proportional to the area
o! overlap and inversely proportional to the distance bet#een the t#o circuits. )hus" increasing the separation or
minimizing the overlap #ill minimize Ce! and hence the capacitive coupling !rom the noise circuit to the signal circuit.
Other characteristics o! capacitive coupling can be derived !rom the model as #ell. 'or e+ample" the level o!
capacitive coupling is directly proportional to the !re$uency and amplitude o! the noise source and to the impedance
o! the receiver circuit. )hus" capacitive coupling can be reduced by reducing noise source voltage or !re$uency or
reducing the signal circuit impedance. )he e$uivalent capacitance Ce! can also be reduced by employing capacitive
shielding. Capacitive shielding #or(s by bypassing or providing another path !or the induced current so it is not
carried in the signal circuit. =roper capacitive shielding re$uires attention to both the shield location and the shield
connection. )he shield must be placed bet#een the capacitively coupled conductors and connected to ground only at
the source end. 3igni!icant ground currents #ill be carried in the shield i! it is grounded at both ends. 'or e+ample" a
potential di!!erence o! 1 C bet#een grounds can !orce 5 , o! ground current in the shield i! it has a resistance o! E.:
M. =otential di!!erences on the order o! 1 C can e+ist bet#een grounds. )he e!!ect o! this potentially large ground
current #ill be e+plored !urther in the discussion o! inductively coupled noise. ,s a general rule" conductive metal or
conductive material in the vicinity o! the signal path should not be le!t electrically !loating either" because capacitively
coupled noise may be increased.
Figure .+. *mproper 3hield )erminationD6round Currents ,re Carried in the 3hield
Figure .,. =roper 3hield )erminationD8o 6round or 3ignal Current 'lo#s through the 3hield
3nducti4e Coupling
,s described earlier" inductive coupling results !rom time&varying magnetic !ields in the area enclosed by the signal
circuit loop. )hese magnetic !ields are generated by currents in nearby noise circuits. )he induced voltage Cn in the
signal circuit is given by the !ormula:
Cn J 5p !;,CosT 719
#here ! is the !re$uency o! the sinusoidally varying !lu+ density" ; is the rms value o! the !lu+ density" , is the area o!
the signal circuit loop" and T is the angle bet#een the !lu+ density ; and the area ,.
)he lumped circuit e$uivalent model o! inductive coupling is the mutual inductance 4 as sho#n in 'igure 1<7b9. *n
terms o! the mutual inductance 4" Cn is given by the !ormula:
Cn J 5p !4*n 759
#here *n is the rms value o! the sinusoidal current in the noise circuit" and ! is its !re$uency.
;ecause 4 is directly proportional to the area o! the receiver circuit loop and inversely proportional to the distance
bet#een the noise source circuit and the signal circuit" increasing the separation or minimizing the signal loop area
#ill minimize the inductive coupling bet#een the t#o circuits. ?educing the current *n in the noise circuit or reducing
its !re$uency can also reduce the inductive coupling. )he !lu+ density ; !rom the noise circuit can also be reduced by
t#isting the noise source #ires. 'inally" magnetic shielding can be applied either to noise source or signal circuit to
minimize the coupling.
3hielding against lo#&!re$uency magnetic !ields is not as easy as shielding against electric !ields. )he e!!ectiveness
o! magnetic shielding depends on the type o! materialDits permeability" its thic(ness" and the !re$uencies involved.
-ue to its high relative permeability" steel is much more e!!ective than aluminum and copper as a shield !or lo#&
!re$uency 7roughly belo# 1EE (Gz9 magnetic !ields. ,t higher !re$uencies" ho#ever" aluminum and copper can be
used as #ell. ,bsorption loss o! copper and steel !or t#o thic(nesses is sho#n in 'igure 1K. )he magnetic shielding
properties o! these metals are $uite ine!!ective at lo# !re$uencies such as those o! the po#er line 7:E to <E Gz9"
#hich are the principal lo#&!re$uency" magnetically&coupled noise sources in most environments. ;etter magnetic
shields such as 4umetal can be !ound !or lo#&!re$uency magnetic shielding" but 4umetal is very !ragile and can
have severe degradation o! its permeability" and hence" degradation o! its e!!ectiveness as a magnetic shield by
mechanical shoc(s.
Figure .-. ,bsorption /oss as a 'unction o! 're$uency 7!rom ?e!erence 19
;ecause o! the lac( o! control over the noise circuit parameters and the relative di!!iculty o! achieving magnetic
shielding" reducing the signal circuit loop area is an e!!ective #ay to minimize inductive coupling. )#isted&pair #iring
is bene!icial because it reduces both the loop area in the signal circuit and cancels induced errors.
'ormula 759 determines the e!!ect o! carrying ground&loop currents in the shield !or the circuit in 'igure 1>. 'or *n J 5
,F ! J <E GzF and 4 J 1 UG/!t !or a 1E&!t cable results in the !ollo#ing:
Cn J 75973.14597<E971 V 1E
I<
V 1E9759 J >.: mC
)his noise level translates into 3.1 /3; !or a 1E C range" 15&bit data ac$uisition system. )he e!!ectiveness o! the data
ac$uisition system is thus reduced roughly to that o! a 1E&bit ac$uisition system.
Lhen using an . 3eries device #ith a shielded cable in di!!erential mode" the signal circuit loop area is minimized
because each pair o! signal leads is con!igured as a t#isted pair. )his is not true !or the single&ended mode #ith the
same device and cable because loop areas o! di!!erent sizes may be !ormed #ith di!!erent channels.
Current signal sources are more immune to this type o! noise than voltage signal sources because the magnetically
induced voltage appears in series #ith the source" as sho#n in 'igure 5E. C51 and C55 are inductively coupled noise
sources" and Cc is a capacitively coupled noise source.
Figure 2/. Circuit 4odel o! *nductive and Capacitive 8oise Coltage Coupling
7G. L. Ott" 8oise ?eduction )echni$ues in .lectronic 3ystems" Liley" 1K><.9
)he level o! both inductive and capacitive coupling depends on the noise amplitude and the pro+imity o! the noise
source and the signal circuit. )hus" increasing separation !rom inter!ering circuits and reducing the noise source
amplitude are bene!icial. Conductive coupling results !rom direct contactF thus" increasing the physical separation
!rom the noise circuit is not use!ul.
"adiati4e Coupling
?adiative coupling !rom radiation sources such as radio and )C broadcast stations and communication channels
#ould not normally be considered inter!erence sources !or the lo#&!re$uency 7less than 1EE (Gz9 band#idth
measurement systems. ;ut high&!re$uency noise can be recti!ied and introduced into lo#&!re$uency circuits through
a process called audio rectification. )his process results !rom the nonlinear 2unctions in *Cs acting as recti!iers.
3imple passive ?&C lo#pass !ilters at the receiver end o! long cabling can reduce audio recti!ication.
)he ubi$uitous computer terminal is a source o! electric and magnetic !ield inter!erence in nearby sensitive circuits.
)his is illustrated in 'igure 51" #hich sho#s the graphs o! data obtained #ith a data ac$uisition device using a gain o!
:EE #ith the onboard programmable gain ampli!ier. )he input signal is a short circuit at the termination bloc(. , E.: m
unshielded interconnecting cable #as used bet#een the terminal bloc( and the device */O connector. 'or di!!erential
signal connection" the channel high and channel lo# inputs #ere tied together and to the analog system ground. 'or
the single&ended connection" the channel input #as tied to the analog system ground.
Figure 2.. 8oise *mmunity o! -i!!erential *nput Con!iguration Compared #ith that o! ?3. Con!iguration 7-,W board
gain: :EEF Cable: E.: m nshieldedF 8oise 3ource: Computer 4onitor9
Miscellaneous Noise Sources
Lhenever motion o! the interconnect cable is involved" such as in a vibrational environment" attention must be paid
to the triboelectric e!!ect" as #ell as to induced voltage due to the changing magnetic !lu+ in the signal circuit loop.
)he triboelectric e!!ect is caused by the charge generated on the dielectric #ithin the cable i! it does not maintain
contact #ith the cable conductors.
Changing magnetic !lu+ can result !rom a change in the signal circuit loop area caused by motion o! one or both o!
the conductorsD2ust another mani!estation o! inductive coupling. )he solution is to avoid dangling #ires and to clamp
the cabling.
*n measurement circuits dealing #ith very lo#&level circuits" attention must be paid to yet another source o!
measurement errorDthe inadvertent thermocouples !ormed across the 2unctions o! dissimilar metals. .rrors due to
thermocouple e!!ects do not constitute inter!erence type errors but are #orth mentioning because they can be the
cause o! mysterious o!!sets bet#een channels in lo#&level signal measurements.
5alanced Systems
*n describing the di!!erential measurement system" it #as mentioned that the C4?? is optimized in a balanced
circuit. , balanced circuit is one that meets the !ollo#ing three criteria:
)he source is balancedDboth terminals o! the source 7signal high and signal common9 have e$ual
impedance to ground.
)he cable is balancedDboth conductors have e$ual impedance to ground.
)he receiver is balancedDboth terminals o! the measurement end have e$ual impedance to ground.
Capacitive pic(up is minimized in a balanced circuit because the noise voltage induced is the same on both
conductors due to their e$ual impedances to ground and to the noise source.
Figure 22. Capacitive 8oise Coupling Circuit 4odel
7G.L. Ott" 8oise ?eduction )echni$ues in .lectronic 3ystems" Liley" 1K><.9
*! the circuit model o! 'igure 55 represented a balanced system" the !ollo#ing conditions #ould apply:
X1 J X5 and Xc1 J Xc5
3imple circuit analysis sho#s that !or the balanced case C
H
J C
I
" the capacitively coupled voltage Cc appears as a
common&mode signal. 'or the unbalanced case" that is" either X1NY X5 or Xc1NYXc5" the capacitively coupled voltage
Cc appears as a di!!erential voltage" that is" C
H
NYC
I
" #hich cannot be re2ected by an instrumentation ampli!ier. )he
higher the imbalance in the system or mismatch o! impedances to ground and the capacitive coupling noise source"
the higher the di!!erential component o! the capacitively coupled noise #ill be.
, di!!erential connection presents a balanced receiver on the data ac$uisition device side o! the cabling" but the
circuit is not balanced i! either the source or the cabling is not balanced. )his is illustrated in 'igure 53. )he data
ac$uisition device is con!igured !or di!!erential input mode at a gain o! :EE. )he source impedance ?s #as the same
71 (M9 in both the setups. )he bias resistors used in the circuit o! 'igure 53b are both 1EE (M. )he common&mode
re2ection is better !or the circuit in 'igure 53b than !or 'igure 53a. 'igure 53c and 53d are time&domain plots o! the
data obtained !rom con!igurations 53a and 53b respectively. 8otice the absence o! noise&!re$uency components #ith
the balanced source con!iguration. )he noise source in this setup #as the computer monitor. )he balanced setup
also loads the signal source #ith
? J ?g1 H ?g5
)his loading e!!ect should not be ignored. )he unbalanced setup does not load the signal source.
*n a setup such as the one in 'igure 53a" the imbalance in the system 7mismatch in impedance to ground !rom the
signal high and lo# conductors9 is proportional to the source impedance ?s. 'or the limiting case ?s J E M" the setup
in 'igure 53a is also balanced" and thus less sensitive to noise.
Figure 2#. 3ource 3etup and the ,c$uired -ata
)#isted pairs or shielded" t#isted pairs are e+amples o! balanced cables. Coa+ial cable" on the other hand" is not
balanced because the t#o conductors have di!!erent capacitance to ground.
Source 3mpedance C2aracteristics
;ecause the source impedance is important in determining capacitive noise immunity o! the cabling !rom the source
to the data ac$uisition system" the impedance characteristics o! some o! the most common transducers are listed in
)able 5.
Table 2. *mpedance Characteristics o! )ransducers
Transducer 3mpedance C2aracteristic
)hermocouples /o# 7N5E ohm9
)hermistors Gigh 7Y1 (ohm9
?esistance )emperature -etector /o# 7N1 (ohm9
3olid&3tate =ressure )ransducer Gigh 7Y1 (ohm9
3train 6auges /o# 7N1 (ohm9
6lass pG .lectrode Cery Gigh 71 6ohm9
=otentiometer 7/inear -isplacement9 Gigh 7:EE ohm to 1EE (ohm9
Gigh&impedance" lo#&level sensor outputs should be processed by a signal conditioning stage located near the
sensor.
Sol4ing Noise 6roblems in Measurement Setups
3olving noise problems in a measurement setup must !irst begin #ith locating the cause o! the inter!erence problem.
?e!erring bac( to the bloc( diagram in 'igure 1" noise problems could be anything !rom the transducer to the data
ac$uisition device itsel!. , process o! trial and elimination could be used to identi!y the culprit.
)he data ac$uisition device itsel! must !irst be veri!ied by presenting it #ith a lo#&impedance source #ith no cabling
and observing the measurement noise level. )his can be done easily by short circuiting the high and lo# signals to
the analog input ground #ith as short a #ire as possible" pre!erably at the */O connector o! the data ac$uisition
device. )he noise levels observed in this trial #ill give you an idea o! the best case that is possible #ith the given
data ac$uisition device. *! the noise levels measured are not reduced !rom those observed in the !ull setup 7data
ac$uisition device plus cabling plus signal sources9" then the measurement system itsel! is responsible !or the
observed noise in the measurements. *! the observed noise in the data ac$uisition device is not meeting its
speci!ications" one o! the other devices in the computer system may be responsible.
)ry removing other boards !rom the system to see i! the observed noise levels are reduced. Changing board location"
that is" the slot into #hich the data ac$uisition board is plugged" is another alternative.
)he placement o! computer monitors could be suspect. 'or lo#&level signal measurements" it is best to (eep the
monitor as !ar !rom the signal cabling and the computer as possible. 3etting the monitor on top o! the computer is not
desirable #hen ac$uiring or generating lo#&level signals.
Cabling !rom the signal conditioning and the environment under #hich the cabling is run to the ac$uisition device can
be chec(ed ne+t i! the ac$uisition device has been dismissed as the culprit. )he signal conditioning unit or the signal
source should be replaced by a lo#&impedance source" and the noise levels in the digitized data observed. )he lo#&
impedance source can be a direct short o! the high and lo# signals to the analog input ground. )his time" ho#ever"
the short is located at the !ar end o! the cable. *! the observed noise levels are roughly the same as those #ith the
actual signal source instead o! the short in place" the cabling and/or the environment in #hich the cabling is run is the
culprit. Cabling reorientation and increasing distance !rom the noise sources are possible solutions. *! the noise
source is not (no#n" spectral analysis o! the noise can identi!y the inter!erence !re$uencies" #hich in turn can help
locate the noise source. *! the observed noise levels are smaller than those #ith the actual signal source in place"
ho#ever" a resistor appro+imately e$ual to the output resistance o! the source should be tried ne+t in place o! the
short at the !ar end o! the cable. )his setup #ill sho# #hether capacitive coupling in the cable due to high source
impedance is the problem. *! the observed noise levels !rom this last setup are smaller than those #ith the actual
signal in place" cabling and the environment can be dismissed as the problem. *n this case" the culprit is either the
signal source itsel! or improper con!iguration o! the data ac$uisition device !or the source type.
Signal 6rocessing Tec2ni7ues for Noise "eduction
,lthough signal processing techni$ues are not a substitute !or proper system interconnection" they can be employed
!or noise reduction" as #ell. ,ll noise&reducing signal processing techni$ues rely on trading o!! signal band#idth to
improve the signal&to&noise ratio. *n broad terms" these can be categorized as preac$uisition or postac$uisition
measures. .+amples o! preac$uisition techni$ues are various types o! !iltering 7lo#pass" highpass" or bandpass9 to
reduce the out&o!&band noise in the signal. )he measurement band#idth need not e+ceed the dynamics or the
!re$uency range o! the transducer. =ostac$uisition techni$ues can be described as digital !iltering. )he simplest
postac$uisition !iltering techni$ue is averaging. )his results in comb !iltering o! the ac$uired data and is especially
use!ul !or re2ecting speci!ic inter!erence !re$uencies such as :E to <E Gz. ?emember that inductive coupling !rom
lo#&!re$uency sources such as :E Gz to <E Gz po#er lines is harder to shield against. 'or optimal inter!erence
re2ection by averaging" the time interval o! the ac$uired data used !or averaging" )ac$" must be an integral multiple o!
)re2 J 1/ 're2" #here 're2 is the !re$uency being optimally re2ected.
)ac$ J 8cycles V )re2 739
#here 8cycles is the number o! cycles o! inter!ering !re$uency being averaged. ;ecause )ac$ J 8s V )s #here 8s is the
number o! samples used !or averaging and )s is the sampling interval" e$uation 719 can be #ritten as !ollo#s:
8s V )s J 8cycles V )re2
or
8s V )s J 8cycles / 're2 749
.$uation 749 determines the combination o! the number o! samples and the sampling interval to re2ect a speci!ic
inter!ering !re$uency by averaging. 'or e+ample" !or <E Gz re2ection using 8cycles J 3 and 8s J 4E" #e can calculate
the optimal sampling rate as !ollo#s:
)s J 3 / 7<E V 4E9 J 1.5: ms
)hus" averaging 4E samples ac$uired at a sampling interval o! 1.5: ms 7or @EE samples/s9 #ill re2ect <E Gz noise
!rom the ac$uired data. 3imilarly" averaging @E samples ac$uired at @EE samples/s 71E readings/s9 #ill re2ect both :E
and <E Gz !re$uencies. Lhen using a lo#pass digital !iltering techni$ue" such as averaging" you cannot assume that
the resultant data has no -C errors such as o!!sets caused by ground loops. *n other #ords" i! a noise problem in a
measurement system is resolved by averaging" the system may still have -C o!!set errors. )he system must be
veri!ied i! absolute accuracy is critical to the measurements.