Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Monotype
Software The text for this publication was written in Microsoft Word 4.0. Pages
were made-up using QuarkXPress 3.0. Illustrations were made in QuarkXPress 3.0,
and Adobe Illustrator 3.0.
Typefaces The main text is set in 8.8 on 12.3 point Nimrod. Captions are set in
7 on 9.5 point Arial Light.
Contents
11 Setting standards 32
11.1 Stationery 32
12 Layout 34
12.1 Are grids relevant ? 34
12.2 Space after address 34
13 Points of information 35
Section 1 Introduction
joc-jou jou-jun
THE WOMAN jockey [joke] m jockey jockey [joke] m jockey joie [gwa] f joy, joindre ]gwedr] vt (59)
LEADER
jogging [dgogn] m jogging [dgogn] m gladness, delight; [mettre ensemble] join,
OF THE faire du~, go jogging
joie [gwa] f joy,
faire du~, go jogging
joie [gwa] f joy,
avec~, with delight;
d’une ~ débordante,
put together; link,
connect (à, to); [relier]
Typography is designing with type in order to communicate a
message. Desktop publishing (DTP) offers you the facilities to use
type in many sizes and styles to achieve a professional look. You
might easily be tempted to jazz-up your documents with all the
Readers will have preconceptions about the size and general lay-
out of a company report, or even an of cial letter, based on their
past experience with that kind of document. Before reading at a
word level, they may have started reading on a global level,
gladness, delight; gladness, delight; overjoyed; sauter de ~ ~ les mains, join hands
WORLD
special effects you can muster — if you do this, you may end up icking through and picking up structural cues and features.
avec~, with delight; avec~, with delight; jump for joy. || [insérer] enclose, having more fun than your readers. Restraint is essential, so that
the content of documents is clearly understood. Typography
Apart from novels, users rarely read documents from beginning
to end: they have their own purposes and tasks, which the docu-
d’une ~ débordante, d’une ~ débordante, jockey [joke] m jockey annex || ]contacter] get should not call attention to itself — its purpose is to make work
easier for the reader.
ment must accommodate.
Even in correspondence, like letters, memos, and faxes,
overjoyed; sauter de ~ overjoyed; sauter de ~ jogging [dgogn] m in touch with, contact || When designing, you should put yourself in the reader s where there cannot be much deviation from the norm, simple
place. Try to think through everything you do from the reader s graphic features can mark out different kinds of information.
jump for joy. jump for joy. faire du~, go jogging tel. get through to || Fig. point of view. You cannot force anyone to read anything, but you The rest of this booklet gives some guidance on the design of
Wednesday 15 July 1992 Manchester and London 30p joindre ]gwedr] vt (59) jockey [joke] m jockey joie [gwa] f joy, ~ l’utile agréable, can make a document clear, accessible, and adaptable, to help
readers navigate their way around the text for any purpose.
reports and correspondence. You may want the reader to follow
instructions, or compare totals of research ndings, for example.
[mettre ensemble] join, jogging [dgogn] m gladness, delight; combine business with There are certain principles of legibility and perception
which should be followed to help achieve this (see Section 4
Lists, tables, graphs, and charts can give a more distinct repre-
sentation of this kind of information, and will also add variety to
put together; link, faire du~, go jogging avec~, with delight; pleasure; ~ les deux
SAILORS IN
Principles of legibility).Readers will have preconceptions about the layout of your documents. It helps to list collections of relat-
the size and general layout of a company report, or even an ed ideas. Where items are referred to individually in the follow-
connect (à, to); [relier] joie [gwa] f joy, d’une ~ débordante, bouts, make(both) ends of cial letter, based on their past experience with that kind of ing text, or when they describe a sequence of actions, they can be
document. Before reading at a word level, they may have start- numbered, but otherwise it is simpler just to use bullets (¥) or
~ les mains, join hands gladness, delight; overjoyed; sauter de ~ meet — vpr se ~ à, join ed reading on a global level, icking through and picking up dashes (—). These can be found in all typefaces, but if you want to
|| [insérer] enclose, avec~, with delight; jump for joy. (qqn). structural cues and features. Apart from novels, users rarely read
documents from beginning to end: they have their own purpos-
make more impact you can use the Monotype Sorts font (n lu).
Be careful not to over-use lists: there must always be enough
annex || ]contacter] get d’une ~ débordante, jockey [joke] m jockey jockey [joke] m jockey es and tasks, which the document must accommodate. conventional text to lead your readers through your argument.
Even in correspondence, like letters, memos, and faxes, Otherwise it s like giving them self-assembly furniture with no
in touch with, contact || overjoyed; sauter de ~ jogging [dgogn] m jogging [dgogn] m where there cannot be much deviation from the norm, simple assembly instructions: everything they need is there, but
graphic features can mark out different kinds of information. they don t know what it s for.DTP allows great exibility for the
tel. get through to || Fig. jump for joy. faire du~, go jogging faire du~, go jogging The rest of this booklet gives some guidance on the design of design of tables, but they take a bit of skill and practice. There are
~ l’utile agréable, joindre ]gwedr] vt (59) joie [gwa] f joy, joie [gwa] f joy, reports and correspondence. You may want the reader to follow
instructions, or compare totals of research ndings, for example.
several ways of setting tables: if you see tables you nd particu-
larly clear you could copy the way they are designed. However,
SCURVY
combine business with [mettre ensemble] join, gladness, delight; gladness, delight; Lists, tables, graphs, and charts can give a more distinct repre-
sentation of this kind of information, and will also add variety to
always bear in mind that your text is different and may need spe-
cial treatment. Remember to put the user rst, not your own
pleasure; ~ les deux put together; link, avec~, with delight; avec~, with delight; the layout of your documents. It helps to list collections of relat- design preferences. Here one system is recommended that is
ed ideas. Where items are referred to individually in the follow- These days vertical rules are usually left out of tables because the
bouts, make(both) ends connect (à, to); [relier] d’une ~ débordante, d’une ~ débordante, ing text, or when they describe a sequence of actions, they can be data in the columns is well enough aligned to allow the space
numbered, but otherwise it is simpler just to use bullets (¥) or
meet — vpr se ~ à, join ~ les mains, join hands overjoyed; sauter de ~ overjoyed; sauter de ~ dashes (—). These can be found in all typefaces, but if you want to
between the columns to do the same job. If many of the cells are
left blank, though, vertical rules might be needed. You should
(qqn). || [insérer] enclose, jump for joy. jump for joy.
88 89
SCARE
Shiver me tembers and hoist the main-
sail! First recorded case in 100 years
Readers will quickly
pick up the ‘norm’ in
a document. In
reports and propos-
als, this is likely
to be continuous
The purpose of typography
Typography is designing with type
in order to communicate a message.
Desktop publishing (DTP) offers you
the facilities to use type in many
sizes and styles to achieve a profes-
sional look. You might easily be
company report, or even an official
letter, based on their past experience
with that kind of document. Before
reading at a ‘word’ level, they may
have started reading on a global
level, flicking through and picking
up structural cues and features.
Rushey Systems
memo
from Jennifer Wells x678
7 April 1992
8 9
busdocpages_quark 4/6/02 9:18 pm Page 6
2.1 Budget
If you are producing a report, the budget can affect
the length of the document, how many are produced,
and the way it is produced. Will you produce mul-
tiple copies by photocopying pages output on your
laser printer, or have them professionally printed
from the high-resolution output of a typesetting
machine? (see Section 14 Technology and type).
Budget will also affect how the report is bound.
If you cannot afford pre-printed headed notepaper
for letters, you may want to set up a template design
on screen, with a letterhead that works in black and
white, and is printed with each letter (see Section
11.1 Stationery).
that match the look and feel of final copies. These 2.2 The relative weights of bold
should help you check things such as whether there and light type, and the apparent
is a wide enough back margin for binding (see thickness of rules, depends on
the resolution of your output.
Section 6.2 Margins), whether page numbers and (Rule is the printer’s term for a
running heads will be clearly visible, and so on. line, to avoid confusion when
Whenever you can, try to get people who might referring to a line of type).
2.6 Checking
You should check the text of your document as often
as possible. If you have been working on a text for
some time, it is a good idea to have someone else
proofread it, as you can easily overlook errors in
a text you are accustomed to.
When you have finalized the page-layout of a re-
port, print out all the pages and stick them together
so that they resemble the finished document. The
busdocpages_quark 4/6/02 9:18 pm Page 10
11
Graham Blake
Monotype Typography Ltd
This refers to the contents list, headings, and other
Perrywood Park
Salfords
Redhill
Surrey RH1 5JP
things that help people to find out what a document
18 June 1992
Dear Mr Blake
is about or who it is from. Even official correspond-
ence will benefit from subheadings, simply to divide
Estimate for production of booklet according to your specification. We
suppose that you will be supplying camera-ready artwork. We now offer an
output service: we have most Macintosh applications, including Quark-
XPress and PageMaker.
Format
A5. 16 pages. 4-page cover.
Paper
it into manageable chunks. In longer documents, try
115 gms matt coated. 250 gms art board cover.
Colours
Two colours throughout.
to relate all the elements of the access structure to
Binding
Stitched with two wires.
Illustrations
one another – so they make sense to someone flick-
4 halftones: b/w prints supplied.
This estimate can only be guaranteed until 30 April 1993. Please get in touch
if you have any queries.
Yours sincerely
and headings have been designed to help you access
Calvin Ashworth
Calvin Ashworth
information in this booklet.
Main heading
style font = Rockwell Extra Bold
size = 10 point; leading = 12 point
tag A-heading
First subheading
style font = Arial Black
size = 7 point; leading = 14 point
4 point space before
tag B-heading
13
4.1 Typeface
SHAPE Shape
Typefaces can be divided into seriffed and sans serif.
4.1 Because they have ascend-
ers and descenders (on h and p Serifs are the small strokes at the end of main strokes
in this example), words in small of characters, which give a horizontal emphasis to a
letters have a more distinctive line of type. Seriffed typefaces are therefore best for
shape than those in capitals.
We read by recognizing word
large amounts of continuous text. Sans serif type-
shapes, rather than letter by let- faces have characters which tend to look similar to
ter, so text mainly in small letters each other and are best reserved for headings, cap-
will be more legible.
tions, and short pieces of text.
d
Most common seriffed typefaces have
bracketed serif
kid
Times New Roman
bracketed serifs.
kid
d
slab serif Slab serifs are robust and give the
typeface a sturdy impression.
Rockwell
Hxkp
capital line
x-height x-line
baseline
4.5 The nominal type size (‘point’ size) is therefore not always a reli-
able guide to appearing size. The example above shows four typefaces
at 10 point.
For further guidance on legibility: For further guidance on how to use typefaces:
Herbert Spencer, The visible word, 2nd edition, Alison Black, Typefaces for desktop publishing: a
London, Lund Humphries, 1969. user guide, London, Architecture Design and
James Hartley, Designing instructional text, Technology Press, 1990
2nd edition, London, Kogan Page, 1985. Paul Luna, Understanding type for desktop publish-
ing, London, Blueprint, 1992.
busdocpages_quark 4/6/02 9:18 pm Page 15
Justified text
Justified text has straight left-hand and right-hand
edges. Because readers may be familiar with seeing
justified text in books (and newspapers), the assump-
tion is that this gives a formal appearance to text. It
does not improve legibility, however, and it is diffi-
cult to achieve a satisfactory result: for justified text
to look good, words at line endings may have to be
hyphenated and the spaces between words controlled.
If you accept the default ‘hyphenation and justi-
fication’ (h & j) settings in many page make-up pro-
grams, few or no hyphenation breaks are made, and
the system will often spread out the words on a line
to fill a column, by varying the width of word spaces
4.6 The justified version (below and even by putting extra space between letters,
left) may seem superficially neat, which ruins the evenness of the text. You should do
but the word spacing is con-
some trials to achieve good-looking text, allowing
spicuously uneven from line to
line, which disrupts horizontal hyphenation, and controlling the minimum and
reading. Because there is no maximum word spaces. If possible, specify zero
word-division by hyphenation at letter-spacing. You should aim for an even appear-
the ends of lines, space has even
been added between the letters
ance to each line of text.
in some lines to achieve justifica- Do not use justified setting for your letters, memos,
tion. This destroys the coherence and faxes. Whatever the style of your letterhead, it is
of word shapes.
not worth making the text justified, as the brevity of
The justified version (below
right) allows hyphenation and correspondence, often made up of short paragraphs,
has word-space settings of: mini- does not sufficiently define a straight right-hand
mum 60%; optimum 85%; maxi-
edge. More importantly, some word-processing
mum 150%. The overall effect is
of an evenly-balanced texture. programs do not allow you to alter the default set-
(This illustration was created tings for word spaces and hyphenation, which may
using QuarkXPress). result in justified text with an uneven appearance.
It might also be protested that, as far as British consumer interests. Indeed, this is the argument put It might also be protested that, as far as British grow- that consumer prices of fruit and vegetables would be
growers are concerned, withdrawal is of minimum forward by nearly all consumer associations: they ers are concerned, withdrawal is of minimum impor- very much lower if there was no intervention. Yet
importance. Whilst it is true that relatively little is attempt to impress upon consumers that consumer tance. Whilst it is true that relatively little is withdrawn what they do not say is that stable retail prices cannot
withdrawn in the UK, the market inter-linkages prices of fruit and vegetables would be very much in the UK, the market inter-linkages within the Euro- be achieved unless the provision of fruit and veget-
within the European Community, particularly after lower if there was no intervention. Yet what they do pean Community, particularly after ‘1992’, must not ables is adequate. Provision, however, will not be ade-
‘1992’, must not be forgotten. In a Single European not say is that stable retail prices cannot be be forgotten. In a Single European Market a domino quate unless producers have a continuing incentive to
Market a domino effect prevails, and withdrawal achieved unless the provision of fruit and vegetables effect prevails, and withdrawal mechanisms help sup- produce and maintain high supply levels. On the other
mechanisms help support British market prices as is adequate. Provision, however, will not be port British market prices as well as market prices in hand, without intervention arrangements many pro-
well as market prices in the countries in which adequate unless producers have a continuing the countries in which withdrawal actually takes place. ducers would often be left without profits or income,
withdrawal actually takes place. incentive to produce and maintain high supply The UK does not have to produce peaches for its with the long-term risk that the incentive to produce
The UK does not have to produce peaches for levels. On the other hand, without intervention horticultural producers to benefit from the EEC with- would wane and supply levels fall, thus leading to
its horticultural producers to benefit from the EEC arrangements many producers would often be left drawal mechanisms for peaches, for in the absence of increased consumer prices.
withdrawal mechanisms for peaches, for in the without profits or income, with the long-term risk such heavy withdrawals as have occurred in the past it Doing away with the intervention facilities would
absence of such heavy withdrawals as have occurred that the incentive to produce would wane and is conceivable that larger quantities of lower-priced consequently lead to lower prices only in the short run,
in the past it is conceivable that larger quantities of supply levels fall, thus leading to increased consumer peaches could appear in British shops, eroding the while in the long run consumer prices would rise
lower-priced peaches could appear in British shops, prices. market for other fresh produce in season at the time. owing to falling production and supply levels. Further-
eroding the market for other fresh produce in Doing away with the intervention facilities would In 1989, a Committee of the European Parliament more, the proportion of consumer income accounted
season at the time. consequently lead to lower prices only in the short challenged the view that withdrawal supported market for by food has fallen continually ever since the com-
In 1989, a Committee of the European run, while in the long run consumer prices would prices to the detriment of consumer interests. In par- mon market has been in existence. Moreover, it has
Parliament challenged the view that withdrawal rise owing to falling production and supply levels. ticular it said: ‘Given that they are a form of price and been shown time and again that consumer prices are
supported market prices to the detriment of Furthermore, the proportion of consumer income income support, there might be a temptation to view almost invariably or to a large extent inelastic to
consumer interests. In particular it said: ‘Given that accounted for by food has fallen continually ever the arrangements for withdrawal of fruit and vegeta- changing producer prices.Consequently, a fall in pro-
they are a form of price and income support, there since the common market has been in existence. bles as being against consumer interests. Indeed, this is ducer prices is hardly ever matched by a correspond-
might be a temptation to view the arrangements for Moreover, it has been shown time and again that the argument put forward by nearly all consumer ing fall in consumer prices, instead, the difference is
withdrawal of fruit and vegetables as being against consumer prices are almost invariably or to a large associations: they attempt to impress upon consumers swallowed up by transport costs, marketing margins,
It might also be protested that, as far as British consumer interests. Indeed, this is the argument put It might also be protested that, as far as British grow- Indeed, this is the argument put forward by nearly
growers are concerned, withdrawal is of minimum forward by nearly all consumer associations: they ers are concerned, withdrawal is of minimum impor- all consumer associations: they attempt to impress
importance. Whilst it is true that relatively little is attempt to impress upon consumers that consumer tance. Whilst it is true that relatively little is with- upon consumers that consumer prices of fruit and
withdrawn in the UK, the market inter-linkages prices of fruit and vegetables would be very much drawn in the UK, the market inter-linkages within vegetables would be very much lower if there was no
within the European Community, particularly after lower if there was no intervention. Yet what they do the European Community, particularly after ‘1992’, intervention. Yet what they do not say is that stable
‘1992’, must not be forgotten. In a Single European not say is that stable retail prices cannot be must not be forgotten. In a Single European Market retail prices cannot be achieved unless the provision
Market a domino effect prevails, and withdrawal achieved unless the provision of fruit and vegetables a domino effect prevails, and withdrawal mechan- of fruit and vegetables is adequate. Provision, how-
mechanisms help support British market prices as is adequate. Provision, however, will not be isms help support British market prices as well as ever, will not be adequate unless producers have a
well as market prices in the countries in which adequate unless producers have a continuing market prices in the countries in which withdrawal continuing incentive to produce and maintain high
withdrawal actually takes place. incentive to produce and maintain high supply actually takes place. supply levels. On the other hand, without interven-
The UK does not have to produce peaches for levels. On the other hand, without intervention The UK does not have to produce peaches for tion arrangements many producers would often be
its horticultural producers to benefit from the EEC arrangements many producers would often be left its horticultural producers to benefit from the EEC left without profits or income, with the long-term risk
withdrawal mechanisms for peaches, for in the without profits or income, with the long-term risk withdrawal mechanisms for peaches, for in the ab- that the incentive to produce would wane and supply
absence of such heavy withdrawals as have occurred that the incentive to produce would wane and sence of such heavy withdrawals as have occurred in levels fall, thus leading to increased consumer prices.
in the past it is conceivable that larger quantities of supply levels fall, thus leading to increased consumer the past it is conceivable that larger quantities of Doing away with the intervention facilities would
lower-priced peaches could appear in British shops, prices. lower-priced peaches could appear in British shops, consequently lead to lower prices only in the short
eroding the market for other fresh produce in Doing away with the intervention facilities would eroding the market for other fresh produce in season run, while in the long run consumer prices would
season at the time. consequently lead to lower prices only in the short at the time. rise owing to falling production and supply levels.
In 1989, a Committee of the European run, while in the long run consumer prices would In 1989, a Committee of the European Parlia- Furthermore, the proportion of consumer income
Parliament challenged the view that withdrawal rise owing to falling production and supply levels. ment challenged the view that withdrawal supported accounted for by food has fallen continually ever
supported market prices to the detriment of Furthermore, the proportion of consumer income market prices to the detriment of consumer interests. since the common market has been in existence.
consumer interests. In particular it said: ‘Given that accounted for by food has fallen continually ever In particular it said: ‘Given that they are a form of Moreover, it has been shown time and again that
they are a form of price and income support, there since the common market has been in existence. price and income support, there might be a tempta- consumer prices are almost invariably or to a large
might be a temptation to view the arrangements for Moreover, it has been shown time and again that tion to view the arrangements for withdrawal of fruit extent inelastic to changing producer prices. Con-
withdrawal of fruit and vegetables as being against consumer prices are almost invariably or to a large and vegetables as being against consumer interests. sequently, a fall in producer prices is hardly ever
4.4 Paragraphs
There are two common ways of indicating the start
of a new paragraph: by indenting the first line or
inserting extra space above the first line. If you
insert extra space, it should be at least half of your
normal line space: so with 10 point leading, add an
extra 5 points between paragraphs (making 15 points
in all). If you use this method, be aware that a para-
graph end may not be clear at the bottom of a page.
If you indent the first line, a rule of thumb is to
set the indent to the same value as your type size.
If you have a short line length, a smaller indent may
look better. Indenting first lines is the better option
if you want to save space.
not "inch" or ’feet’ signs 5.1 Office practice versus printing practice
but real quotation
When all office documents were typewritten, the
marks , or ˙guillemets¨
conventions of typing were appropriate for the
and ¨Anf hrungszeichen˙
details of text: the typewriter typeface conveyed a
hyphens for word division certain level of formality, and the limited flexibility
and compound words like of the typewriter was acceptable. There are usually
frost-bitten imitation typewriter typefaces available on most
systems, and some people prefer to use them for cor-
en dashes — spaced like
respondence to preserve the impression of a docu-
this — for parenthetical
ment less formal than, for example, a bound report.
remarks, and unspaced for
Using typewriter typefaces will also save time
spans, such as: 1992—93
because you will not need to worry about the typo-
em dashes unspaced like
graphic details necessary when you use the profes-
this can also be used for
sional typefaces available on DTP systems (e.g. Times
parenthesis
New Roman, Arial, etc.). However, if you do choose
5.1 Conventions in professional to use more formal typefaces traditionally only
typesetting differ from those used available from typesetters, you should use typeset-
in typing.
ters’, not typists’, conventions.
Some of the best known guides to text presentation The Chicago manual of style, 13th edition, Chicago,
come from the large university presses. But they are University of Chicago Press, 1982.
used widely, not just for academic books: Xerox publishing standards: a manual of style and
design, New York, Watson Guptill, 1988.
J. Butcher, Copy-editing: the Cambridge handbook,
2nd edition, Cambridge, Cambridge University
Press, 1983.
busdocpages_quark 4/6/02 9:18 pm Page 19
19
Conclusion Conclusion Conclusion sumer interests. Indeed, this is the argument put for-
ward by nearly all consumer associations: they
attempt to impress upon consumers that consumer
It might also be protested that, as far as British growers are con- In 1989, a Committee of the It might also be protested that, as far as British growers are It might also be protested that, as far as British grow-
prices of fruit and vegetables would be very much
ers are concerned, withdrawal is of minimum impor-
cerned, withdrawal is of minimum importance. Whilst it is true European Parliament chal- concerned, withdrawal is of minimum importance. Whilst tance. Whilst it is true that relatively little is with-
lower if there was no intervention.
that relatively little is withdrawn in the UK, the market inter- lenged the view that withdraw- it is true that relatively little is withdrawn in the UK, the drawn in the UK, the market inter-linkages within Implications of ‘1992’
linkages within the European Community, particularly after al supported market prices to market inter-linkages within the European Community, the European Community, particularly after ‘1992’,
must not be forgotten. In a Single European Market Provision, however, will not be adequate unless pro-
‘1992’, must not be forgotten. In a Single European Market a the detriment of consumer particularly after ‘1992’, must not be forgotten. In a Single ducers have a continuing incentive to produce and
a domino effect prevails, and withdrawal mecha-
domino effect prevails, and withdrawal mechanisms help sup- interests. European Market a domino effect prevails, and withdraw- nisms help support British market prices as well as maintain high supply levels. Moreover, it has been
port British market prices as well as market prices in the coun- al mechanisms help support British market prices as well market prices in the countries in which withdrawal shown time and again that consumer prices are
actually takes place. almost invariably or to a large extent inelastic to
tries in which withdrawal actually takes place. as market prices in the countries in which withdrawal changing producer prices.Consequently, a fall in
actually takes place. The stanility of market prices producer prices is hardly ever matched by a corre-
The stanility of market prices sponding fall in consumer prices, instead, the differ-
The UK does not have to produce peaches for its
The UK does not have to produce peaches for its horticultural The UK does not have to produce peaches for its horticul- ence is swallowed up by transport costs, marketing
The stanility of horticultural producers to benefit from the EEC
margins, etc. To that extent, the consumer associa-
producers to benefit from the EEC withdrawal mechanisms for market prices tural producers to benefit from the EEC withdrawal mech- withdrawal mechanisms for peaches, for in the tions’ ‘promises’ that lower prices could be achieved
peaches, for in the absence of such heavy withdrawals as have anisms for peaches, for in the absence of such heavy absence of such heavy withdrawals as have occurred by doing away with intervention measures are great-
in the past it is conceivable that larger quantities of
occurred in the past it is conceivable that larger quantities of withdrawals as have occurred in the past it is conceivable ly unrealistic. On the contrary, after a brief period of
lower-priced peaches could appear in British shops, price instability caused by the slump in producer
lower-priced peaches could appear in British shops, eroding the that larger quantities of lower-priced peaches could appear eroding the market for other fresh produce in season prices, the laws of the market economy would
market for other fresh produce in season at the time. in British shops, eroding the market for other fresh pro- at the time. On the other hand, without intervention restore realistic and enforceable prices that the mar-
In 1989, a Committee of the European Parliament challenged duce in season at the time. arrangements many producers would often be left ket could accept.
the view that withdrawal supported market prices to the detri- without profits or income, with the long-term risk
that the incentive to produce would wane and supply Action to be taken
ment of consumer interests. In particular it said: ‘Given that they Implications of ‘1992’ In 1989, a Committee of the European Parliament chal- levels fall, thus leading to increased consumer This statement is remarkable for a number of rea-
are a form of price and income support, there might be a tempta- lenged the view that withdrawal supported market prices prices. Doing away with the intervention facilities sons:
tion to view the arrangements for withdrawal of fruit and vege- to the detriment of consumer interests. In particular it said: would consequently lead to lower prices only in the - it appears to accept the view that, at least in the
tables as being against consumer interests. Indeed, this is the ‘Given that they are a form of price and income support, short run, while in the long run consumer prices short run, EEC policy mechanisms do raise pro-
would rise owing to falling production and supply ducer prices;
argument put forward by nearly all consumer associations: they there might be a temptation to view the arrangements for levels. Furthermore, the proportion of consumer - it is premised on the view that the EEC should be
attempt to impress upon consumers that consumer prices of fruit withdrawal of fruit and vegetables as being against con- income accounted for by food has fallen continually self-sufficient in fruit and vegetables, a stance
and vegetables would be very much lower if there was no inter- sumer interests. Indeed, this is the argument put forward ever since the common market has been in existence. which many would refute: the statement makes no
vention. Yet what they do not say is that stable retail prices can- by nearly all consumer associations: they attempt to allowance for imports and their stabilising
Long-term consequences influence;
not be achieved unless the provision of fruit and vegetables is impress upon consumers that consumer prices of fruit and - the distribution sectors are endowed with a mysti-
In 1989, a Committee of the European Parliament
adequate. vegetables would be very much lower if there was no challenged the view that withdrawal supported mar- cal power, that of being able to determine prices,
intervention. ket prices to the detriment of consumer interests. In and hence profits, without reference to market cir-
Implications of ‘1992’ particular it said: ‘Given that they are a form of price cumstances. Whilst it is true that the withdrawal
Provision, however, will not be adequate unless pro- mechanism is likely to have only a mar-ginal
Provision, however, will not be adequate unless producers have and income support, there might be a temptation to
ducers have a continuing incentive to produce and main- view the arrangements for withdrawal of fruit and impact on retail prices, it is disingenuous to sug-
a continuing incentive to produce and maintain high supply lev- tain high supply levels. On the other hand, without inter- vegetables as being against consumer interests. gest that producer prices have no impact on retail
els. On the other hand, without intervention arrangements many vention arrangements many producers would often be left Indeed, this is the argument put forward by nearly all prices; whilst suggesting that its analysis rests
producers would often be left without profits or income, with the without profits or income, with the long-term risk that the consumer associations: they attempt to impress upon upon “the laws of the market econo
consumers that consumer prices of fruit and vegeta- The UK does not have to produce peaches for its
long-term risk that the incentive to produce would wane and sup- incentive to produce would wane and supply levels fall, horticultural producers to benefit from the EEC
bles would be very much lower if there was no
ply levels fall, thus leading to increased consumer prices. Doing thus leading to increased consumer prices. Doing away sumer interests. Indeed, this is the argument put for- withdrawal mechanisms for peaches, for in the
Single column grids are simplest Single column grids with side fea- Double column grids can be used
of all and are perfectly adequate tures allow you to put headings, for economy, because you can
for a report consisting mostly of small illustrations, or side-notes in use a smaller type size. They are
straightforward text. Word-pro- the margin so that they can be not common in reports or pro-
cessing software can handle this. easily scanned. When laying out posals because they can be more
a document with side-by-side text difficult for readers to scan quickly.
columns, you really need a page
make-up program. These pro-
grams are less flexible for word
processing, so you don’t want to
do extensive editing once the
pages are made up.
busdocpages_quark 4/6/02 9:18 pm Page 21
21
Report of the 1990 market survey West Hospital, 138 North Avenue, Easton XYZ Market research
The UK does not have to produce priced peaches could appear in shops,
24 XYZ consultants Æ The European Market Section 4 Æ Long-term investment 25 On the other hand, without peaches for its horticultural producers eroding the market for other fresh pro-
intervention arrangements to bene t from the EEC withdrawal duce in season at the time. On the
The UK does not have to produce peaches for its horticul- pro ts or income, with the long-term risk that the incentive many producers would often
mechanisms for peaches, for in the other hand, without the intervention
be left without profit.
tural producers to bene t from the EEC withdrawal mecha- to produce would wane and supply levels fall, thus leading to income, with the long-term risk absence of such heavy withdrawals as arrangements many producers would
nisms for peaches, for in the absence of such heavy with- increased consumer prices. Doing away with the interven- have occurred in the past it is conceiv- often be left without pro ts or income,
drawals as have occurred in the past it is conceivable that tion facilities would consequently lead to lower prices only in able that larger quantities of lower- with the long-term risk that the incen-
larger quantities of lower-priced peaches could appear in the short run, while in the long run consumer prices would
British shops, eroding the market for other fresh produce in rise owing to falling production and supply levels. Further-
season at the time. On the other hand, without intervention more, the proportion of consumer income accounted for by 24 XYZ consultants · The European Market Section 4 · Long term investments 24
arrangements many producers would often be left without food has fallen continually ever since the common market
5.1 The 1991 survey a large, bold or italic style of type, highlighted fur-
It might also be protested that, as far as British growers
are concerned, withdrawal is of minimum importance.
Whilst it is true that relatively little is withdrawn in the
UK, the market inter-linkages within the European
ther by leaving space around it. This will make
Community, particularly after 1992 , must not be forgot-
ten. In a Single European Market a domino effect prevails,
and withdrawal mechanisms help support British market
these pages stand out. If there is a limited amount
prices as well as market prices in the countries in which
withdrawal actually takes place. The UK does not have to
produce peaches for its horticultural producers to bene t
from the EEC withdrawal mechanisms for peaches, for in
of space, you may not be able to start a new page for
the absence of such heavy withdrawals as have occurred
in the past it is conceivable that larger quantities of lower-
priced peaches could appear in British shops, eroding the the beginning of each section; if you can, however,
market for other fresh produce in season at the time.
In 1989, a Committee of the European Parliament chal-
lenged the view that withdrawal supported market prices
to the detriment of consumer interests. In particular it
it is a good idea. To make your headings stand out,
said: Given that they are a form of price and income sup-
13
11 11 11 11
3 New beginnings 4 Open season: the effects 3 New beginnings 4 Open season: the effects
of de-regulation in the of de-regulation in the
Clearly, for some products such as table grapes and current climate current climate
apples, withdrawal is not an important outlet; whereas
for others, such as apples (a storable crop), peaches and
man-darins, it is. Opinions will differ as to the real impor-
tance of withdrawal for the other products listed, because Clearly, for some products such as table grapes and Clearly, for some products such as table grapes and Clearly, for some products such as table grapes and
it is in the nature of markets for highly perishable goods apples, withdrawal is not an important outlet; whereas apples, withdrawal is not an important outlet; whereas apples, withdrawal is not an important outlet; whereas
for unsaleable gluts to emerge from time to time, and the for others, such as apples (a storable crop), peaches and for others, such as apples (a storable crop), peaches and for others, such as apples (a storable crop), peaches and
gures reported in table b may simply re ect an institu- man-darins, it is. Opinions will differ as to the real impor- man-darins, it is. Opinions will differ as to the real impor- man-darins, it is. Opinions will differ as to the real impor-
tionalization of gluts which would in any case exist. tance of withdrawal for the other products listed, because tance of withdrawal for the other products listed, because tance of withdrawal for the other products listed, because
it is in the nature of markets for highly perishable goods it is in the nature of markets for highly perishable goods it is in the nature of markets for highly perishable goods
5.1 The 1991 survey
for unsaleable gluts to emerge from time to time, and the for unsaleable gluts to emerge from time to time, and the for unsaleable gluts to emerge from time to time, and the
It might also be protested that, as far as British growers gures reported in table b may simply re ect an institu- gures reported in table b may simply re ect an institu- gures reported in table b may simply re ect an institu-
are concerned, withdrawal is of minimum importance. tionalization of gluts which would in any case exist. tionalization of gluts which would in any case exist. tionalization of gluts which would in any case exist.
Whilst it is true that relatively little is withdrawn in the
UK, the market inter-linkages within the European 5.1 The 1991 survey 5.1 The 1991 survey 5.1 The 1991 survey
Community, particularly after 1992 , must not be forgot- It might also be protested that, as far as British growers It might also be protested that, as far as British growers It might also be protested that, as far as British growers
ten. In a Single European Market a domino effect prevails, are concerned, withdrawal is of minimum importance. are concerned, withdrawal is of minimum importance. are concerned, withdrawal is of minimum importance.
and withdrawal mechanisms help support British market Whilst it is true that relatively little is withdrawn in the Whilst it is true that relatively little is withdrawn in the Whilst it is true that relatively little is withdrawn in the
prices as well as market prices in the countries in which UK, the market inter-linkages within the European UK, the market inter-linkages within the European UK, the market inter-linkages within the European
withdrawal actually takes place. The UK does not have to Community, particularly after 1992 , must not be forgot- Community, particularly after 1992 , must not be forgot- Community, particularly after 1992 , must not be forgot-
produce peaches for its horticultural producers to bene t ten. In a Single European Market a domino effect prevails, ten. In a Single European Market a domino effect prevails, ten. In a Single European Market a domino effect prevails,
from the EEC withdrawal mechanisms for peaches, for in and withdrawal mechanisms help support British market and withdrawal mechanisms help support British market and withdrawal mechanisms help support British market
the absence of such heavy withdrawals as have occurred prices as well as market prices in the countries in which prices as well as market prices in the countries in which prices as well as market prices in the countries in which
in the past it is conceivable that larger quantities of lower- withdrawal actually takes place. The UK does not have to withdrawal actually takes place. The UK does not have to withdrawal actually takes place. The UK does not have to
priced peaches could appear in British shops, eroding the produce peaches for its horticultural producers to bene t produce peaches for its horticultural producers to bene t produce peaches for its horticultural producers to bene t
market for other fresh produce in season at the time. from the EEC withdrawal mechanisms for peaches, for in from the EEC withdrawal mechanisms for peaches, for in from the EEC withdrawal mechanisms for peaches, for in
In 1989, a Committee of the European Parliament chal- the absence of such heavy withdrawals as have occurred the absence of such heavy withdrawals as have occurred the absence of such heavy withdrawals as have occurred
lenged the view that withdrawal supported market prices in the past it is conceivable that larger quantities of lower- in the past it is conceivable that larger quantities of lower- in the past it is conceivable that larger quantities of lower-
to the detriment of consumer interests. In particular it priced peaches could appear in British shops, eroding the priced peaches could appear in British shops, eroding the priced peaches could appear in British shops, eroding the
said: Given that they are a form of price and income sup- market for other fresh produce in season at the time. In market for other fresh produce in season at the time. In market for other fresh produce in season at the time. In
port, there might be a temptation to view the arrange- 1989, a Committee of the European Parliament challenged 1989, a Committee of the European Parliament challenged 1989, a Committee of the European Parliament challenged
7.6 A fixed space follows these section headings 7.7 A fixed ‘drop’ is built in to the grid here, so the
so that the text starting position changes. text always starts at the same position, no matter
how long the heading.
busdocpages_quark 4/6/02 9:18 pm Page 23
23
8.2 In this example, the heading lose relatively little. These systems clamp the paper flat at the
should be forced on to the next edge, and make it difficult to open the report out, so we do
page. Do not worry about pages not recommend them for the company’s technical manuals.
having unequal depths.
Storage problems
Clearly, for some products such as effect prevails, and withdrawal Clearly, for some products such as mechanisms help support British mechanisms help support British Clearly, for some products such as mechanisms help support British
table grapes and aubergines, with- mechanisms help support British table grapes and aubergines, with- market prices as well as market market prices as well as market table grapes and aubergines, with- market prices as well as market
drawal is not an important outlet; market prices as well as market drawal is not an important outlet; prices in the countries in which prices in the countries in which drawal is not an important outlet; prices in the countries in which
prices in the countries in which whereas for others, such as apples withdrawal actually takes place. withdrawal actually takes place. whereas for others, such as apples withdrawal actually takes place.
withdrawal actually takes place. (a storable crop), peaches and man- (a storable crop), peaches and man-
darins, it is. Opinions will differ as to Places to goto get drunk The final analysis darins, it is. Opinions will differ as to Places to goto get drunk
The final analysis the real importance of withdrawal The UK does not have to produce The UK does not have to produce the real importance of withdrawal The UK does not have to produce
The UK does not have to produce for the other products listed, because peaches for its horticultural produc- peaches for its horticultural produc- for the other products listed, because peaches for its horticultural produc-
it is in the nature of markets for ers to bene t from the EEC with- Clearly, for some products such as ers to bene t from the EEC with- it is in the nature of markets for ers to bene t from the EEC with-
peaches for its horticultural produc- table grapes and aubergines, with-
ers to bene t from the EEC with- highly perishable goods for unsale- drawal mechanisms for peaches, for drawal mechanisms for peaches, for highly perishable goods for unsale- drawal mechanisms for peaches, for
able gluts to emerge from time to in the absence of such heavy with- drawal is not an important outlet; in the absence of such heavy with- able gluts to emerge from time to in the absence of such heavy with-
drawal mechanisms for peaches, for whereas for others, such as apples
in the absence of such heavy with- time, and the gures reported in drawals as have occurred in the past drawals as have occurred in the past time, and the gures reported in drawals as have occurred in the past
table b may simply re ect an institu- it is conceivable that larger quanti- (a storable crop), peaches and man- it is conceivable that larger quanti- table b may simply re ect an institu- it is conceivable that larger quanti-
drawals as have occurred in the past darins, it is. Opinions will differ as to
whereas for others, such as apples it is conceivable that larger quanti- tionalization of gluts which would ties of lower-priced peaches could ties of lower-priced peaches could tionalization of gluts which would ties of lower-priced peaches could
market for other fresh produce in to in any case exist. appear in British shops, eroding the the real importance of withdrawal appear in British shops, eroding the in any case exist. appear in British shops, eroding the
ties of lower-priced peaches could for the other products listed, because
the real importance of withdrawal appear in British shops, eroding the market for other fresh produce in It might also be protested that, as market for other fresh produce in
for the other products listed, because it is in the nature of markets for season at the time. far as British growers are concerned, season at the time.
market for other fresh produce in highly perishable goods for unsale-
it is in the nature of markets for season at the time. In 1989, a Committee of the withdrawal is of minimum impor- In 1989, a Committee of the
highly perishable goods for unsale- able gluts to emerge from time to European Parliament challenged the tance. Whilst it is true that relatively European Parliament challenged the
In 1989, a Committee of the time, and the gures reported in
able gluts to emerge from time to European Parliament challenged the view that withdrawal supported little is withdrawn in the UK, the view that withdrawal supported
time, and the gures reported in table b may simply re ect an institu- market prices to the detriment of market inter-linkages within the market prices to the detriment of
view that withdrawal supported tionalization of gluts which would
table b may simply re ect an institu- market prices to the detriment of consumer interests. In particular it European Community, particularly consumer interests. In particular it
tionalization of gluts which would in any case exist. said: Given that they are a form of after 1992 , must not be forgotten. In said: Given that they are a form of
consumer interests. In particular it
in any case exist. said: Given that they are a form of price and income support, there a Single European Market a domino price and income support, there
Long-term investment might be a temptation to view the effect prevails, and withdrawal might be a temptation to view the
price and income support, there It might also be protested that, as far
Long-term investment might be a temptation to view the It might also be protested that, as market for other fresh produce in arrangements for withdrawal of
It might also be protested that, as far far as British growers are concerned, season at the time. as British growers are concerned, fruit and vegetables as being against
arrangements for withdrawal of withdrawal is of minimum impor-
as British growers are concerned, fruit and vegetables as being against withdrawal is of minimum impor- In 1989, a Committee of the consumer interests. Indeed, this is
withdrawal is of minimum impor- tance. Whilst it is true that relatively European Parliament challenged the tance. Whilst it is true that relatively the argument put forward by nearly
consumer interests. Indeed, this is little is withdrawn in the UK, the
tance. Whilst it is true that relatively the argument put forward by nearly little is withdrawn in the UK, the view that withdrawal supported all consumer associations: they
little is withdrawn in the UK, the market inter-linkages within the market prices to the detriment of market inter-linkages within the attempt to impress upon consumers
all consumer associations: they European Community, particularly
market inter-linkages within the attempt to impress upon consumers European Community, particularly consumer interests. In particular it that consumer prices of fruit and
European Community, particularly after 1992 , must not be forgotten. In said: Given that they are a form of after 1992 , must not be forgotten. In vegetables would be very much
that consumer prices of fruit and a Single European Market a domino
after 1992 , must not be forgotten. In vegetables would be very much a Single European Market a domino price and income support, there lower if there was no intervention.
a Single European Market a domino effect prevails, and withdrawal might be a temptation to view the effect prevails, and withdrawal Yet what they do not say is that sta-
8.3 Be careful when positioning illustrations in will not know whether to read ‘over’ the illustration to
double-column grids. In the left-hand page (above the bottom of the first column, before progressing to
left), a heading in the right-hand column happens the next or whether to read both columns above the
to align with the picture, which might make readers picture first. The example above right shows a bet-
think a new section has started. In the right-hand ter layout: illustrations which span both columns are
page (above left), the illustration divides the page best placed at the top or bottom of the page.
into two clear, but inappropriate zones. The reader
Runarounds
Most DTP programs allow you to run text around
illustrations, and you can define the distance between
the text and the illustration. If you have a wide mar-
gin to your report, illustrations can go there and
runarounds shouldn’t be necessary. If you do use
runarounds, the illustration shouldn’t extend to
more than halfway across the column. And be care-
ful with justified type: the narrower column left
beside the illustration could have very uneven word
spacing.
The Data Set was developed and tested with Project members The Data Set was developed and tested with Project mem-
in late 1989. It was intended to be a starting point and a test-bed bers in late 1989. It was intended to be a starting point
for data collection, to be varied and augmented as the Project and a test-bed for data collection, to be varied and aug-
gained experience. It was designed given the expectations for mented as the Project gained experience. It was designed
data collection ability at the time and to encourage practices to given the expectations for data collection ability at the
make full use of the computer systems. Addition-ally the items time and to encourage practices to make full use of the
chosen were a mixture of those of immediate relevance within computer systems. Additionally the items chosen were a
practices and mixture of those of immediate rele-
of interest to vance within practices and of interest
the project to the project team. Data Set cards,
team. Data Set listing the data items and of
cards, listing a handy size, were issued as an aide
the data items memoire, supported by a more de-
and of a handy tailed protocol containing the neces-
size, were sary criteria and de nitions. The
issued as an detailed list is shown in Appendix 1.
aide memoire,
supported by The extent of data recorded was
a more tested, together with the downloading
detailed proto- methodology, in October
col containing and again in December. These
the necessary demonstrated considerable vari-ation
criteria and between practices, some having most
de nitions. of the Data Set recorded, others very
The detailed little. A decision was taken to defer
list is shown in electronic postcoding until most
Appendix 1. practices had been able
to check their downloaded registra-
The extent of data recorded was tested, together with the down- tion lists for accuracy. This is a considerable task. On
loading methodology, in October and again in December. the advice of practices electronic postcoding has been
These demonstrated considerable variation between practices, deferred until March/April 1991 to ensure that accurate
some having most of the Data Set recorded, others very little. A registration lists are processed.
decision was taken to defer electronic postcoding until most
practices had been able to check their downloaded registration There is already usable data available for a proportion of
lists for accuracy. This is a considerable task. On the advice of the Project population. This will increase over the next
practices electronic postcoding has been deferred until March months. Data will be downloaded every three months as
or April 1991 to ensure that accurate registration lists are pro- a check on progress. In order to improve the range of ana-
cessed. lysis possible, the data download software (ASCII les) are
being augmented, e.g. to allow analysis by age bands, by
the development of report generating software.
8.4 Rather than reduce the illustration to fit in the A good solution is to make sure that the illustration
margin, or increase it to fill the whole column, a takes up less than half the column of type.
runaround can be a useful solution. However, used Don’t wrap text around the contour of an image.
badly, runarounds can lead to illegibility in the nar- This makes the text more difficult to read, distracting
row column that results. attention from the message.
busdocpages_quark 4/6/02 9:18 pm Page 25
25
be that graphic design problems (to the extent that they are seen From bookshelf to desktop: what the reader tells the designer 29
as problems at all) are held to be neither complex nor critical
enough to require formal methods. readers have many different purposes for reading, that they
engage in many different kinds of reading activity, and do it in
3.2 Arguments about creativity many different kinds of environment.
So for most graphic designers, feedback rst comes in the form of
3 Design method: the absent centre
informal peer commentary (comments from colleagues while
work is in progress, much as writers ask friends to read their All designers need feedback about the results of their work. Most
thoughtful designers think about how and when to get it, about
drafts), and second (and often nally) from their client: If it looks the form in which it comes, and about how to assess its value. But
few graphic designers engage in the kind of empirical testing that
engineering designers, say, would do as a matter of course. No-
body would wish designers of bridges and aeroplane wings to
be that graphic design problems (to the extent that they are seen
adopt the methods of graphic designers.
as problems at all) are held to be neither complex nor critical
3.1 Objections to design methods research
enough to require formal methods.
One strong disincentive to formal enquiries about the results of
design decisions is the common folklore that testing or research
3.2 Arguments about creativity inhibits creativity and even common humanity. Despite the work
of journals like Visible Language, to many graphic designers
So for most graphic designers, feedback rst comes in the form of
research appears to mean questionnaires in shopping malls, as
informal peer commentary (comments from colleagues while in a recent cri de coeur: clients who have been persuaded ... to use
work is in progress, much as writers ask friends to read their market research instead of intuition ... need to be re-educated by
designers into thinking on a more human scale . Another disin-
drafts), and second (and often nally) from their client: If it looks centive may be that designers don t have the skills to conduct for-
mal enquiries. Another is that designers are often concerned
primarily with personal style: The core of our philosophy is the
9.2 Spacing of headings should be visually con- belief that design is based on personal expression. Another may
be that graphic design problems (to the extent that they are seen
trolled. Headings with equal space before and after as problems at all) are held to be neither complex nor critical
enough to require formal methods.
appear to ‘float’ between preceding and following
3.2 Arguments about creativity
text (top). When there is clearly more space before So for most graphic designers, feedback rst comes in the form of
informal peer commentary (comments from colleagues while
than after, they attach to the following text (bottom). work is in progress, much as writers ask friends to read their
drafts), and second (and often nally) from their client: If it looks
terrif c, then that s all I care about. After the looks, and strictly of
secondary importance, comes client approval. And this feedback
3.2 Priorities
In many cases the establishment of a management
course reflects the hope of high fee incomes rather
than a genuine commitment to management edu-
cation. But there will soon be competition from
continental business schools who will offer an
international dimension that students will view
busdocpages_quark 4/6/02 9:18 pm Page 27
27
by bus
10.2 Tables
Some basic table terminology
• Row headings: the headings that run down the
left of a table. Each one defines the row to its right.
• Column headings: the headings that run along
the top of a table. Each one defines the column
beneath it.
• Cells: the spaces in the main body of the table in
which the content (figures or text) is put.
DTP allows great flexibility for the design of tables,
but they take a bit of skill and practice. There are
several ways of setting tables: if you see tables you
find particularly clear you could copy the way they
are designed. However, always bear in mind that
your text is different and may need special treat-
ment. Remember to put the user first, not your own
design preferences. Here one system is recommend-
ed that is easy to implement in most software and
for most purposes.
Column headings
Short heading A longer Write short headings for tables, and abbreviate
multi-line where you can. If some column headings have to be
heading
split over more than one line, align the headings at
the top. But because the headings will no longer
10.5 A long heading hung from
form a distinct line, it is a good idea to use a hori-
the same point as a short one.
Use a horizontal line underneath zontal rule below them, to distinguish clearly
to divide headings from data. between the heading area and the table content.
busdocpages_quark 4/6/02 9:18 pm Page 29
South 12 2,341,230 3 56
Row headings
Write short headings, if you can. If you have to go to
a second line, indent it slightly, or make sure there
is more space between each row heading than between
the lines in a single heading.
0 0
1st qtr 2nd qtr 3rd qtr 4th qtr 1st qtr 2nd qtr 3rd qtr 4th qtr
60
small medium large
50
25
40
20
30
15
20
10
10 5
0 0
1988 1989 1990 1991 1988 1989 1990 1991
10.12 A stacked column chart If it is important that readers compare the subtotals, you should use col-
shows the breakdown of a total umn clusters instead. The use of rules to define the scale all the way
into subtotals. But because the across the chart provides a useful point of comparison to assess the
different sections begin at differ- totals of columns, especially those furthest from the axis. It may be
ent points, it is difficult to make an helpful to repeat the y-axis on the right-hand side too.
accurate comparison.
busdocpages_quark 4/6/02 9:18 pm Page 31
ab
aaaaaaa
bbbbbb
1980
ab aaaaaaaaaaa
bbbbbbbbbb
1990
1980 1990
10.13 It is impossible to tell It is better to repeat the symbols, each one representing a set
whether we are meant to com- number of objects (this system is sometimes known as Isotype,
pare the area or the height of after the Isotype Institute where it was first developed).
these symbols. Area is not a
good unit for comparison
because people aren’t good
Bar and column charts allow a direct comparison
at judging surface area. between lengths that start at the same base – some-
thing the human eye is very good at. Avoid tech-
niques that don’t allow such a simple comparison –
including stacked bar charts and different sized
symbols. Use side-by-side bars or repeated symbols
instead.
Many spreadsheet programs offer a dazzling array
of statistical graphics, including three-dimensional
effects and shadows. Be ultra-critical – make sure
that you really need the techniques offered and that
they won’t just obscure your data.
If you create your charts in a drawing program
and then import them into a page make-up program,
stretching can distort the chart (and distort the type
contained in it). Sizing must be done carefully to
preserve the proportions.
20 20
10 10
0 0
1988 1989 1990 1991 1988 1989 1990 1991
Elaine Matthews
Giant Productions
•
25 April 1992
•
your letters and faxes appear typeset (not typewrit-
Dear Ms Matthews
Fax no.
Elaine Matthews
Company Giant productions
44 765 67897
From
Date
Pages
Henri Pelvaux
20 May 1992
4
Factors that should remain constant are:
• information about your organization
Re Installation of address database
• type size
ting whole texts in it, such as the celebrated Diary of Lady
Willoughby. This use of an outmoded typeface was perhaps the
first consciously historicist revival, and Updike sees it as
important for this reason.
Whittingham and Pickering admired classic texts, and the
fine printed form given to them in fifteenth century Italy
and Sixteenth-century France. They used Caslon only for poet-
ic and literary works, which had mostly been first published
• leading
before 1800. Some of their editions featured facsimilies of
• text area
decorated initials first used by Geoffrey Tory in France in
the 1520s. A concerted effort was therefore made to imitate
the form of Renaissance literature, a natural step for those
interested in romantic and literary matters rather than the
scientific and industrial concerns of the day, which are rep-
resented in the ultimate rationality of the modern face.
Therefore, it was a literary, rather than scholarly
revival: Whittingham himself said that he wished to revive
‘the old letters of Garamond and Jenson’ (p.96) This is a
• house-style (see Section 5.2 Aspects of typographic
generic notion old face, taking in two different styles,
which would admittedly not be historically and aesthetically
separated until Morison. Caslon typified this notion, which
is understandable, as it is the logical continuation of the
style).
Garamond style, taking into account the rational elements
11.1 Stationery
Because letters and faxes are everyday documents,
which need a stamp of identity, you will probably
have a range of pre-printed stationery. This bears
the details of your organization, sometimes with a
logo or namestyle.
Page size
Most headed paper will be of standard size (A4 or US
letter): there is really no other choice, as you will
have to feed the paper through your printer and
probably use standard envelopes designed to accom-
modate these sizes.
busdocpages_quark 4/6/02 9:18 pm Page 33
If you are likely to use window envelopes, you exhibition lighting 25 Letsby Avenue · York · YK9 7TG phone 0867 896345 fax 0867 896355
pierre
derain
should check that your letterhead conforms to the our ref: der25/678/1
your ref: Y786G
28 December 1991
Salfords
Redhill
lines for the areas to be left blank, so that the recipi- Dear Graham
Old face types are those which derive their essential characteristics from the
humanistic minuscule, the formal script developed by Renaissance scholars in
envelope. Your letterhead may have an indication from ancient Roman inscriptions, as the brush-written monumental capitals of
the Romans were revived in the humanistic script.
Today, the typefaces from this tradition are a cornerstone of our typographic
repertoire, still being the most commonly used for text of all kinds. This promi-
of this area to guide you in typing the address: if nence is due to several conscious revivals by printers, scholars and manufactur-
ers in the nineteenth and twentieth centuries. The figure of Stanley Morison has
become almost mythical in this area, due to his rôle as typographical advisor to
the Monotype Corporation in England. Morison’s scholarly obsession certainly
is worth sending a copy of a letter to yourself to see Whittingham at the Chiswick Press began to use the old face type of William
Caslon (c.1720) for their collaborations. This late essay in the old face tradition
had been popular in England and America until the pervasive influence of the
modern face from Italy and France.
if the address is still visible after the rigours of the Yours sincerely
Pierre Derain
post, and to see what your letter looks like to a Pierre Derain
recipient.
If in the course of your business, you use refer- 11.2 This letterhead conforms to
the British Standard recommen-
ence numbers on your letters, it may be difficult to
dations. The left-hand margin is
align a number that you are typing with an associ- at least 20mm to allow users to
ated heading on your pre-printed stationery. A bet- punch holes for filing without
ter option might be to have the heading on your damaging the printed area.
The area for the address is
template file, so that you can align the reference indicated by some small marks,
number with it directly. so that it remains visible when the
Similarly, if your headed paper does not indicate letter is folded and inserted into a
standard window envelope. You
where you should begin the text of your letter, you
should allow about 7mm for slip-
could define a specific point. You could mark the page between the address and
starting point in your template file or, if you are the edge of the window.
using a word-processing program, adjust the page- There is also a small mark on
the left-hand edge to guide fold-
setup parameters so that you always start typing at ing.
the correct position.
Faxes
Faxes must include the same information about you
as your letterhead. For this reason, you may want to
use the same headed paper and even the same stand-
ard text style. However, beware of the effects faxing
has on type: some of the essential information in a
letterhead may be in quite small type, which may
become illegible after faxing, so you may want to set
up your own separate headed paper for faxing (see
Section 14 Technology and type). Try them out to
make sure they are legible after transmission.
BS 1808 : 1985 (1990) Specification for cut business forms and letter-
heads, London, British Standards Institution, 1990.
Interactive systems analysis 209 West 23rd Street Interactive systems analysis 209 West 23rd Street
Wilmington MA 02230 Wilmington MA 02230
Dear Ms Matthews
Dear Ms Matthews
Clearly, for some products such as table grapes and
aubergines, withdrawal is not an important outlet; whereas Clearly, for some products such as table grapes and aubergines,
for others, such as apples (a storable crop), peaches and withdrawal is not an important outlet; whereas for others, such
mandarins, it is. Opinions will differ as to the real as apples (a storable crop), peaches and mandarins, it is.
importance of withdrawal for the other products listed,
Opinions will differ as to the real importance of withdrawal
because it is in the nature of markets for highly
for the other products listed, because it is in the nature of
perishable goods for unsaleable gluts to emerge from time
to time, and the figures reported in table b may simply markets for highly perishable goods for unsaleable gluts to
reflect an institutionalization of gluts which would in any emerge from time to time, and the figures reported in table b
case exist. may simply reflect an institutionalization of gluts which would
It might also be protested that, as far as British
in any case exist.
growers are concerned, withdrawal is of minimum importance.
Whilst it is true that relatively little is withdrawn in
It might also be protested that, as far as British growers
the UK, the market inter-linkages within the European are concerned, withdrawal is of minimum importance. Whilst it
Community, particularly after ‘1992’, must not be is true that relatively little is withdrawn in the UK, the
forgotten. In a Single European Market a domino effect market inter-linkages within the European Community,
prevails, and withdrawal mechanisms help support British
particularly after ‘1992’, must not be forgotten. In a Single
market prices as well as market prices in the countries in
European Market a domino effect prevails, and withdrawal
which withdrawal actually takes place. The UK does not have
to produce peaches for its horticultural producers to mechanisms help support British market prices as well as market
benefit from the EEC withdrawal mechanisms for peaches, for prices in the countries in which withdrawal actually takes
in the absence of such heavy withdrawals as have occurred place. The UK does not have to produce peaches for its
in the past it is conceivable that larger quantities of
horticultural producers to benefit from the EEC withdrawal
lower-priced peaches could appear in British shops, eroding
mechanisms for peaches, for in the absence of such heavy
the market for other fresh produce in season at the time.
In 1989, a Committee of the European Parliament withdrawals as have occurred in the past it is conceivable that
challenged the view that withdrawal supported market prices larger quantities of lower-priced peaches could appear in
to the detriment of consumer interests. In particular it British shops, eroding the market for other fresh produce in
said: Given that they are a form of price and income
season at the time.
support, there might be a temptation to view the arrange-
1 1
35
14.2 Samples of Monotype type- Most typefaces are designed for high-resolution
faces printed at 300 dpi on a typesetting machines (e.g. 1270 lpi), and would not
laser printer.
normally reproduce well at medium resolution (e.g.
300 dpi). However typefaces for DTP are specially pro-
10 pt Monotype Bodoni Bold
grammed to look as good as possible at all resolu-
Condensed printed at 300 dpi
tions.
Some typefaces with very thin
elements are not suitable for If your printer is of a low or medium resolution,
medium-resolution output. you should choose your typeface carefully. Type-
faces with fine serifs, like Times New Roman or
10 pt Times New Roman Monotype Bodoni, can lose their elegance and,
printed at 300 dpi worse, their legibility.
Times New Roman is a standard Photocopying also has unpredictable effects on
choice, but may also suffer due to
type – sometimes it makes letters thinner, some-
its fine elements.
times thicker. Faxing breaks type into coarse digital
elements, a process as unpredictable as photocopy-
10 pt Nimrod printed
ing, but almost always worse. Letters can become
at 300 dpi
black blobs or even appear to transform into other
Nimrod is a robust typeface
designed specifically for adverse letters due to the insensitivity of the process.
printing conditions. To avoid typeface degradation, especially when
you cannot predict whether or not a document will
10 pt Arial printed at be photocopied or faxed:
300 dpi • Choose a robust and open typeface (not a con-
Arial’s wide proportions and stur- densed style). Although it is tempting to use a
dy weight survive well. ‘classical’ looking typeface, a bolder sans serif
design might survive better.
10 pt Courier • Avoid small typesizes, so that letters are better
printed at 300 dpi defined before copying or transmission.
Courier, designed for the rigours
It is worth doing some trials of photocopying and
of the typewriter, is also resilient
to medium-resolution output. faxing with different typefaces and sizes to see
which combination survives well. You only need to
do it once, then stick to the choice you have made as
a standard.
With the careful use of type, clear structure, and
careful planning, you can make the work of your
readers a lot easier.