ABB Inc.

2013
Mustafa Lahloub, ABB INC April 16, 2013
ABB Red TIE Series
Transformer Failure Modes
ABB Inc. 2013
Transformer Failure Modes
Agenda
Primary Causes of Transformer Failure
Balancing the three leg stool
Thermal degradation
Dielectric withstand
Mechanical performance
Causes of insulation system degradation
Identification of failure vulnerabilities including key
transformer components
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Transformer Failure Modes
Core Form Transformer
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Transformer Failure Modes
Stresses Acting on Power Transformers
Mechanical Stresses
Between conductors, leads and windings due to
overcurrents or fault currents caused by short circuits and
inrush currents
Thermal Stresses
Due to local overheating, overload currents and leakage
fluxes when loading above nameplate ratings; malfunction
of cooling equipment
Dielectric Stresses
Due to system overvoltages, transient impulse conditions
or internal resonance of windings
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The fault current is
governed by:
Open-circuit voltage
Source impedance
Instant of fault onset
Displacement of
current
Transformer Failure Modes
Mechanical Stresses in Power Transformers
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Transformer Failure Modes
Mechanical Stresses in Power Transformers
A short circuit gives rise to:
Mechanical forces
Temperature rise
The transformer must be designed so
that permanent damage does not take
place
Electromagnetic forces tend to increase
the volume of high flux
Inner winding to reduced radius
Outer winding towards increased
radius
Winding height reduction
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Inner
winding
Outer
winding
Radial forces inwards
compressive stress
Radial forces outwards
tensile stress
Fmean
Transformer Failure Modes
Mechanical Stresses in Power Transformers
Effect of the radial forces on windings
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Inner
winding
Outer
winding
Transformer Failure Modes
Mechanical Stresses in Power Transformers
Radial forces result in:
Buckling for inner windings
Increased radius for outer windings
Spiraling of end turns in helical winding
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Axial short circuit forces accumulate towards winding mid-height
The radial
component of
the leakage
flux creates
forces in axial
direction
Transformer Failure Modes
Mechanical Stresses in Power Transformers
Effect of the axial forces on windings
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B B Fax
Fax
B B F
ax
Fax
Axial imbalance
will create extra
axial forces
The forces tend
to increase the
imbalance
Transformer Failure Modes
Mechanical Stresses in Power Transformers Axial
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Failure mode Spiraling:
Characteristic failure mode
for inner and outer winding
Failure mode Buckling:
Characteristic failure
mode for inner winding
Transformer Failure Modes
Mechanical Stresses in Power Transformers - Radial
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Transformer Failure Modes
Mechanical Stresses in Power Transformers
Two examples showing buckling of inner windings
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Axial force failure modes:
Collapse of winding end support
Tilting of winding conductors
Telescoping of windings
Bending of cables between spacers
Damage of conductor insulation
Transformer Failure Modes
Mechanical Stresses in Power Transformers
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Failure mode
Conductor tilting
Failure mode
Bending of cables
Failure mode
Collapse of end support
Transformer Failure Modes
Mechanical Stresses in Power Transformers
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Transformer Failure Modes
Mechanical Stresses in Power Transformers
Axial forces cause:
Mechanical stress on insulation material
Risk for conductor tilting
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Transformer Failure Modes
Short-Circuit Failure
Unit Auxiliary Test Transformer Failure
Internal High Speed Film Camera Footage
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Originally taken by The General Electric Company at
Pittsfield, Massachusetts
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Movies should be screened in the
grey area as featured here, size
proportion 4:3. No titles should be
used.
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Transformer Failure Modes
Risk: Short Circuit Forces & Stresses
Through faults are often the cause of
transformer failures
Many older designs have insufficient
margin for todays fault currents
Loose coils due to aging can cause
failures
Normal aging can cause brittle
insulation and increased failures
Even brief overloading may cause
significant aging
Oxygen in the oil can double the
aging rate
Moisture in the insulation increases
aging rate 2-5 times depending on
the amount of moisture
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Transformer Failure Modes
Mechanical Risk: Short Circuit Forces & Stresses

Figure 3. Results of the Short-Circuit Strength Design Analysis used in a Life Assessment Study
HV Radial
(Hoop)
HV Axial
(tipping or
crushing)
LV Radial
(Buckling)
LV Axial
(tipping or
crushing)
LTC
Winding
Radial
(Buckling)
LTC
Winding
Axial
(tipping)
Design #1
Design #2
Design #3
Design #4
Little Risk of Failure
Slight Risk of Failure
High Risk of Failure
D
e
s
i
g
n

M
a
r
g
i
n

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Transformer Failure Modes
Thermal Stresses in Power Transformers
Loading is primarily limited by highest permissible temperatures in the
transformer, especially within the windings
Temperature limits are based on:
Expected lifetime
The risk for oil vaporization
Permissible temperatures are generally expressed as temperature rises
above ambient
Ambient temperature is in turn defined by current standards
24 hour ambient temperature average 30 C
Maximum ambient 40 C
In accordance to Standards:
Winding temperature rise 65 K
Top oil temperature rise 65 K
Hot spot temperature rise 80 K
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Winding hot spot
Top oil rise
hot spot factor
Winding average rise
Copper over winding oil gradient
Ambient
Winding
Temperature
Bottom oil
Copper over tank oil gradient
Transformer Failure Modes
Winding Temperature Rise and HS Calculation
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Transformer Failure Modes
Thermal Risk: Intensive aging
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Transformer Failure Modes
Thermal Risk: Intensive aging
Cellulose insulation is a polymer of glucose molecules.
The glucose molecules are joined together to form a long chain.
These chains form the fiber used to make insulation.
Natural chains may be up to 1400 elements long.
Reduction of this Polymerization number occurs during manufacture of the
insulation material and the transformer.
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Transformer Failure Modes
Cellulose Insulation
Cellulose Fiber Chain
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Transformer Failure Modes
Degree of Polymerization - DP
Degree of polymerization is a measure of the number of intact chains in a
cellulose fiber.
It provides an indication of the ability of the transformer insulation to
withstand mechanical force (due to through-faults, etc).
New transformer insulation is about 1200 -1000 DP.
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Transformer Failure Modes
Factors affecting DP
Chemical reactions cause de-polymerization (breaking of polymer chains):
Hydrolysis due to water. (Moisture in transformer)
Pyrolysis due to heat. (Hot spots, overloads,etc.)
Oxidation due to Oxygen. (Oxygen in oil)
Acidity of the oil also accelerates this process.
Aging occurs at normal load and ambient temperature but it is accelerated by
high insulation temperature, humidity and oxygen.
This reduces the insulation mechanical strength and the windings become
more vulnerable to physical damage or dielectric failure during through-faults.
Windings hot spots are more affected than the insulation between the
windings as the host spot areas age faster. Insulation between windings may
however loose some dielectric strength due to absorbing moisture.
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0.1
1.0
10.0
100.0
1000.0
10000.0
50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120 130 140 150
Temperature [
o
C]
L
i
f
e

E
x
p
e
c
t
a
n
c
y

(
y
e
a
r
s
)
Dry & Clean (Insuldur)
Acidic Oil (Insuldur)
1% Water Content (Insuldur)
3-4% Water Content (Insuldur)
Transformer Failure Modes
Life Expectancy Based on DP and Other Factors
It is assumed that the DP of transformer insulation is approx. 1,000 at the start of life and approx.
200 at the end of life. This graph shows the expected life of thermally upgraded insulation
(Insuldur) under various conditions:
For long insulation life expectancy, it is important to keep the insulation dry, keep acidity
and oxygen concentration of oil low and provide good cooling for insulation
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Transformer Failure Modes
Thermal Stresses in Power Transformers
Life Expectancy Based on DP and Other Factors
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Transformer Failure Modes
DP Measurement Method
The DP is measured by viscosity measurements according an ASTM method
after dissolving the paper samples in cupriethylene diamine solvent.
Paper samples must be taken from enough different areas in a transformer
in order to get a profile of deterioration of the cellulose
When combined with detailed design knowledge, measurements in one
area of the transformer can give information on the condition of paper in
inaccessible areas of the windings.
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Transformer Failure Modes
Dielectric Stresses in Power Transformers
Overvoltage integrity
Overvoltages can be divided into two classes:
Continuous
Transitory
Continuous overvoltage is related to the core and its magnetization
(normal 50Hz or 60 Hz stresses)
Transitory overvoltage refers to intermittent stresses placed on the
insulation system, usually at much higher levels than the power
frequency stresses
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Lightning and switching impulse
surges are called Transients
because their duration is short.
The frequencies are much higher
than the power frequency (60 Hz
here) operation frequency.
Transient calculations are used to
find the time dependent distribution
of transient voltages, applied on the
line terminals, over the windings.
Transformer Failure Modes
Dielectric Stresses in Power Transformers
Transient Voltages
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Winding
Win-
ding
length
Voltage
Winding oscillation
Transformer Failure Modes
Dielectric Stresses in Power Transformers
u
1
,
0
0
,
8
0
,
6
0
,
4
0
,
2
0
0
0
,
1
0
,
2
0
,
3
0
,
4
0
,
5
0
,
6
0
,
7
0
,
8
0
,
9
1
,
0
h

/

H
4
2
3
1
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2 D field plots
can be used to
check the
design of the
main insulation
2 D Field Plot
Transformer Failure Modes
Dielectric Stresses - Main Insulation Design
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Field distribution over the barriers and
HV-LV windings
CAD-model
FLC evaluation
Transformer Failure Modes
Analysis of Bushing Failure
525 kV unit assumed bushing failure
Simulation showed electric stress was greatest on the paper
insulation around the shield ring
Used simulation to redesign insulation barriers
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Transformer Failure Modes
Top transformer failures (78%) from Doble:
43% winding insulation
19% bushings
16% tap changers
Other areas of concern:
Pollution, dust & debris affecting bushings & cooling
systems
Cooling System inefficiency
COPS Tank elevation
Blocking or Wedging
In 1998, Hartford Steam Boiler projected:
2% annual failure rate of existing installed base in 2008
5% annual failure rate of existing installed base by 2013
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Transformer Failure Modes / Diagnostic Techniques
Highly Effective On-line Actions are Best
PROBLEMS DIAGNOSTIC TECHNIQUES
SERVICE CONDITIONS
OF THE EQUIPMENT
[1]
PROVEN
EFFECTIVENESS
[2]
MECHANICAL
1. Excitation Current
2. Low-voltage impulse
3. Frequency response analysis
4. Leakage inductance measurement
5. Capacitance
OFF-S
OFF-S
OFF-S
OFF-S
OFF-S
M
L
H
M/H
H
THERMAL
GAS-IN-OIL ANALYSIS
6. Gas chromatography
7. Equivalent Hydrogen method
ON
ON
H
M
OIL-PAPER DETERIORATION
8. Liquid chromatography-DP method
9. Furan Analysis
ON
ON
M/H
M/H
HOTSPOT DETECTION
10. Invasive sensors
11. Infrared thermography
ON
ON
L
H
DIELECTRIC
OIL ANALYSIS
12. Moisture, electric strength, resistivity, etc.
ON M
13. Turns ratio OFF-S L
PD MEASUREMENT
14. Ultrasonic method
15. Electrical method
ON
ON
M/H
M/H
16. Power Factor and Capacitance
17. Dielectric Frequency Response
OFF-S
OFF-S
H
H
ABB Service Handbook for Transformers, Table 3-1, Page 72
[1] OFF-S =equipment out of service at site, OFF-L =equipment out of service in laboratory, ON =equipment in service
[2] H=High, M=Medium, L=Low
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Transformer Failure Modes
Solutions to Common Problems Exist
Upgrade and retrofit solutions to
alleviate a number of know and
unknown operating risks including:
Streaming Electrification
Nitrogen Gas Bubble Evolution
COPS System Elevation
GE Mark II Clamping
Shell Form Rewedging
GE Type U Bushings
Cooling Problems
LTC Problems
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Transformer Failure Modes
Case #1 Floating Shield between HV and LV
FRA tests were performed on a 42-MVA transformer, 115/46 kV (delta-wye), to
investigate high acetylene level in the DGA
End-to-end measurements on HV windings and capacitive interwinding tests
between HV and LV showed a problem on phase B
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Transformer Failure Modes
Case #1 Floating Shield between HV and LV
The fault was a loose electric contact of the copper
bonding braid on the aluminum shield strips which caused
the strips to float electrically
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Transformer Failure Modes
Case #2 Shorted Core Laminations
The measurements were performed on a three-phase transformer rated 250
MVA, 212 kV/ 110 kV/ 10.5 kV, before and after the repair of the core.
The first core-related resonance is clearly modified by the fault: the shorted
laminations caused a decrease in the core magnetizing inductance
(increase in resonance frequency) and an increase in the eddy currents in
the core (increased damping).
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Transformer Failure Modes
Case #2 Shorted Core Laminations
The core fault is shown below
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Transformer Failure Modes
Case #3 Shorted Turns
FRA responses of the series windings of a 140-MVA autotransformer (220/69 kV
with tertiary winding).
The fault was located on phase C of the tertiary winding. In this condition, the
low-frequency measurement on the HV winding of the same phase was
influenced because of the lower inductance due to the shorted turns on a winding
of the same phase (increased first resonance frequency).
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Transformer Failure Modes
FRA Diagnostic Example More Shorted Turns
Shorted turns in transformers are produced by turn-to-turn faults
and may have the following characteristics:
Adjacent turns lose paper and braze/weld together
They result in a solid loop around the core
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Transformer Failure Modes
FRA Diagnostic Example Axial Collapse
Axial winding collapse is likely to have the following characteristics:
Produced within a transformer winding due to excessive axial forces during a fault
Windings shift relative to each other
Gassing may result
Transformer integrity is compromised
Failure likely to be catastrophic if transformer continues in service
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Transformer Failure Modes
FRA Diagnostic Example Hoop Buckling
Hoop buckling is produced within a transformer
winding due to excessive compressive forces during
a fault.
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Transformer Failure Modes
FRA Diagnostic Example Hoop Buckling
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Transformer Failure Modes
FRA Diagnostic Example Clamping Failure
A clamping failure may be produced within a
transformer winding due to bulk winding movement.
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Transformer Failure Modes
Dielectric Frequency Response Testing
Moisture in the cellulose insulation
High oil conductivity due to aging or overheating of the
oil
Chemical contamination of cellulose insulation
Carbon tracking in cellulose
High resistance in the magnetic core steel circuit
The DFR test is a series of power factor
measurements at multiple frequencies.
It provides more information about the
dielectric behavior of the insulation
system.
The method be used to diagnose the
following conditions in transformers:
Hi
Lo
Hi
Lo
Hi
Lo
Ground
Hi
Lo
Ground
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0.001
0.010
0.100
1.000
1 1 8 3 5
T
a
n

D
Aged Oil, 0.5%
Moisture
Good Oil 1.3%
Moisture
PF =. 00324
.001 .01 .1 1 10 100 1000
Frequency, Hz
Transformer Failure Modes
DFR Testing Distinguishing Between Aged Oil and
Moisture
60
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0.001
0.010
0.100
1.000
1 1 8 3 5
T
a
n

D
Aged Oil, 0.5%
Moisture
Good Oil 1.3%
Moisture
PF =. 00324
Measured DR
0.7% Moisture
.001 .01 .1 1 10 100 1000
Frequency, Hz
Transformer Failure Modes
DFR Analysis Fitting the Right Dielectric Parameters
60
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Dielectric Response Fingerprint Function caused by a
High Core to Ground Resistance in Auxiliary
Transformer
.01 .10 1 10 100 1000
Frequency, Hz
XV to Ground
XV to Ground after Repair
Transformer Failure Modes
DFR Example High Core Ground Resistance
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.01
.10
1 10 100 1000
Frequency, Hz
Dielectric Response Fingerprint Function caused by
Chemical Contamination of the Windings
Transformer Failure Modes
DFR Signature Example Chemical Contamination
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.01 .10 1 10 100 1000
Frequency, Hz
Normal Moisture(.7%)
High Moisture(1.7%)
Dielectric Response Fingerprint Function Showing the
Effect of High Moisture
Transformer Failure Modes
DFR Example Effect of High Insulation Moisture
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Surface Moisture in Paper Estimated Only From Moisture in
Oil Against Volume Moisture From DFR
Volume Moisture in Paper
Xfrmr #
Temp
(
o
C)
Type Constr.
Oi l Cond
(pS/m)
Moi st by Oi l
Sat (%wt)
Moi st. by DR
(%wt)
1 23 GSU Core 0.381 2.5 0.9
2 28 GSU Core 0.492 1.8 0.9
3 23 GSU Core 0.412 1.4 0.9
4 23 GSU Core 1.34 2.8 0.7
5 13 3-wdg Shell 1.5 * 1.2
6 27 Auto Core 3 3.5 2
7 27 Auto Shell 0.3 3.3 1
Transformer Failure Modes
DFR Moisture Analysis versus Moisture Equilibrium
Method
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Loading Limits Based On Moisture Content
Hottest Spot
Temperature(
o
C)
Cellulose
Moisture
(%)
Overload Type
Overload Level
with 40C
Ambient
120 3.5 Normal Loading 0%
130 2.4 Planned O/L Beyond N/P 6%
140 1.7 Long Time Emergency (1-3 mo.) 12%
180 0.8 Short-Time Emergency ( -2hr) 40%
Transformer Failure Modes
DFR Analysis Moistures and Loading Capability
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