DATABASE TECHNOLOGY

INTRODUCTION
Vast variety of services around the world are accessible by users anywhere at any point of time,
thus accelerating the increase of the amount of processed data in a very short period of time .this
is because of database technologies. A data base is organized collection of data. The data are
typically organized to model relevant aspects of reality in a way that supports processes requiring
this information. For example modeling the availability of rooms in hotels in a way that supports
finding a hotel with vacancies.
!ne can enter and retrieve information from the database. "atabase technology allows multiple
users to access at the same time and exchange vital information to and from the database.
TASK 1
1.1 Current and Emerging Appi!ati"n# "$ Data%a#e
Finance# $% ban&s use database systems to process their financial transactions. The 'ondon
stoc& exchange relies on database management system for recording, buying and selling of stoc&
which happens very quic&ly and in large quantities.
Transport#The airlines all use online seat reservation systems and have systems for scheduling
aircrafts, maintaining timetables, for handling the in#flight catering and for mechanical servicing
of the planes. (imilar systems exist for rail, sea and road transport.
$tilities#The ma)or utilities#water, electricity, gas all have generation and distribution system
based on database technology.
*esources#The mineral exploration companies and governments also regulate them especially for
oil exploration and extraction which have data structures and components.
+roduction ,ngineering# From scheduling wor& flow through the production lines of machines to
stoc& control and order processing, database technology underpins all activity in this area.
,nvironment#+rotection and control of the environment by government agencies depends heavily
on database systems with -.( facilities, together with databases of toxic substances and clean up
recommendations.
Tourism# /otel systems and local tourist attractions pac&age tour operators have extensive
databases for holiday planning and boo&ing, together with financial systems for payment and
invoicing.
'eisure# The entertainment industry uses database systems extensively for theatre, concert and
cinema tic&et boo&ings.
0ulture# 1useums, art galleries, history exhibitions# all utilize database technology for
cataloguing their collections and recording access to them.
,ducation# 0ourses, materials and assessments all rely heavily on database technology with
hypermedia delivery systems allows courseware to be maintained up to date and delivered to the
consumer.
/ealthcare#+rimary healthcare has long relied on database technology to schedule hospital beds
or appointments at clinics .The patient health record has been the sub)ect of intensive study over
many years because of the security and privacy issues. "atabase technology has also helped in
studying and developing cures for many chronic diseases. ,pidemiology utilizes database
technology to hold and organize &ey information from many patients in order to allow statistical
processing to detect trends and to alert medical practitioners to possible epidemics.
-overnment# The administration could be paralyzed without database technology. The
collection of taxes and payment of social security benefits depends totally on database
technology.
*etail#The ma)or retail stores utilize database technology in stoc& control and +!( 2+oint !f sale
system3.modern retailers use advanced data mining techniques to determine trends in sales and
customer preference to optimize stoc& control, retail performance, customer convenience and
profit.
1.& DATA 'INING
"ata mining sometimes called data or &nowledge discovery is the process of analyzing data from
different perspectives and summarizing it into useful information that can be used to increase
revenue, cut costs or both. Technically data mining is the process of finding correlations or
patterns among dozens of fields in large relational databases.
For example ta&ing the wor& of A and % (uper store, "ata 1ining capacity can be used to
analyze local buying patterns. 'i&e men purchase beverages mostly on (aturdays along with
their groceries. (o the store can earn revenues by arranging display of beverages along with
grocery. Also some more other items li&e bac&pac& being purchased based on a consumers
purchase of sleeping bags and hi&ing shoes, is other set of correlation between various consumer
behaviors reached on the basis of data mining.
1.&.1 HO( DOES E)ERYTHING (ORKS*
DATA
Today organizations are collecting vast amounts of data in different formats and in different
databases. This includes #
4. !+,*AT.!5A' "ATA# such as sales, cost, inventory, payroll and accounting.
6. 5!5#!+,*AT.!5A' "ATA# such as industry sales, forecast data.
7. 1,TA "ATA# data about data itself, such as logical database design or data dictionary
definitions.
.5F!*1AT.!5
The patterns, associations or relationships among all this data can provide information. For
example, analysis of retail point of sale transaction data can yield information on which products
are selling and when.
%5!8',"-,
.nformation can be converted into &nowledge about historical patterns and future trends. For
example, summary information on retail supermar&et sales can be analyzed in light of
promotional efforts to provide &nowledge of consumer buying behavior. Thus a manufacturer or
retailer could determine which items are most susceptible to promotional efforts.
/!8 "!,( "ATA 1.5.5- 8!*%
8hile large# scale information technology has been evolving separate transaction and analytical
systems, data mining provides the lin& between the two. "ata mining software analysis the
relationships and patterns in stored transaction data based on open#ended user queries. -enerally,
any of four types of relationships are sought
0lasses (tored data is used to locate data in predetermined groups. For example, a restaurant
chain could mine customer purchase data to determine when customers visit and what they
typically order. This information could be used to increase traffic by having daily specials.
Associations "ata can be mined to identify associations. The grocery and beverages example
stated is a case of associative mining.
(equential +atterns "ata is mined to anticipate behavior patterns and trends. For example an
outdoor equipment retailer could predict the li&elihood of a bac&pac& being purchased based on a
consumer9s purchase of sleeping bags and hi&ing shoes.
1.+ (,at I# Data (are,"u#ing
"ata warehousing is defined as a process of centralized data management and retrieval .data
warehousing represents an ideal vision of maintaining a central repository of all organizational
data. 0entralization of data is needed to maximize user access and analysis.
"ata 1ining 0onsists !f Five 1a)or ,lements#
4. ,xtract, transform and load transaction data onto the data warehouse system.
6. (tore and manage the data in a multidimensional database system.
7. +rovide data access to business analysts and information technology professionals.
:. Analyze the data by application software.
;. +resent the data in a useful format such as a graph or table.
TASK*&
&.1 I##ue# in-"-ed .it, tran#a!ti"n pr"!e##ing in data%a#e #/#tem
Transaction processing is indeed very important as far as the efficiency and the effectiveness of
the database system is considered because it is the transaction processing capability of the
architecture and the time ta&en to do so, which is most crucial as far as the performance is
considered and in order to get the best performance from the database system it is very crucial to
understand the ma)or issues involved in the process. A transaction processing ta&es place when
an input is made from the user9s end in the form of a query which ma&es some changes in the
database which could be an addition or subtraction made on the data in the database. A
completely managed transaction processing refers to the complete and successful completion of
the transaction without any fault or failure. Transaction processing also ensures that when the
data is added or deleted from the database, it should not affect the integrity of the database. The
various issues involved in transaction processing are#
.solated transactions# .t refers to the property that the transactions from the concurrent
applications should not interfere with each other. The updates or the changes in one
transaction should not be visible in the other transaction. (ince the database of an
organization has many levels and it has information which is crucial and should have
only limited access and by no means should it get into the hands of unauthorized access.
Transaction processing at multiple stations# .f a business involves a lot of transactions
and if these transactions are occurring at different locations for example a superstore can
have multiple spots including the cash counters, stoc& counters and exit counters, in such
a situation the single database is accessed from multiple places and the updates in the
database are made from many locations, this could cause some problems with the overall
structure or the design as if some crucial data is altered then it might affect the processing
of other information which is dependent on the data being modified, so this thing needs to
be ta&en into consideration.
(tandardization of the processing and interpretation# The database on which all the
operations are carried out should be designed in such a way that all the commands
executed even if at different locations should have the similar impact, in other words the
graphical user interface which interacts with the main user should be in accordance with
the rules which guide the processing and execution of a particular command. This will
remove any &ind of ambiguity among the execution of the tas& which may arise as a
result of the interpretation of the database and its connectivity with the client and the
server model.
(ecurity# This is one of the most essential part of the database system and indeed the one
which companies do care a lot about. The data in the database is the most crucial part of
any business entity and the loss of this data can lead to big losses for the organization.
The database administrator needs to be very concerned with the security of the database
and the access of the data should be limited to the extent of the use which an individual
has with the database.
&.& E-auati"n "$ pr"%em# i$ data%a#e i# n"t managed pr"per/
"atabase management is the most crucial part of the business and it is indeed necessary
to &eep the database system wor&ing every second, because even if for a single minute
the database system does not wor& properly, it will create enormous problems for the
organization and could lead to huge business losses during the same, a number of
problems could be encountered if the database is not managed properly, some of the
ma)or problems could be#
1odification anomalies# These anomalies are the form of data inconsistencies that
arise as a result of the data redundancy, these issues are also termed as update
anomalies. (o if the database is not managed properly it can bring is such
problems further decreasing the credibility of the data from the database.
+oor data quality# .f the database is not managed properly, it might lead to the
uneven storage of the data with the repetitions and un wanted results which will
only waste the time of the users when accessing the database. Along with this
there are chances that the searches will never come up with what exactly is
required further leading to the failure of the whole system.
*is&s associated with the loss of data# "atabase is an integral part of the business
and its processes and almost all the processes of the business becomes totally
dependent on the database once it is implemented into the system and in case if
the database is not managed properly, it might result into the loss of the data and
this can bring the functioning of the organization to a total halt and in case the
data is lost due to bad management of the database, it may result into big losses.
(ecurity breaches# if the database is not managed properly, it is quite possible that
the continuous attac&s from outside can over ride the security features of a wea&
protection system and can get into the crucial information and within seconds
could damage the credibility of the information. An unorganized database with
poor security features will have less restricted accesses and in such a situation it
can be a big threat for the organization and the business.
&.+ R"e "$ Data%a#e Admini#trat"r in en#uring #e!urit/0 C"n!urren!/0 integrit/ and 1uer/
pr"!e##ing
A database administrator is the role which is responsible for the success of the performance of
the database and the failure too. .n this era the security is becoming an important and a very
crucial issue as far as the database is considered and it totally depends upon the "<A, the &inds
of security measures which he implements on the database system represents the extent to which
the database would be safeguarded against the external and internal attac&s. =uery processing is
yet another domain which represents the time which a query ta&es to execute once it is put into
the execution process, for a system to wor& efficiently, it is very important for the database
system to have the least processing time in the query processing, because lesser is the time in
processing of the query faster would be the execution, ma&ing the system faster. "ata integrity is
indeed important to maintain the structural correctness of the database, higher level of data
integration will lead to better connectivity of the data resulting into better results and thus
lowering the data replication and redundancy of the data, which will further use lesser memory
of the database and will also ta&e less processing of the total system to execute the instructions.
The database administrator has all the administrative controls and presides all the activity that is
considered on or related to the database, all the encryption of the data along with the power to
give the access to the various users on the basis of the requirement is the ma)or role played by
the database administrator, hence all these tas&s are of prime importance and need to be executed
by the database administrator in the perfect way.
TASK*+
+.1 Di$$erent Ar!,ite!ture# "$ Data%a#e
A database system is basically a software system with an architecture where a typical
architecture must define a particular configuration of and the interaction between data software
modules, meta data interfaces and the languages. The architecture of a database system
determines the capability, reliability and efficiency to which it meets the user requirements. The
following are the characteristics of a good database architecture#
The data and the programs are independent entities.
The programming structure is easy to understand and use and is less complicated.
The system designing is easy and hassle free.
The data is highly protected.
The data models are categorized into three types#
/igh level or conceptual data model
*epresentational or implementation data model
'ow level or physical data model
Further database architectures are developed and framed as per the needs of the
organization, typically three types of database architectures are available#
(ingle Tier Architecture# This type of architecture is particularly the simplest and
widely used in the organizations which are not typically very big. .n this model
the server and the client exists in the single tier architecture and are physically
present at the same place and there is localized communication between the server
and the client. The application runs on the local server and the database is also on
the machine which exists locally. This type of architecture is beneficial for
smaller business units where the database is not so large and neither the data
needs to be communicated with the external servers. (uch &ind of architecture is
safe and secure as far as external attac&s are considered because it does not
communicate with the external servers and the chances of the loss of data over the
internet are minimized.
Two Tier Architecture# This type of Architecture is a modified version of the
single tier architecture with the ma)or difference that unli&e in the case of (ingle
Tier architecture in the Two Tier Architecture there are two separate entities
defining the client and the server model. The client is the user of the database and
the application which runs the application on the system or the machine, This
application will further communicate with the external database which could be at
a distant location, the communication between the client and the server is done
using the world wide web where the request is escalated with the help of hyper
text transfer protocol and the communication occurs over the internet with an
external server. This type of architecture is perfect if the number of users is large
but not too large.
Three Tier Architecture# This architecture wo&s on the three concepts of external,
internal and conceptual.
.nternal here specifies how the data is stored in the database which includes the
tas& of allocating the space, compression of the large files and encryption to
compress the files. .t also includes the interface with the operating system to
physically store the files.
0onceptual represents the type of the data which will be stored and the logical
dependency and representation between the various data types and the modules.
,xternal represents the view which is visible to the user or in common sense it is
the graphical user interface with which the user communicates with the system. .n
the three tiers architecture apart from the client and the server relationship, there
exists a different identity which is described as the application tier as it stores the
business logic, separating the crucial data application from the main server,
thereby reducing the load on the main server as well at the client end. This type of
architecture is particularly beneficial for large organizations which have large
business structure. The separation of the business logic from the main database
leads to a better conceptual model leading to faster and secure performance.
+.& 'erit 2 Demerit
The best architecture for the 1 > % superstore should be the two tier structure as it suits the best
for the organization. (ince the organization has many departments apart from a large product
range, it becomes necessary for them to use a model which could support the organization even
in case of the future needs, the two tier structure will be the best for the organization due to the
following advantages which this model offers#
(implicity# This architecture is very simple as far as the applicability to the
organization and the user comfort is considered. This architecture has the ability to
run on the bro&en threads which ma&es the process of designing and implementation
a lot easier.
"istributed bro&er system# The two tier architecture has the benefit that it can easily
distribute the bro&ering tas& between as well as within the application component.
This design therefore provides a lot of flexibility in dealing with multiple and variety
of database , this will be very beneficial as far as the case of 1 > % superstore is
considered as multiple queries could be executed in a more structured format without
any delays.
Fault tolerance and dependability# a two tier structure is more dependable as
compared to a three tier structure as in case of failure of an application only the
database connectivity with a particular application would be affected whereas the
overall system will function normally whereas in the case of the three tier structure, a
single point failure can lead to a complete execution failure or the whole system to
crash which will adversely affect the other processes of the organization too.
A closer encapsulation of the application logic and the database enables and fosters
better performance.
,ven though two tier structure is the best fit for the organization but still it has a few
demerits#
The two tier structure can give optimum performance with a limited number of users
and queries and if any of these quantities rise above a certain limit, it can ma&e the
whole system slow.
8hen wor&ing with large number of users the authentication process becomes a bit
complex due to the different logins connected to the different servers.
Ta#3*4
,verything has been finalized and now it is all about the implementation of the database system,
so the below mentioned is the prototype design representing ; departments in ; tables by using
normalization.
create table dept(
deptno number(2) NOT NULL,
dname varchar2(14),
loc varchar2(13),
constraint pkdept primar! ke! (deptno)
constraint pkloc primar! ke! (deptno)
)"
create table loc(
locno varchar2(4) NOT NULL,
lname varchar2(14),
)"
create table humanresource(
empno number(4) NOT NULL,
ename varchar2(1#),
deptno number(2,#),
$ob varchar2(%),
brthdate date,
sal number(&,2),
constraint pkemp primar! ke! (empno),
constraint 'kdeptno 'orei(n ke! (deptno) re'erences dept (deptno)
)"
create table )*+(
custno number(4) NOT NULL,
custname varchar2(1#),
cphone ,-*).-*(2#) NOT NULL,
locno number(2,#)
)"
create table /nventor!(
itemno number(4) NOT NULL,
itemname varchar2(1#),
cost number(&,2),
)"
create table 0ales(
ono number(4) NOT NULL,
oname varchar2(1#),
itemno number(4) NOT NULL,
itemname varchar2(1#),
cost number(&,2),
)"
create table account(
invno number(4) NOT NULL,
invname varchar2(1#),
itemno number(4) NOT NULL,
cost number(&,2),
insert into dept
values(1#, 1.uman*asource1)"
insert into dept
values(2#, 1)ustomer *elation1)"
insert into dept
values(3#, 1/nventor!1)"
insert into dept
values(4#, 10-L201)"
insert into dept
values(4#, 1-ccount1)"
insert into loc
values(LON3#11, 132L./1)"
insert into loc
values(LON#12, 14-N5-LO*21)"
insert into loc
values(LON#13, 1).-N3/5-*.1)"
insert into loc
values(LON3#14, 1.63*-4-31)"
insert into emp
values(
&73%, 10teve1, 1.*1, null,
todate(11&81181%711,1dd8mm8!!!!1),
9###, null, 1#
)"
insert into emp
values(
&:%7, 1TO+1, 1+-N-52*1, &73%,
todate(118981%711,1dd8mm8!!!!1),
279#, null, 3#
)"
insert into emp
values(
&&72, 1+ichal"1, 1+-N-52*1, &73%,
todate(1%8:81%711,1dd8mm8!!!!1),
249#, null, 1#
)"
insert into emp
values(
&9::, 1;ON201, 1+-N-52*1, &73%,
todate(128481%711,1dd8mm8!!!!1),
2%&9, null, 2#
)"
insert into emp
values(
&&77, 10)Ot1, 1-N-L60T1, &9::,
todate(1138;UL87&1,1dd8mm8rr1) 8 79,
3###, null, 2#
)"
insert into emp
values(
&%#2, 1;ohn1, 1-N-L60T1, &9::,
todate(1381281%711,1dd8mm8!!!!1),
3###, null, 2#
)"
insert into emp
values(
&3:%, 1;-)<1, 1)L2*<1, &%#2,
todate(11&81281%7#1,1dd8mm8!!!!1),
7##, null, 2#
)"
insert into emp
values(
&4%%, 13uck1, 10-L20+-N1, &:%7,
todate(12#8281%711,1dd8mm8!!!!1),
1:##, 3##, 3#
)"
insert into emp
values(
&921, 1=-*31, 10-L20+-N1, &:%7,
todate(1228281%711,1dd8mm8!!!!1),
129#, 9##, 3#
)"
insert into emp
values(
&:94, 1+-*T/N1, 10-L20+-N1, &:%7,
todate(1278%81%711,1dd8mm8!!!!1),
129#, 14##, 3#
)"
insert into emp
values(
&744, 1TU*N2*1, 10-L20+-N1, &:%7,
todate(178%81%711,1dd8mm8!!!!1),
19##, #, 3#
)"
insert into emp
values(
&7&:, 1-3-+01, 1)L2*<1, &&77,
todate(1138;UL87&1, 1dd8mm8rr1) 8 91,
11##, null, 2#
)"
insert into emp
values(
&%##, 1;-+201, 1)L2*<1, &:%7,
todate(1381281%711,1dd8mm8!!!!1),
%9#, null, 3#
)"
insert into emp
values(
&%34, 1+/LL2*1, 1)L2*<1, &&72,
todate(1238181%721,1dd8mm8!!!!1),
13##, null, 1#
)"

insert into sal(rade
values (1, &##, 19##)"
insert into sal(rade
values (2, 12#1, 19##)"
insert into sal(rade
values (3, 14#1, 29##)"
insert into sal(rade
values (4, 2##1, 39##)"
insert into sal(rade
values (9, 3##1, 7777)"
commit"
Five departments9 namely /uman resource, customer relation department, inventory control
department, sales department and accounts department. These five departments are the ma)or
departments which would be wor&ing in close co ordination with each other in the organization.
"ata has been inserted in a way for example in the /* department table, all the details related to
employees have been entered li&e employee name, employee number, )ob title, date of birth,
department number and the salary. .n this table similar tables have been created for the various
departments.
.n this the database is effective with query optimization as it will help to get the relevant results
in the minimum possible time, for example it will help the ground managers to search and loo&
for the optimum levels of the products in the inventory, so that the management of the database
could be done in the best way. Apart from that the data has been stored in the tables in such a
way that the data could be accessed with ease and the editing along with the up gradation to be
done on the database.
As far as the future needs of the 1 > % super store are considered this system is going to be an
efficient and effective one as the initial designing has been done in a way that it provides options
and opportunities for future development and changes which are necessary for development.
"ata security# The system has been designed in a way that it provides security against
external and internal threats. 1ost modern methods of data security have been used
which will provide an extra security to the crucial data of the company. These measures
have been made to provide safety to the database as the security system includes
administrative permissions to access any of the crucial information in the database.
/igh speed transaction processing#The two tier structure has the application server and
the data server wor&ing in close co ordination so it ensures faster and better speed to the
system, thus increasing the speed of the transactions.
?ero failure system# The system has been designed in such a manner that it will have the
minimum ris& of failure, also the data stored in the database has been bac&ed up twice so
that even in case the data is lost due to uncertain reasons, there would be no loss of the
data in practical sense.
$pgraded 1.(# The database system has been installed with a supporting 1.( system
which provides the best of the user interface giving the ease of use and applying the
theories into practice.
"ynamic "atabase management system# This database management system is dynamic
in usage and has automatic bac&ing up of the data facilities along with intelligent data
management tools, so that the processing time decreases and results could be generated in
lesser time.
Bi%i"grap,/
>>>?techterms?com@de'inition
>>>?techopedia?com@
en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Database
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