Professional Documents
Culture Documents
ON CONSTRUCTION SITE
BY
F/HD/07/3510077
YABA LAGOS
NOVEMBER 2009
1
MEASUREMENT AND CONTROL OF MOISTURE CONTENT OF
SITE
BY
F/HD/07/3510077
STUDIES
NOVEMBER 2009
2
CERTIFICATION
{F/HD/07/3510077}
Of
3
DEDICATION
This project is dedicated to Almighty God the creator of heaven and earth
And also to my beloved parent and family of: Ven. & Mrs. S.A Borisanmi
for their support, both financial and morally throughout the course of my
study.
4
ACKNOLEDGEMENT
Udoh for his support and supervision towards the success of this project
work. Also appreciate the effect of Mr. Odunekan for his great effort during
My gratitude goes to my parent Ven & Mrs S.A. Borisanmi, my brothers and
sisters, “the husband, the wife” “Ven & Mrs. Agboola, Mr & Mrs
Famodimu, Mr & Mrs. Gbemiga Borisanmi Jnr., Sis. Yemi and Sis. Toyin.
My regards also goes to my cousins Mr. Irewole Oni and Walex, we are just
like blood brothers, thanks for the support during my stay both at home and
I say a powerful thank you to my Mentor Tosin Martins and wife for the
5
At this junction I acknowledge my indebtedness to all to my friends Richard,
productions in general + others and to my entire course mate, you are all
wonderful.
Lastly I can not but thank the authority ‘Yaba College of Technology’ for
6
PREFACE
Wood and Bricks used on construction site” is one of the criteria for the
studies, Yaba College of Technology. Through this project the author is now
7
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Certification i
Dedication ii
Acknowledgement iii
Table of Contents iv
Abstract v
2.1 Aggregates 7
8
2.4 Shape and Surface Texture of Aggregate 10
Coarse Aggregate 12
4.1 Sand 22
9
4.2 Bulking Of Coarse Aggregate 26
4.8 Wood 30
5.0 Hardwoods 32
10
CHAPTER THREE: RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
3.3 Samples 44
RESULTS
4.3. Findings/Results 50
11
CHAPTER FIVE: CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION
5.1 Conclusion 51
5.2. Recommendation 51
5.4 References 54
5.5 Appendix 56
12
ABSTRACT
Aggregate, Wood and Bricks used on construction site. Dry method was
used in this project work. Under the drying method, oven drying was used to
The aggregates used for the test include fine aggregate (natural pit sand) and
Finally, it was found that the method used was relevant and effective for
13
CHAPTER ONE
1.0 INTRODUCTION
aggregate used on construction site that will be able to satisfy the basic
requirements.
Blackledge (1990) stated that: Aggregate are inert materials (i.e. chemically
Generally, various sands are used as fine aggregates and coarse aggregate
14
Therefore, engineer must however be satisfied that the source selected will
present in the aggregates must be taken into consideration. That is, the mass
known before adding more at the mixer so that the total amount of water in a
carrying out of this operation before the actual progress of work for
type and thus, the water content can be quoted in terms of the weight of
aggregate, when absolute dry surface and when wet the water content can be
15
free water content or the total water content which include the absorbed
For site used, the method adopted must be accurate and must need only
i. Drying method
By using any of the above methods, it will help the builder to achieve
includes;
16
the water to be added. Excess water definitely wills reduces/affect
size and shape. Its depend on the mix ratio which end up resulting
17
1.6 Significance of The Study
timber to provide the service intended to serve over the considerable long
time without being affected by algae. Enhancing the moisture content of the
quantities?
18
- As a result of present of moisture on wood, what is the likely
moisture/
moisture content?
wet concrete.
aggregate.
19
CHAPTER TWO
2.1 AGGREGATES
form, such as sand or gravel, which is added to the class of materials known
solid mass on hardening, since most aggregates are inert and undergo no
chemical action with the binder, the strength of the combine mass depend
on;
binder.
Smith (1978) says that: there are two type of aggregate natural and artificial.
Natural aggregates mostly used has a relative density of about 2.6 although
both higher density and lower density material is used for special purposes;
20
NATURAL AGGREGATES
consequently do their properties. The main rock groups suitable for concrete
are basalt, flint gabbros, granite, gristone, limestone, porphyry and quartzite.
ARTIFICIAL AGGREGATES
Artificial aggregate include crushed brick, blast furnace slag and numerous
Sand and gravel are obtained either from pits or by dredging from the
bottom of rivers or from the sea bed. Pits are termed “wet” or “dry”
according to the water level in the vieinity, although some pits which would
otherwise be wet are dried out by pumping. The deposit are usually covered
dips in the gravel seams, and unless care is taken to remove these materials
21
The sand and gravel are then excavated by mechanical shovels in dry pits:
by dragline in both wet and dry pits, and by means of crane and grab, or
suction pumps, in wet pits. Gravel seams often orclic beds of clay, and it is
especially necessary that the inclusion of lumps of clay in the gravel should
be avoided since even with vigorous washing the clay lumps are extremely
wet pit than in dry pit where dragline or grabs are used, because the driver is
unable to see the bottom, and therefore, to control the depth to which be
digs.
The mixed gravel and sand is usually conveyed from pit to the screening
raised by a suction pump, conveyor belt are commonly used to raise the
materials from ground level and sans is carried out either by means of
to produce a resonant effect. The sand and dirty water are usually carried
away together and are then dewatered by another mint. From the screening
unit, the sand and gravel are fed by gravity into suitable hoppers. Oversize
22
The sand at some pits is treated further to modify its grading, by means of
difference to the properties of the wet concrete. The shape may be classified
Surface texture can be divided into six categories: glossy smooth, granular,
rough, crystalline and honey combed. It appears that the rougher the surface
texture the greater the bind the strength possible between the particles and
possible with the bigger area of angular aggregate than rounded material.
23
Unlike cement, aggregate are deliver to site and damped in the open, the
over the area where the aggregate will be stored, it is essential to provide
Murdock et al (1979) stated that, aggregate varies in size from less than
0.1mm to 100mm. The largest size that can be used depends on the work to
be done.
carried out. The sieve sizes used for concrete aggregate are approximately
145ụm, 74ụm. it is essential that amount used for sieving should be obtained
from rather larger sample taken from the stockpile to ensure that the material
24
2.8 SIEVE OR SCREEN ANALYSIS OF FINE AND COARSE
AGGREGATE
The purpose of this specification is to determine the particle size of fine and
The test is placed in two categories mechanical sieving and hand sieving.
It is very important that nay sample of aggregate used for test purposes is
truly representative of the bulk from which it is taken. This can usually be
position and levels in a stockpile, or bin and mixing them together. If this
provides more materials than is needed, the sample may then be reduced by
quartering that is, dividing it into four similar parts, rejecting two, which are
25
diametrically opposite and remixing the remaining two. An alternative to
Draw
“DIAGRAM HERE”
i. Bond
ii. Strength
strength of concrete, especially the flexural strength, the full role of bond
being only now realized. Bond is due, in part, to the interlocking of the
aggregate and the paste coming to the toughness of the surface of the former,
better bond is also usually obtained with softer, porous and mineralogical
heterogeneous particles.
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3.2 STRENGTH OF AGGREGATE
of aggregate have some influence on the strength of concrete even when the
compare concrete made with different aggregates we can observe that the
whatever the mix proportions and is the same regardless of whether the
wear. The first of there is toughness, which can be defined as the resistance
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3.4 REQUIRED CHARACTERISTICS OF GOOD AGGREGATE
ii. Aggregate should be free from organic impurities which may affect
iii. The particles should be free from coatings of dust or clay if the full
bond is to be developed.
together.
Most natural aggregate are in fact much stronger than the much
cement paste.
v. Aggregate with a low absorption value must be used for all concrete
28
frost. Special hard aggregate may have to be used in concrete exposed
iii. Aggregates are used for rendering particularly when fine aggregate
ensure the quality of the hardened concrete, although poor quality natural
these improvement are accomplished largely by the grading size, shape and
29
3.7 SPECIAL AGGREGATES
ii. High density concrete: for example, as required for radiation shielding
aggregate)
saturated surface –dry condition, we can define the moisture content as the
water in excess of the saturated and surface dry condition. Thus, the total
moisture contents.
surface of the particle, and except at the surface of stockpiles, keeps this
moisture over long periods. This is particularly true of fine aggregate and the
30
moisture content must be allowed for in the calculation of batch quantities
and of the total water requirement of the mix. In effect, the mass of water
added to the mix has to be decreased and the mass of aggregate must be
moisture content changes with weather and varies also from one stockpiles
because this will affect the water content of the mix. This, in turn, affects the
cement paste that binds the mass to produce strength. The amounts of water
added to the concrete mixture should be adjusted for the moisture conditions
the mix. Even aggregate that appears dry can add a significant amount of
water to the mix. Since the water content is an extremely important indicator
(hhtp://www.present.Org/pages/inc)
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3.9 EFFECTS OF MOISTURE CONTENT
i. WORKABILITY
reduces its strength 5% of voids can lower strength by as much as 30% and
even 20% void can result in a drop of strength of more than 10 percent.
Therefore, the main factor affecting workability of water cement of the mix,
ii. STREGNTH
used. Also the amount of water presence in it and during mix. If not property
iii. BLEEDING
the water in the mix tends to rise to the surface of freshly placed concrete.
This is caused by inability of the solid constituents of the mix to hold all the
32
It can be expressed as quantitatively as the total settlement per unit height of
vi. ECONOMY
aggregate e.t.c) but each mix design will also vary in cost.
Obviously, it’s ideal to make the most use of the cheapest ingredients and
The water content in aggregate will require more cement, in order to make it
gas and this is not quite as easily controlled. There is water vapour in the air
all around us. It seeps into the cavities of construction assemblies in stud and
33
and freezes, condensation hidden over a period of time in building assembles
Also, rain contribute greatly to these moisture content which can be as high
as 12-15%.
AGGREGATE
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4.1 SAND
Taylor (1990) Stated that: sand is a fine aggregate formed by the natural
to the required sizes. Only small amounts of crushed stone sand are used in
plastering industry, its use being confined to special cement work on the
whole.
Natural sand has been formed over the centuries by the action of wind, rain,
forest and running water to break down rocks into small particles. These
small grains, varying in size, have been washed by the action of the seas and
rivers and deposited in certain areas which have in turn been moved inland
due to past changes of the earth’s formation. This is the reason for large
The two main types of sand available at present are pit sand from inland
quarries and river sand obtained by dredging. Sea sand is unsuitable because
of the risk of effloresces due to the presence of salt. Crushed stone of ten
35
FIG 111: SKETCH OF A SAMPLE OF SAND
36
If the sand is composed of large particles only, then there will be many
spaces or voids between the grains. This type of sand would require a lot of
cement to make a strong, dense mix. As a result the mix would be expensive
A well graded sand has medium sized grain to fill in the layer avoids and
2. To lower the cost of the mixed material providing the biggest bulk of
the mix.
floating coats.
In the case of sand, there is another effect of the presence of moisture, viz
by the films of water pushing the sand particles apart. While bulking per
37
volume of the meaning box. Volume batching represents bad practice, and
Water present in sand can affect mix proportion in a second way. Damps
sand takes up a layer volume than does dry or completely saturated sand.
used to find the percentage bulking which utilize the facts that dry sand
saturated and here the same volume. Damp sand is packed n a large
measuring cylinder and its volume found. This is then emptied out so that
Vs
(Neville, 1981)
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4.2 BULKING OF COARSE AGGREGATE
AGGREGATE STATE.
i. Air dry: Dry at the surface though containing some interior moisture,
but less than the amount required to saturate the particles. In this
condition an aggregate can absorb more water into itself, and may still
39
appear dry on the surface. But absorbed moisture plays no part in the
absorb a quantity of water depending on its type and then the water content
surface dry and when wet. The water content can be free water content, or
that held on the surface of the aggregates, or the total water content which
includes the absorbed water plus the free water. The specific gravity and
40
absorption of an aggregate depends also to some extent on its particle size
For fields use the method adopted must be quick, reasonably accurate, and
must need only simple apparatus which can easily be replaced damaged.
i. Drying method
miscible with water and igniting it, methylated spirits and acetone are
41
4.7 CONTROL OF AGGREGATE FROM MOSITURE ON SITE
concrete over the areas where the aggregate will be store; concrete should be
laid to fall away from the mixer to facilitate free drainage of water from the
aggregate. And should extend well out from the mixer set-up so that all
in the stockpiles, are usually not sufficient to have much effect on the
42
the mixer excessive variation in workability and strength and
4.8 WOOD
building shelters, houses e.t.c A very high proportion of house in the united
The word timber describes wood that has been cut for use in building.
material that is easy to cut, shape and join by relatively cheap and simple
specific heat, with adequate sensible selection, fabrication and fixing and
different timber.
The very majority of our homes have the roof construction of wood the
floors both at the ground and above are constructed of woods the floor both
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at the ground and above are constructed of woods together with doors,
As time goes by wood became more costly; the higher standard of living
demanded by people throughout the world means that the cost of extracting
the logs from the forest, their transport, conversion to timber and fabrication
costly. In addition to this, the more accessible forest have long since been
cut, so that sizable timber must be sought for in remote areas. Replanting
product are becoming a bigger part of the construction industry. They may
aesthetic materials.
some types of wood are very hard and durable and some are flexible enouh
obtained from trees that lose their leaves in winter. The other type of wood,
the “softwood” is aobtained frin evergreen trees like fir,pine and redwood.
All the woods fall between a range from very soft to very hard.
44
All type wood have distinctive grain structure. Wodds like white abd red
oak, ash and walnut havbeopen-pores in the form of small hole on their
surface that give a distinct textural quality to furniture piece like wooden
cupboard or wooden desks. When thw surface of this wood is stained, the
colour tends to collect in the “open-pores” abd apper darker than the rest of
the piece. There are other woods. These woods are have the smooth texture
and can take finish evenly. Apart from grains, one more characteristic of
5.0 Hardwoods
used for quality furniture such as wooden cabinets, boat construction, wood
Walnut: has fine texture and is strong, easy to work with. It resists
shrinkage and warping and can take all types of finishes very well. It is
mostly used for making gunstocks, solid and veneered furniture, novelties,
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Oak: has good bending quality apart from being durable. It finishes well and
Maple: is a fine textured wood with immense strength and hardness. With
red when exposed to sunlight. It ages well and is extensively used in cabinet
Color. It has an exclusive fragrance. It is hard to work upon and takes high
polish. It is good for making musical instruments, piano cases, tool handles,
furniture made from it can deal with everyday stresses and strains without
46
loosing its attractive appearance. It is highly durable, easily carved and is
5.1 Softwoods
Pine: has a uniform texture and is very easy to work with. It finishes well
resinous, works easy and finishes well. Fir is used for making furniture,
trim.
Redwood: is light, durable and easy to work with. It has natural resistance to
decay and is good for making outdoor furniture, fencing, house siding,
Spruce: is a strong wood that finishes well and has low resistance to decay.
47
masts and spars for ships, aircraft, crates, boxes, general millwork and
ladders.
Cedar: is a reddish wood with sweet odor. It is very easy to work with,
chest making, closet lining, shingles, posts dock planks, novelties and
venation blinds.
The virtues of wood – it high strength to weight ratio ease of working with
tools and machines, its insulating and sound absorbing properties, resistance
to chemical and its inherent beauty, all reflect its structure and chemical
(angiosperm) whereas
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Most of the species in the second group bear cones and needle-shaped
leaves. It will be seen therefore, that hardwood and softwood are technical
terms having an exact meaning although the hardwood are usually hard and
the softwood are soft, this is not invariable the case. Some species of
In building, softwood is by far the most important type of timber used for
have traditional been used for joinery and floors which are to undergo heavy
wear and their decoration properties have also influence their use in these
situations.
wood partially fills internal voids, i.e. the vessel canal the cavities in the
cells and the intercellular spaces, anal is known as the free moisture, and
partly saturates the cell walls and called the hygroscopic (to absorb moisture
from the air) or bound moistures. The bound moisture occupies the
49
wood. The free and the hygroscopic can be removed from the wood by
drying. The chemical bound moisture, entering into the composition of the
matter forming the wood, can only be removed by chemical reaction. The
20*: at this moisture content, known as the cell wall saturation point or fibre
saturation point, the moisture completely saturate the cell walls and any
future increase in moisture content can only take place through the free
moisture. i.e. by filling the voids in the wood. The fibre saturation point is
when keep in air saturated with water vapour. As moisture contents is varied
from zero to the fibre saturation point both the volume and the linear
by shrinkage.
The reason for the contraction of wood when it is dried is the removal of
water from the intestacies between the chain molecule of cellulose and
effect is called swelling contraction during the dry and swelling, during
damping the fibres always takes in a transverse direction and not observed
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for the length. The den the wood i.e the higher its bulk density, the more
When moisture content is increased beyond the fibre saturation point, and
the water begins to occupy the voids of the cells, there is no further swelling.
The dry weight of any piece of timber is its weight after it has been so dried
that further drying causes it to lose no more weight. This dry weight is
reasonably constant for a given cubic measure of each type of wood and is
used as constant against which the moisture content can be assessed. The
moisture content of timber should be such that timber will not appreciably
51
Natural drying seasoning: This is when logs have been cut into timbers
they are stacked either in the open or in a rough open sided shed. The
timbers are stack with battens between them to allow air to circulate around
them. Timbers are left for several year until most of the moisture in the
natural drying method and because sufficient low moisture content of wood
cannot be achieved, artificial method is largely used. This when the wood
has been converted to timber and they are placed in the enclosed kiln. Air is
blown through the kiln, the temperature and humidity is being regulated to
effect to drying more rapidly, but not so rapid as to cause damage to the
timber.
Moisture in wood can be best control by storing them in a shed, this will
It can be sun dried naturally or with the use of natural air or use of industrial
fan.
Bricks are blocks of clay that have been hardened through being fired in a
kiln or dried in the sun. over time, kiln-fired bricks have grown more
popular than sum-dried bricks, although both are still found worldwide.
52
Bricks have been in continual use for around 5000years, and brickwork from
this time still stands in the Middle East, a testament to its durability.
The Roman Legions first brought bricks to Britain, using mobile kilns to
construct roads, aqueducts and buildings across the country. Bricks were
especially favoured in the 18th and 19th Centuries, although their use has
declined over the last 50 years due to the increased availability of cement
and concrete.
In the past, bricks came in many different shapes and sizes, but today’s
reds and purples, to smooth, rough and rustic. These are due to the mineral
form a mud that is then poured into a mould of the desired shape and size,
and hardened through fire or sun. Adobe bricks, very fashionable in parts of
the USA, are still made in this way with a mixture of clay and sand (and
sometimes manure and straw) being poured into a form, and then removed
53
Compressed Earth Blocks (CEBs) were developed in the 1950s and are
similar to adobe bricks, except they are more compact and uniform. They are
manufactured from soil that is more sand than clay, and compressed using a
including hollow designs for insulation. CEBs are highly energy efficient
using up to 15 times less energy than a fired brick. They are durable,
ecological, inexpensive, and utilize low technology. For this reason they are
technology.
bricks are then dried and slow fired at around 1000-1200oC. In more recent
times, recycled glass and other waste materials have been introduced into
this process.
These materials have been found to reduce firing times, temperatures and
toxic emissions, improve brick strength and durability, and reduce waste
going to landfill.
54
5.7 Brick Laying
Bricks are laid flat in rows called courses, exposing either their sides
called a bond. There are several different kinds of bonds, including stretcher
(most common), Herringbone, English, Basket and Flemish. With all bonds,
the vertical joints between each course of bricks must not line up or the
Bricks are usually held together by mortar, though some bricks such as
(traditionally lime but these days more often cement) and water, which is
then mixed to a thick paste. It is applied to a brick, which is then placed onto
Pointing refers to the visible edge of the mortar between the bricks, which is
and the structure’s ends are built up first. A string is then stretched between
these ends to ensure each row of bricks stays level. Two layers of brick are
used to create a stronger structure, with a gap left in between for insulation
55
purposes. A wide range of structures including arches can be built using
bricks.
Bricks are a versatile and durable building and construction material, with
good load-bearing properties, high thermal mass and potential low energy
impact. In the case of simple earth bricks such as adobe and CEBs, they
measure high on the sustainability index, being made from locally available
(and abundant) materials, of clay, sand, and water, using low technology
Overall, bricks are a good example of a sustainable building practice and are
Moisture absorption
The amount of water a brick will absorb is a guide to its density and
most critical for brick to be used. Absorption rates vary between 1% and
35%.
56
CHAPTER THREE
3.1 This chapter of the project involves the processes engaged in carrying
research question.
coarse aggregate, various types of wood and brick were used, for the project
3.3 SAMPLES
57
200mm x 600mm Eku (Hard wood)
Sample selected for this test were obtained from more than one location. The
aggregate samples used are natural pit gravel, natural coarse aggregate and
crushed granite. Each sample were mixed together to distribute evenly for
the test.
Also test were conducted on different types of wood (Hard and soft wood).
Drying method was used to determine the moisture content of all the
samples listed above, that is, the mass the ratio of the weight of water to the
Weight of sample
58
3.6 USED APPARATUS
• Digital balance
• Drying can
• Scoop
• Drying oven
This method was adopted through out this project to determine the content
FOR AGGREGATE
The specimen for the test was kept in polythene bag to avoid equilibrium
moisture content in the laboratory. And the sample was weight after mixing
the material to distribute the moisture evenly. The sample was oven dried for
59
2hours (start time: 3:55 p.m, stop time 5:55 p.m) with constant temperature
of 105*C, after which the weight of the dried sample was obtained. The
Wood test was performed. Thee initial weight of the woods were measured
and recorded, after it was oven dried and also measured to determine the
moisture content.
tabular form.
60
CHAPTER FOUR
The result of the moisture content for all the samples used are shown in the
table below.
61
TABLE 2: MOISTURE CONTENT IN WOOD (TIMBER)
WOOD TYPES MOISTURE DRY MOISTURE MOISTURE
INITIAL WEIGHT LOSS CONTENT
WEIGHT
Maniana soft 40g 35.0 5.0 14.3%
wood
Itara-hard wood 30.0 28.0 2.0 6.7%
Arere soft wood 20.0 18.0 2.0 10.0%
Paranan wood 20.0 16.0 4.0 20%
Eku Hard wood 40.0 35.0 5.0 12.0%
Balsa(Hardwood), 45.0 40.0 5.0 11.1%
Mahogamy hard 35.0 30.0 5.0 14.3%
wood
4.3. FINDINGS/RESULTS
From table 1, the result shows that the moisture content of natural pit sand,
62
From table 2, mariana (softwood), Itara (hardwood), Arere (softwood),
From the result or data obtained it can be deducted from the tables
weight
CHAPTER FIVE
5.1 CONCLUSION
63
To conclude this research work various methods was carried out for
construction sites.
moisture in wood, this is done in order to increase the quality of article made
from it. From research it was gotten that moisture in wood should be higher
then range of 20% or 25% for dense hardwood and 15% or 20% for
5.2. RECOMMENDATION
Since the significance of this study is to reveal to users and students the
should be left unused after 24hours of delivery before use so that some of
64
The moisture content of aggregate delivered to the site for construction
regulate water content. It is best to put down a 100mm minimum thick layer
of concrete over the areas where the aggregate will be stored so that risen of
moisture from the soil could be avoided and to protect aggregate from
condition.
65
Based on findings, moisture, content can also be further study using other
i. Sipon-can method.
REFERENCES
66
BLACKLEDGE, G.F (1990) concrete practice. Britain: British Cement
Association.
BROOK, K.M & MURDOCK, L.J (1978): Concrete material and practice
DERNCHER, K.N & HEINS, C.P (1981): Materials for Civil and Highway
Publishing Limited.
Limited.
SMITH, B.J (1978): Construction Science (volume 2). New York: Longman
Inc.
Longman Limited.
67
WILSON, F. (1984): Building Material Evaluation Handbook. NEW York:
68
APPENDIX
69
Coarse aggregate sample
70
Parana(softwood)
Itare (Hardwood)
71
72
Arere(softwood
Eku( Hardwood)
Balsa (hardwood)
73
Mahogany (hard wood)
Mariana (softwood)
74
Brick Sample.
75