Structural Analysis-II

CE2351
By
P.Sangeetha
Assistant Professor
Department of Civil Engineering
SSN College of Engineering
Unit-I
FLEXIBILITY METHOD
Equilibriumand compatibility Determinate vs
Indeterminatestructures Indeterminacy-
Primary structure Compatibility conditions
Analysisof indeterminatepin-jointedplane
frames, continuous beams, rigid jointed plane
frames(withredundancyrestrictedtotwo).
Unit-II
STIFFNESS MATRIX METHOD
Element and global stiffness matrices Analysis
of continuous beams Co-ordinate
transformations Rotation matrix
Transformations of stiffness matrices, load
vectors and displacements vectors Analysis
of pin-jointed plane frames and rigid frames(
withredundancyvertical totwo)
Unit-III
FINITE ELEMENT METHOD
Introduction Discretisation of a structure
Displacement functions Truss element
Beamelement Planestress and planestrain
- Triangular elements
Unit-IV
PLASTICANALYSISOFSTRUCTURES
Staticallyindeterminateaxial problems Beams
in pure bending Plastic moment of
resistance Plastic modulus Shape factor
Load factor Plastic hinge and mechanism
Plastic analysis of indeterminate beams and
frames Upper andlower boundtheorems
Unit-V
SPACE AND CABLE STRUCTURES
Analysis of Space trusses using method of
tensioncoefficients Beamscurvedinplan
Suspension cables suspension bridges with
twoandthreehingedstiffeninggirders
TEXT BOOKS
1. Vaidyanathan, R. and Perumal, P.,
Comprehensive structural Analysis Vol. I &
II, Laxmi Publications, NewDelhi, 2003
2. L.S. Negi & R.S. Jangid, Structural Analysis,
Tata McGraw-Hill Publications, New Delhi,
2003.
3. BhaviKatti, S.S, Structural Analysis Vol. 1
Vol. 2, Vikas PublishingHouse Pvt. Ltd., New
Delhi, 2008
Introduction
Determinateandindeterminatestructures
Determinate:
Forces and Moments are determined by statical
equationsofequilibrium
Indeterminate structures: Less equations are available
thanthenumber of unknownforcesthat constrainthe
body in space. Extra conditions of deformation
compatibility have to be introduced to solve the
problem. These conditions will give the extra number
of equationsrequiredto solvetheproblem, whichwill
indicatethedegreeof indeterminacy
Plastic Analysis of Structures
INTRODUCTION
The elastic design method, also termed as allowable stress
method(or Workingstressmethod), isaconventional method
of designbasedontheelasticpropertiesof steel. Thismethod
of designlimitsthestructural usefulnessof thematerial upto
acertainallowablestress, whichiswell belowtheelasticlimit.
Thestressesduetoworkingloadsdonot exceedthespecified
allowable stresses, which are obtained by applying an
adequatefactor of safetytotheyieldstressof steel.
Theelasticdesigndoesnot takeintoaccount thestrengthof the
material beyond the elastic stress. Therefore the structure
designed accordingto this method will be heavier than that
designedbyplasticmethods, but inmanycases, elasticdesign
will alsorequirelessstabilitybracing.
Cont...
In the method of plastic design of a structure, the ultimate load
rather than the yield stress is regarded as the design criterion.
The term plastic has occurred due to the fact that the ultimate
load is found from the strength of steel in the plastic range.
This method is also known as method of load factor design or
ultimate load design. The strength of steel beyond the yield
stress is fully utilised in this method. This method is rapid and
provides a rational approach for the analysis of the structure.
This method also provides striking economy as regards the
weight of steel since the sections designed by this method are
smaller in size than those designed by the method of elastic
design.
Plastic design method has its main application in the analysis and
design of statically indeterminate framed structures.
BASIS OF PLASTIC THEORY
DuctilityofSteel
Structural steel ischaracterisedbyitscapacityto withstandconsiderable
deformationbeyondfirst yield, without fracture. Duringtheprocessof
'yielding' the steel deforms under a constant and uniform stress
known as 'yield stress'. This property of steel, known as ductility, is
utilisedinplasticdesignmethods.
Cont..
Fig. 1showstheidealisedstress-strainrelationshipfor structural
mildsteel whenit issubjectedtodirect tension.
Elastic straining of the material is represented by line OA. AB
represents yielding of the material when the stress remains
constant, and is equal to the yield stress, fy. The strain
occurring in the material during yielding remains after the
loadhasbeenremovedandiscalledtheplasticstrainandthis
strain is at least ten times as large as the elastic strain, at
yieldpoint.
Whensubjectedto compression, thestress-straincharacteristics
of variousgradesof structural steel arelargelysimilar toFig. 1
and displaythe same property of yield. The major difference
is in the strain hardening range where there is no drop in
stress after a peak value. This characteristic is known as
ductilityof steel.
Perfectly Plastic Materials
Thestress-straincurvefor aperfectlyplasticmaterial uptostrainhardeningis
showninFig. 2. PerfectlyplasticmaterialsfollowHook'slawuptothelimit
of proportionality. Theslopesof stress-straindiagramsincompressionand
tensioni.e. thevaluesof Young'smodulusof elasticityof thematerial, are
equal. Also the values of yield stresses in tension and compression are
equal. The strains upto the strain hardeningin tension and compression
are also equal. The stress strain curves show horizontal plateau both in
tension and compression. Such materials are known as perfectly plastic
materials.
Fully Plastic Moment of a Section
Thefullyplasticmoment Mp, of asectionisdefinedasthemaximummoment
of resistance of a fully plasticized or yielded cross-section. The
assumptionsusedfor findingtheplasticmoment of asectionare:
(i) The material obeys Hooke's law until the stress reaches the upper yield
value; on further straining, the stress drops to the lower yield value and
thereafter remainsconstant.
(ii) The yield stresses and the modulus of elasticity have the same value in
compressionasintension.
(iii) Thematerial ishomogeneousandisotropicinboththeelasticandplastic
states.
(iv) The plane transverse sections (the sections perpendicular to the
longitudinal axisof thebeam) remainplaneandnormal tothelongitudinal
axisafter bending, theeffect of shear beingneglected.
(v) Thereisnoresultant axial forceonthebeam.
(vi) The cross section of the beamis symmetrical about an axis through its
centroidparallel toplaneof bending.
(vii) Every layer of the material is free to expand and contract longitudinally
andlaterallyunder thestressasif separatedfromtheother layers.
Inorder to findout thefullyplastic moment of ayieldedsection
of abeamasshowninFig. 3, weemploytheforceequilibrium
equation, namelythe total force in compressionand the total
forceintensionover that sectionareequal.
The plastic modulus of a completely yielded section is
defined as the combined statical moment of the cross-
sectional areas above and belowthe neutral axis or equal
area axis. It is the resisting modulus of a completely
plasticisedsection.
BENDING OF BEAMS SYMMETRICAL ABOUT
BOTH AXES
The bendingof a symmetrical beamsubjected to a gradually
increasingmoment isconsideredfirst. Thefibresof thebeam
across the cross section are stressed in tension or
compressionaccordingtotheir positionrelativetotheneutral
axis and are strained in accordance with Fig. 1. While the
beam remains entirely elastic the stress in every fibre is
proportional to its strain and to its distance fromthe neutral
axis. Thestress(f) intheextremefibrescannot exceedfy. (Fig.
4)
Elastic stresses in beams
When the beam is subjected to a moment slightly greater
than that, which first produces yield in the extreme fibres, it
does not fail. Instead the outer fibres yield at constant stress
(fy) while the fibres nearer to the neutral axis sustain
increased elastic stresses. Fig. 5shows the stress distribution
for beams subjected to such moments. Such beams are said
to be 'partially plastic' and those portions of their cross-
sections, whichhavereachedtheyieldstress, aredescribedas
'plasticzones'.
Stresses in partially plastic beams
The depths of the plastic zones depend upon the magnitude of the applied
moment. Asthemoment isincreased, theplasticzonesincreaseindepth, and, it
is assumed that plastic yielding can occur at yield stress (fy) resulting in two
stress blocks, one zone yielding in tension and one in compression. Fig. 6
represents the stress distribution in beams stressed to this stage. The plastic
zones occupy the whole of the cross section, and are described as being'fully
plastic'. When the cross section of a member is fully plastic under a bending
moment, anyattempt to increasethismoment will causethemember to act as
if hinged at the neutral axis. This is referred to as a plastic hinge. The bending
moment producing a plastic hinge is called the full plastic moment and is
denotedby'Mp'. Notethat aplastichingecarriesaconstant moment, MP.
Stresses in fully plastic beams
Shape Factor
Inplasticanalysistherewill betwo stressblocks, onein
tension, theother in compression, both of whichwill
beat yieldstress. For equilibriumof thecrosssection,
theareas in compressionandtensionmust beequal.
For arectangular crosssection, theelasticmoment is
givenby,
Here the plastic moment Mp is about 1.5 times greater than the
elastic moment capacity. In developing this moment, there is a
large straining in the extreme fibres together with large rotations
and deflection.
Plastic Hinge
Plastic hinge is defined as a yielded zone due to
bending in a structural member at which an infinite
rotation can take place at a constant plastic moment
Mpof thesection. Thenumber of hingesnecessaryfor
failure does not vary for a particular structure subject
to a given loading condition, although a part of a
structuremayfail independentlybytheformationof a
smaller number of hinges. The member or structure
behaves in the manner of ahinged mechanismand in
doingsoadjacent hingesrotateinoppositedirections.
Theoretically, theplastichingesareassumedtoformat
pointsat whichplasticrotationsoccur. Thusthelength
of aplastichingeisconsideredaszero.
Principles of plastic analysis
Fundamental conditionsforplasticanalysis
(i) Mechanismcondition: The ultimate or collapse
loadisreachedwhenamechanismisformed. The
number of plastichingesdevelopedshouldbejust
sufficient toformamechanism.
(ii) Equilibriumcondition: Fx=0, Fy=0, Mxy=0
(iii) Plastic moment condition: The bending
moment at any section of the structure should
not be morethan the fullyplastic moment of the
section.
Mechanism
Whenasystemof loadsisappliedto anelasticbody, it will
deformand will show a resistance against deformation.
Suchabodyisknownasastructure. Ontheother handif
no resistance is set up against deformation in the body,
thenit isknownasamechanism.
Various types of independent mechanisms are
Beam Mechanism
Sway /Panel Mechanism
Gable Mechanism
Joint Mechanism
Combined Mechanism
(a) A simply supported beam has to form one
plastic hinge at the point of maximum
bending moment. Redundancy, r =0
(b) A propped cantilever requires two hinges to
form a mechanism. Redundancy, r =1
No. of plastic hinges formed, =r +1 =2
(c) A fixed beam requires three hinges to form a
mechanism. Redundancy, r =2
No. of plastic hinges =2 +1 =3
Beam Mechanism
From the above examples, it is seen that the number of hinges needed to form a
mechanism equals the statical redundancy of the structure plus one.
Panel or Sway Mechanism
Fig. (A) shows a panel or sway mechanism for a portal
frame fixed at both ends.
Gable Mechanism
Fig. (B) showsthegablemechanismfor agablestructure
fixedat boththesupports.
Joint Mechanism
Fig. (C) shows a joint mechanism. It occurs at a joint where more than two
structural membersmeet.
CombinedMechanism
Various combinations of independent mechanisms can be made dependingupon
whether the frame is made of strong beamand weak column combination or
strongcolumnandweakbeamcombination.
Lower bound or Static theorem
Aloadfactor ( s ) computedonthebasis of an
arbitrarilyassumedbendingmoment diagram
which is in equilibriumwith the applied loads
and where the fully plastic moment of
resistanceis nowhereexceededwill always be
lessthanor at best equal totheloadfactor at
rigidplasticcollapse, (p).
In other words, p is the highest value of s
whichcanbefound.
Upper bound or Kinematic theorem
A load factor ( k) computed on the basis of an
arbitrarilyassumedmechanismwill always be
greater than, or at best equal to the load
factor at rigidplasticcollapse(p ).
In other words, p is the lowest value of k
whichcanbefound.
Continuous Beams
Find the collapse load for the given continues beam having three span continuous
beam of uniform section throughout (constant Mp)
Number of Independent Mechanism =N r =5-2 =3
N =No of Possible Plastic Hinges =5(under all loads(3) and at two intermediate support)
r =Redundancy of the structure =2 (4+0-2 =2)
(4+0-2 =2) =( No of vertical reaction +moments 2 )
Collapse load for the given continuous beam is least of all values from the three mechanism
Beam Mechanism 1
Beam Mechanism-2
Beam Mechanism -3
Beam Mechanism -4
No of Independent Mechanism =N-r =5 3 =2
N No of plastic hinge=5(at A,B,C,D and under the load)
r=Degree of redundancy =3 (no of closed loop)-No of release=3(1)-0=3
Beam mechanism
Sway Mechanism
Combined mechanism
From (i ),(ii),(iii) we conclude, Mp =116.67KNm and the combined mechanism
is the real mechanism.
Find the collapse load for the given frame
No of mechanism =5-3 =2
No of plastic hinges
Degree of redundancy
Beam mechanism
Question paper problems
Two Marks Questions
1.Whatisaplastichinge?
When a section attains full plastic moment Mp, it acts as hinge which is
called aplastic hinge. It is defined as the yielded zone due to bendingat
which large rotations can occur with a constant value of plastic moment
Mp.
2.Whatisamechanism?
When a n-degree indeterminate structure develops n plastic hinges, it
becomesdeterminateandtheformationof anadditional hingewill reduce
thestructureto amechanism. Onceastructurebecomesamechanism, it
will collapse.
3.Whatisdifferencebetweenplastichingeandmechanical hinge?
Plastic hinges modify the behavior of structures in the same way as
mechanical hinges. The only difference is that plastic hinges permit
rotation with a constant resisting moment equal to the plastic moment
Mp. At mechanical hinges, theresistingmoment isequal tozero.
4.Definecollapseload.
Theloadthat causes the(n +1) thehingeto formamechanismis calledcollapse
loadwherenisthedegreeof staticallyindeterminacy. Oncethestructurebecomes
amechanism
5.Listouttheassumptionsmadeforplasticanalysis.
Theassumptionsfor plasticanalysisare:
Plane transverse sections remain plane and normal to the longitudinal axis
beforeandafter bending.
Effect of shear isneglected.
The material is homogeneous and isotropic both in the elastic and plastic
state.
Modulusof elasticityhasthesamevaluebothintensionandcompression.
Thereisnoresultant axial forceinthebeam.
The cross-section of the beam is symmetrical about an axis through its
centroidandparallel totheplaneof bending.
6.Define shape factor.
Shape factor (S) is defined as the ratio of plastic moment of the section to the yield
moment of the section.
Where Mp =Plastic moment
M =Yield moment
Zp=Plastic section modulus
Z =Elastic section modulus
7. List out the shape factors for the following sections.
(a) Rectangular section, S =1.5 (b) Triangular section, S =2.346 (c) Circular section, S
=1.697 (d) Diamond section, S =2
8. Mention the section having maximum shape factor.
The section having maximum shape factor is a triangular section, S =2.345.
9. Define load factor.
Load factor is defined as the ratio of collapse load to working load and is given by
10. What are unsymmetrical frames and how are they analyzed?
Un-symmetric frames have different support conditions, lengths and loading conditions
on its columns and beams. These frames can be analyzed by:
(a) Beam mechanism
(b) Column mechanism
(c) Panel or sway mechanism
(d) Combined mechanism
11. Define plastic modulus of a section Zp.
The plastic modulus of a section is the first moment of the area above and below the
equal area axis. It is the resisting modulus of a fully plasticized section.
Zp=A/2 (y1 +y2)