062 Radio Navigation (JAA ATPL Theory)

062 RADIO NAVIGATION
G LONGHURST 1999 All Rights Reserved Worldwide

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EDITION 2.00.00 2001
This is the second edition of this manual, and incorporates all amendments to previous editions, in
whatever form they were issued, prior to July 1999.
EDITION 2.00.00 1999,2000,2001 G LONGHURST
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
Ground Direction Finding Stations
Automatic Direction Finding
VOR
The Radio Magnetic Indicator (RMI)
Distance Measuring Equipment
The Instrument Landing System
The Microwave Landing System
Basic Radar Principles
Ground Based Radars
Airborne Weather Radar
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Secondary Surveillance Radar
Area Navigation Systems
Doppler
Hyperbolic Navigation System Theory
Loran C
Satellite Navigation Systems
062 Radio Navigation
Loop Aerial Theory
Adcock Aerial
VDF Bearing Accuracy
Factors Affecting Range and Accuracy
VDF Approaches
Chapter 1 Page 1 G LONGHURST 1999 All Rights Reserved Worldwide
1Ground Direction Finding Stations
1. Ground direction-finding (D/F) stations are normally located at airfields and enable air traffic
to determine the bearing of an aircraft which is equipped with VHF radio (118 - 137 MHz), hence
the abbreviation VDF.
Loop Aerial Theory
2. Figure 1-1 shows a vertical loop aerial, consisting of two vertical members, A and B,
connected in the form of a loop by horizontal members. If a vertically polarised radio wave is
incident upon the loop, it will induce voltages in the vertical members of the loop of value Va and
Vb. A current will therefore flow around the loop, the magnitude of the current being proportional
to the angle of incidence of the incoming radio wave.
FIGURE 1-1
A Simple Loop
Aerial
FIGURE 1-2
Polar Diagram for
a Vertical Loop
Aerial
3. Figure 1-2 shows the horizontal polar diagram for a vertical loop aerial; it has two sharply
defined minima at = 0 and 270, and two poorly defined maxima at =0 and 180.
4. If a loop aerial which is receiving a wave from a transmitter is rotated, the resultant voltage in
the loop will vary as varies. When = 90 or 270 the resultant voltage is zero. When = 0 or
180 the resultant voltage is a maximum. As the minima are the more sharply defined, these are used
for direction finding. To take a manual loop bearing, the loop is rotated until a minimum signal, or
null, is found, when the transmitter must be on the line normal to the plane of the loop. However, it
is not certain on which side of the loop the transmitter is sited. The process of resolving this
ambiguity is known as sensing.
5. The loop aerial (in motorised form) is often used for airborne automatic direction finding
purposes, but is not best suited for ground installations. The wider the loop is, the better is its
direction finding ability (up to a maximum width of where is the wavelength of the received
signal). If the loop exceeds this width, its polar diagram becomes distorted. A loop aerial of this size
would be impractical even for ground installation (150 metres wide for a frequency of 200 KHz), so
some form of fixed aerial is usually used for this purpose.
Adcock Aerial
6. The simplest form of fixed aerial (Adcock aerial) consists of four uprights at the corners of a
square, with each diagonal pair joined by a screened cable which is often buried in the earth
(Figure 1-3). At the centre of each screened cable is one of the stator coils of a goniometer - a device
which measures the direction of a magnetic field (see Chapter 2 paragraph 23 for a more detailed
explanation). A more effective form of the aerial is shown in Figure 1-4. This is known as the H
type Adcock aerial. If the horizontal members in each H are kept as close together as possible, the
currents induced in each of the horizontal members will be identical and both will be in phase.
Therefore there will be no current flow through the coil caused by induction in the horizontal
members, so there will be no error due to down travelling or non-vertically polarised waves. The
complete aerial consists of two H aerials crossing at right angles so that the coils in each circuit
form the primary coils of a gonimeter.
10
----- -
FIGURE 1-3
Adcock Aerial
FIGURE 1-4
Adcock Aerial
using Vertical
Dipoles
7. As the pilot transmits, the sense directional aerial at the ground station receives the signal and
displays the bearing to the air traffic controller, normally on a cathode ray tube (CRT) display such
as the one illustrated at Figure 1-5.
FIGURE 1-5
Typical VDF
Display
8. Appreciate that as this system operates in the VHF band it is therefore limited to line of sight
considerations. The power of the signal transmitted from the aircraft will also limit the effective
range at which a bearing is obtained.
9. The ground controller judges the accuracy of the bearing information given, on the basis of
the length of the trace on the CRT screen, and classifies the bearing information accordingly.
10. Frequencies of ground stations which offer a VDF homer (QDM) service are listed in the
COM section of the AIP. There are additionally many automatic VDF stations whose function is to
assist with ATC radar surveillance. In emergency they will provide DF assistance to aircraft (see
later), but the frequencies of these stations are not listed in the AIP.
11. The ground controller will give magnetic or true bearings, identified by the Q code system as
follows;
(a) QDM, magnetic heading to steer to the station in zero wind conditions.
(b) QDR, magnetic bearing of the aircraft from the station.
(c) QTE, true bearing of the aircraft from the station.
(d) QUJ, true bearing of the station from the aircraft.
12. Of these QDM and QTE are most frequently used, although there is now a tendency to use
QDR bearings rather than QDM bearings during the outbound leg of VDF approach procedures.
13. If a series of bearings is required by the pilot he should use the prefix QDL when requesting
the first bearing, for example:
G-LOST requests QDL QTE
14. The student will appreciate that if two or more (usually 3) D/F stations obtain bearings from
a particular aircraft transmission it is possible to determine the approximate position of the aircraft -
a process known as triangulation. Figure 1-6 shows the principle involved.
FIGURE 1-6
Position Fixing
using VDF
Equipment
VDF Bearing Accuracy
15. Bearings are classified according to their expected accuracy as follows:
16. In the UK bearing accuracy would not be expected to be better than Class B.
17. The pilot should be informed as to the class of bearing he is being passed by the air traffic
controller, for example:
Your QTE is 278, class bravo
Propagation Error. At low altitude, where the signal is unevenly propagated over irregular
terrain, the measured bearing may become distorted.
Multipath Signals. Reflections from buildings, etc, adjacent to the ground receiver may result in
an inaccurate bearing being sensed.
Overhead Error. Accuracy is reduced when the aircraft position is close to, or directly overhead
the ground station.
Synchronous Transmissions. When two aircraft, within range of a ground receiver, transmit on
the same frequency at the same time, the resultant bearing information will be somewhere between
the two correct values.
Class A - 2
Class B - 5
Class C - 10
Class D - more than 10
Intervening Terrain. As mentioned earlier, ground D/F systems work at VHF and are therefore
line-of-sight systems. Any intervening high ground between the aircraft and the ground receiver may
result in a shorter maximum D/F range depending on the relative heights involved.
Super-Refraction. Under certain meteorological conditions, radio waves in the VHF, UHF and
SHF bands, which normally travel only in straight lines, may behave in a way which is at first sight
similar to skywaves.
The meteorological conditions required for this alternative type of propagation (duct propagation)
are a marked temperature inversion and a rapid decrease in humidity with height. Figure 1-7 shows
ducting which, in this case, is occurring between the surface and a low level inversion. The signal is
effectively trapped under the inversion and may travel hundreds of miles with little attenuation. In
this way, when high pressure systems prevail, signals may be received from distant VHF transmitters
which are far beyond the normal direct wave range.
FIGURE 1-7
The Ducted Wave
(Super Refraction)
The process of ducting is also known as super refraction and as such may increase the range at
which a ground D/F facility receives a given transmission.
Sub-Refraction. Sub-refraction is a condition of atmospheric refraction, created by gradients of
temperature and humidity, when radio waves are bent less than normal. This reduction in bending
will result in a much smaller horizon distance than would be the case under normal propagation
conditions. From a practical aspect a radio signal may appear to fade away as the conditions occur.
VDF Approaches
18. The following extract from the AIP is included for your guidance:
There are two types of VDF procedure, QDM and QGH. In the QDM procedure the pilot calls for a
series of QDM and uses them to follow the published approach pattern, making his own adjustment
to heading and height. In the QGH procedure the controller obtains bearings from the aircrafts
transmissions, interprets this information and passes to the pilot headings and heights to fly designed
to keep the aircraft in the published pattern. Normally, at civil aerodromes, only QDM procedure is
available; however, in some cases, for specific operational reasons, there will be provision for QGH
procedure. Those aerodromes that have been approved to carry out both types of VDF procedure
will have this provision shown against the procedure. Pilots are reminded that it is their responsibility
to ensure with ATC that the correct procedure is being flown.
Non-directional Beacons
NDB Emission Characteristics
The ADF Receiver
The Automatic Function
The Bellini-Tosi System
The Control Panel
The Beat Frequency Oscillator
ADF Bearing Presentation
The Relative Bearing Indicator
Factors Affecting Range
Factors Affecting Accuracy
Procedures for Obtaining a Bearing
2Automatic Direction Finding
1. Automatic direction finding (ADF) or radio compass equipment is still widely used. The
airborne equipment (ADF) comprises a radio receiver designed to accept signals in the LF and MF
bands, and to determine the great circle bearing of the transmitting station from the aircraft.
Non-directional Beacons
2. Those transmitters which are specifically designed to give ideal signals for ADF use are
known as non-directional beacons (NDBs). These transmitters operate in the LF or MF bands, using
surface wave propagation paths.
3. Many NDBs today are used to enable a pilot to locate either an airfield or the initial approach
point of an instrument approach aid. Such beacons typically have a range of approximately 25 nm
and are termed locator beacons. NDBs always transmit omnidirectionally.
4. In addition to using purpose built NDBs and locator beacons for navigation, the airborne
ADF equipment can utilise transmissions from any voice broadcast radio station that falls within the
relevant frequency range.
5. The range of a surface wave is largely dependent upon the power of the transmitter. As a
guide, a MF transmitter with a power of 10 kilowatts (kw) would have a range of about 500 nautical
miles over water, over land somewhat lower ranges are likely. Relative power-to-range can be
estimated from a rule of thumb which states that to double the range it is necessary to quadruple the
power.
6. As the wavelength of transmissions in the LF and MF bands is extremely large it becomes
impractical to utilise aerials which are the optimum length. In practice a convenient sized (but
nevertheless quite large) aerial is used which is electronically matched to the frequency in use (a
process called loading). Typically two types of aerial are used with NDBs: the T aerial
(approximately 25m high and 50m long) for long range beacons, or tower aerials, approximately
10m high and which are insulated from the ground. Both types of aerial are depicted in Figure 2-1 .
FIGURE 2-1
Typical NDB
Aerials
7. The NDB or locator beacon does not transmit a usable signal vertically upwards. The
inverted cone above the transmitter is known as the cone of silence or cone of confusion as indicated
in Figure 2-2. It should be noted that the period during which an aircraft will not receive usable
signals will increase as altitude is increased.
FIGURE 2-2
Cone of Silence
NDB Emission Characteristics
8. Two types of modulation characteristics are commonly used for non-directional beacons:
(a) NONA1A. The signal consists of two separate elements, the NON portion and the
A1A portion. The NON part of the signal is, as we know, continuous carrier wave,
and is ideally suited to enable the ADF to establish the direction from which the signal
is arriving. The A1A part of the signal periodically replaces the NON transmission
and, being interrupted carrier wave, is used to carry the three letter morse identifier
for the NDB. NONA1A beacons are normally used with high power outputs for long
range NDBs.
(b) NONA2A. Similar to NONA1A stations but now the station identifier is carried by
the A2A signal (keyed single tone amplitude modulation). NONA2A beacons are
normally used for medium range NDBs.
9. Although most ADF receivers have a frequency selector range of 190 KHz to 1750 KHz, the
frequency bands which are internationally allocated to NDBs are 255 to 285 KHz and 315 to 405
KHz.
The ADF Receiver
10. The primary function of an ADF receiver is to determine the bearing of the incoming NDB
signal. Consider a loop aerial (Figure 2-3) which is connected to the aircraft's ADF receiver. The
loop is capable of rotating about a vertical axis. With the loop as shown at Figure 2-3, lying in the
plane of the incoming signal, a current will be induced to flow through the loop by the NDB signal
by virtue of the fact that one vertical element of the loop is further from the NDB than the other
vertical element, and that consequently a phase difference exists between the two sides of the loop
with the result that there will be a voltage difference between the two vertical elements of the loop. A
voltage difference causes a current flow, which will be in the direction shown.
FIGURE 2-3
ADF Loop Aerial
Operation
11. Now consider the loop to be positioned as shown in Figure 2-4, lying at right angles to the
incoming signal. The two vertical elements of the loop are equidistant from the NDB, and no current
will flow through the loop since no phase difference exists between the two vertical elements.
FIGURE 2-4
ADF Loop Aerial
Operation
(Contd)
12. Finally, consider the loop to be positioned as shown at Figure 2-5. The loop has rotated
through 180 from its original position and again a phase difference exists. Now a current will be
induced to flow through the loop, but as far as the receiver is concerned, in the opposite direction to
the first case considered.
FIGURE 2-5
ADF Loop Aerial
Operation
(Contd)
13. The magnitude of current induced into such a coil would be very small indeed. This problem
is overcome by using many thousands of coils wound on to a ferrite former, and by several stages of
amplification within the receiver.
14. Figure 2-6 shows the characteristic figure of eight polar diagram which would be plotted if
the signal strengths received by a loop aerial were plotted as a transmitter moved round the aerial at
a fixed range through positions A,B, C and D. It will be seen that signal strength is maximum when
the transmitter is at positions A and C, and zero when the transmitter is at positions B and D. The
null produced in the latter cases is well-defined and can be used to determine the relative bearing of
the transmitter from the aerial with reasonable accuracy.
FIGURE 2-6
Polar Diagram of a
Loop Aerial
15. Suppose the transmitter is at position D. If the loop aerial is rotated slightly in either
direction, signal strength will increase. By finding the null (zero signal strength) position, the bearing
of the transmitter from the loop can be determined. However, there are two null positions at 180 to
each other and therefore an ambiguity exists, since the transmitter could be at either B or D.
16. To resolve this ambiguity a second, sensing aerial is added, which is designed so that the
received signal produces an aerial current of the same strength as the maximum current in the loop
aerial. Consequently, the radius of the polar diagram of this (single pole) aerial is equal to the
diameter of each of the loop aerial circles, as shown at Figure 2-7.
FIGURE 2-7
Polar Diagrams of
Loop and Sense
Aerials
17. The alternating current induced in one side of the loop will be out of phase with that in the
other side (unless the loop is at right angles to the incoming radio wave), and this will result in a
potential difference between the two sides of the loop, and a resulting current flow. This is
represented by +ve and -ve signs in the loop polar diagram (Figure 2-7). The sensing aerial induced
current is of constant phase and will consequently be in phase with the loop aerial if the transmitter
is in position A (for example), and 180 out of phase if the transmitter is at position C.
18. The combined polar diagrams of the sense and loop aerials will depend upon algebraic
addition of their signs. This produces the cardioid (heart shaped) polar diagram as shown at
Figure 2-8. It will be seen that the combined polar diagram is used to resolve the 180 ambiguity.
FIGURE 2-8
ADF Combined
Polar Diagram
19. Referring to Figure 2-8, suppose the transmitter is at position D. The loop aerial senses a
null, which means the transmitter must either be at D or B. If the loop is rotated anti-clockwise the
combined polar diagram will rotate with it and signal strength will increase. If the loop is rotated
clockwise, signal strength will decrease. If the transmitter were in position B, the reverse would be
true. Thus, if anti-clockwise rotation produces a stronger signal, the bearing is correct, however if it
produces a weaker one the bearing is a reciprocal.
20. Hence, the bearing of the transmitter can be found by manually rotating a loop/sense aerial
combination and listening to the strength of the received signal.
The Automatic Function
21. Figure 2-9 shows a schematic diagram of an automatic direction finding system (in fact a
Bellini-Tosi system, discussed shortly). As already described, if the transmitter is to the left of the
loop null line (the line joining the two null bearings, for example the line joining points B and D at
Figure 2-6 and Figure 2-8), the sense aerial current is in phase with the loop aerial current. If the
transmitter is to the right, the two currents will be out of phase.
22. A two phase motor is used to drive the loop and the bearing indicator. If the two aerial
currents are in phase the motor will rotate the aerial clockwise until the loop aerial senses a null. If
the two signals are in antiphase the motor will rotate the loop anti-clockwise until the null of the
loop polar diagram is sensed.
FIGURE 2-9
Automatic
Direction Finding
System. Fixed
Loop Installation.
The Bellini-Tosi System
23. Modern ADF systems work on exactly the same principle as that described above. In high-
speed aircraft it is not desirable to mount a bulky loop aerial housing outside the fuselage. To
overcome this problem two coils, which are at right angles to each other, are wound on ferrite cores,
embedded in a flat block of insulating material and fitted flush with the aircraft skin. The two loops
are connected to the stator coils of a synchro called a goniometer. The field produced by the
incoming signal is now effectively reproduced within the goniometer. A search coil lying within the
field produced by the goniometer stator coils now rotates in search of the null position; the ADF
pointer is controlled by the movement of this search coil. The system is shown diagrammatically at
Figure 2-9.
The Control Panel
24. Figure 2-10 shows the face of a modern ADF receiver. This receiver is relatively devoid of
controls and, compared with the older sets, is very easy to use. The frequency selection controls
enable the operator to select the frequency required by placing the appropriate numbers in the
frequency window. Note that, like most modern equipment, this unit has 0.5 KHz frequency
divisions.
25. The function switch has four positions. With ADF selected and a suitable signal present the
equipment automatically gives bearing information.
26. By selecting the ANT (antenna) position the loop aerial is taken out of circuit and the
audibility of A2A NDB identifiers should improve. Obviously with the ANT position selected the
bearing information must be disregarded, but it is the best position for checking signal strength and
identification.
FIGURE 2-10
Typical ADF
Control Panel.
27. By selecting the BFO (beat frequency oscillator) position, an oscillator within the ADF is
brought into the circuit, and creates an audible output from non amplitude modulated (NON and
A1A) inputs. This enables the pilot to check the NON portion of the incoming signal for fading
(night effect) or high noise levels (thunderstorm effect or precipitation static), and of course to check
the ident of an NDB using A1A modulation. Again, since the loop aerial is isolated when the ADF
receiver is in the BFO mode, the bearing must be ignored whilst the function switch is in the BFO
position. On some equipments the BFO is a separate switch, independent of the function control.
28. The Bandpass Selector Switch (Broad/Sharp Switch) allows the operator to narrow the band
of frequencies fed to the receiver if it is necessary to exclude unwanted background noise. It should
be noted that Broad (or wide bandwidth) should be selected when listening to voice or music.
29. Depressing the test button causes the ADF needle to swing a preset amount (typically at least
90). When the button is released the needle should swing back to the original reading. Older
equipments incorporate a loop control facility with which a similar check can be made by rotating
the loop first clockwise and then anti-clockwise through at least 90
0
.
The Beat Frequency Oscillator
30. An amplitude modulated signal is demodulated in a conventional receiver without any
difficulty since the amplitude of the carrier wave is varying in sympathy with the intelligence
waveform. With a NON or A1A signal the amplitude of the carrier wave remains constant and
therefore it is impossible to achieve an audible output from a receiver using conventional
demodulation techniques.
31. Figure 2-11 shows how the receiver is modified when the BFO function is selected. The BFO
is made to generate an alternating current, the frequency of which differs from the incoming carrier
wave frequency by, typically, 2 KHz. The incoming signal and the BFO-generated signal are both fed
to the heterodyne unit (frequency mixing unit) which gives four output frequencies. The output of
the heterodyne unit comprises the two input frequencies, the sum of the two input frequencies, and
the difference frequency. It is only the difference frequency (2 KHz) which is audible, and this is fed
to the loudspeaker, producing the audio tone.
FIGURE 2-11
Receiver with BFO
Facility
ADF Bearing Presentation
32. ADF bearing information is presented to the pilot either as a relative bearing on a Relative
Bearing Indicator (RBI), or as a magnetic bearing on a Radio Magnetic Indicator (RMI).
The Relative Bearing Indicator
33. The RBI is used solely for ADF bearings, and is illustrated at Figure 2-12.
FIGURE 2-12
Relative Bearing
Indicator
34. The information shown on the RBI at Figure 2-12 is simply the angle subtended between the
aircraft nose (zero degrees relative) and the path of the incoming NDB signal. By convention the
pointed end of the needle always points towards the NDB.
35. In order to convert a relative bearing at the aircraft into a true bearing to plot from the NDB
the following procedure is adopted:
(a) Convert the aircraft compass heading to a true heading by applying deviation, and
variation at the aircraft position.
(b) Add the true heading to the relative bearing.
(c) Add or subtract 180.
36. The result of the above calculation will be the true great circle bearing of the aircraft from the
NDB. No consideration has been made here of convergency or conversion angle.
37. Figure 2-13 and Figure 2-14 illustrate the procedure outlined above for plotting relative ADF/
NDB bearing (ignoring convergency and conversion angle).
FIGURE 2-13
Calculation of
Bearings using RBI
38. A far more convenient way of presenting ADF bearing information is on the Radio Magnetic
Indicator (RMI). If an aircraft is fitted with RMIs it is normal to present both ADF and VOR
bearings on the same instrument. You will find an in-depth consideration of the RMI in chapter 4.
FIGURE 2-14
Calculation of
Bearings using RBI
(large numbers)
Factors Affecting Range
39. The points discussed below are the major factors which will determine the maximum range at
which satisfactory bearings may be obtained:
(a) NDB transmitter power. The greater the power output of the NDB the greater the
range.
(b) NDB frequency. As discussed in the previous section, the lower the frequency the
smaller the rate of surface wave attenuation and consequently the greater the range.
(c) The surface. Greater range is achieved over the sea than over the land.
(d) Type of emission. NONA1A emissions, having a very narrow bandwidth, give longer
ranges for a given power output than NONA2A or A2A emissions, with their broader
bandwidth.
(e) Precipitation static. Electrical discharges which occur when precipitation strikes the
airframe will increase the ambient radio noise level, and this may be sufficient to
obscure the incoming NDB signal, thereby limiting the range at which an NDB is
usable. Static wick dischargers mounted on the trailing edges help to discharge the
aircraft's static electricity to atmosphere, thereby minimising the effect.
40. As the range of the aircraft from the NDB in use increases, so the signal becomes weaker, and
therefore the signal to noise ratio decreases. In the United Kingdom, the minimum signal to noise
ratio which is considered acceptable is 3:1, and this should produce a bearing accuracy of within 5
by day only, within the promulgated range.
Factors Affecting Accuracy
41. ADF systems suffer from a number of errors, which are discussed below.
Dip Error
42. The operation of the loop aerial as described on page 2-3 is dependent upon voltage
differences that are created only in the vertical elements of a loop aerial. However, when bank is
applied to an aircraft the horizontal arms of the loop aerial will tilt such that they have a vertical
component to their orientation; thus they will also have a current flow induced in them and this
additional current will result in a small error in indicated bearing. This error is known as dip error.
Mountain Effect
43. Hills and mountains reflect and re-radiate the LF or MF signals of an NDB. Consequently,
the ADF in a low-flying aircraft may receive both the great circle signal and a re-radiated signal at the
same time. This will result in an erroneous bearing, as shown at Figure 2-15.
FIGURE 2-15
Mountain Effect
Quadrantal Error
44. The airframe itself tends to reflect, refract and re-radiate the incoming signal. The result is
that the loop aerial will receive a signal directly from the NDB together with a much weaker signal
which has been distorted by the aircraft fuselage. The net effect is that the incoming signal appears
to bend towards the fuselage as illustrated at Figure 2-16. Notice that it is signals arriving on relative
quadrantal bearings which are most affected. Signals arriving on relative cardinal bearings are not
normally affected to any significant degree. It is possible to calibrate quadrantal errors out of the
system when the ADF is installed into the aircraft.
FIGURE 2-16
Quadrantal Error
Coastal Refraction
45. Because radio waves travel marginally faster over the sea than over the land, any radio wave
crossing the coastline at other than 90 will be refracted. Figure 2-17 shows the waves being bent
away from the normal when crossing from land to sea. Notice that the further the signal is from the
normal, the greater the amount of refraction.
FIGURE 2-17
Coastal Refraction
46. To minimise coastal refraction, bearings should be taken when the aircraft is positioned such
that the signal from the NDB is crossing the coast at an angle fairly close to 90. If this is not
possible an NDB should be used which is as close as possible to the coast. Figure 2-18 illustrates why
this is so.
FIGURE 2-18
Reduction of
Coastal
Refraction.
Night Effect
47. Within the LF and MF bands skywaves are not normally present by day, since the ionosphere
is intensely ionised and totally attenuates all LF and MF radio waves entering the layers. By night the
ionosphere is partially de-ionised and now NDB signals may survive to be refracted back to the
surface of the Earth.
48. What is now happening is that both surface wave and skywave signals from the NDB in use
may arrive at the aircraft together. It is likely that the two waves will be out of phase. Additionally,
if the ionosphere does not lie parallel with the Earth's surface, the two signals will arrive at the
aircraft along different great circle paths. The net result is that the ADF bearing will be in error.
49. In fact night effect is most pronounced during the twilight periods, since at these times the
ionosphere is changing both its intensity and its height above the surface.
50. When night effect is affecting the incoming signal the needle will tend to wander, and the
identification signal to fade, as the two incoming signals (the surface wave and the skywave) drift in
and out of phase with each other.
51. Appreciate that night effect is assumed to occur because of the inter-action of the surface
wave from the NDB in use and the skywave, also from the NDB in use. Obviously, skywaves from
NDBs or other stations operating on the same frequency will affect the accuracy of the bearing (see
station interference), however this distant station skywave interference is not considered to be night
effect, even though it will be most pronounced at night.
Station Interference
52. In order to ensure that there is little or no interference between NDBs operating on the same
or similar frequencies, both beacon location and frequency allocation are carefully planned. Surface
wave coverage of NDBs on the same frequency should not therefore overlap. If it is not possible to
totally prevent this surface wave overlap situation, the NDBs concerned are given promulgated
ranges. This range, which is published in the AIP, denotes the maximum range at which the NDB
signal should be considered as being free from harmful distant station interference BY DAY.
Figure 2-19 illustrates the significance of promulgated range.
FIGURE 2-19
Station
Interference/
Promulgated
Range
Static Interference
53. Static interference is one of the largest sources of error in the operation of NDB/ADF systems.
All kinds of precipitation (including falling snow) and thunderstorms can cause static interference of
varying intensity. Precipitation static, described in the Radio Theory part of the ATPL syllabus,
reduces the effective range and accuracy of bearing information. Thunderstorm activity can give rise
to bearing errors of considerable magnitude and even to false overhead indications. The electrical
emissions during a thunderstorm may well result in the ADF indicating the direction of the storm
rather than the NDB
54. By night the skywaves from distant stations may well reach the aircraft, even though it is
operating well within the promulgated range of the beacon in use. It is for this reason that
promulgated ranges are not valid by night. Figure 2-20 illustrates this very important fact.
FIGURE 2-20
Problems
Associated with
Promulgated
Range
Lack of Failure Warning System
55. The majority of ADF instruments do not incorporate a failure warning indication.
Consequently, failure of any part of the airborne receiving or ground transmitting apparatus may
produce false bearing indications which are not readily detectable.
56. In particular, failure of the NDB could adversely affect both systems of a dual ADF
installation in the aircraft, leading to the false assumption that - because both are indicating the same
- both are correct.
57. In order to reduce the risk of a false indication being followed, the correct method of
assessing system performance is to continuously monitor the NDB audio identification signal and the
RMI/RBI pointer behaviour. This is particularly applicable when making an approach toward the
NDB when, in the event of failure, the pointer could give a reverse indication. Since this should only
occur once the beacon has been passed, reversal or marked change at any other time may be taken as
an indication of probable system failure.
58. Loss of the NDB identification signal may be taken as an indication of NDB failure, since
under these circumstances the identification signal is suppressed, or replaced by a continuous tone.
Procedures for Obtaining a Bearing
59. That which follows is a full and correct procedure for obtaining a bearing from an NDB
classified as NONA2A.
(a) Before flight, select the NDBs required for flight navigation and check the AIP for
promulgated range, modulation characteristics and scheduled servicing periods, and
the current Notams for frequency or location changes, unserviceability or non-
scheduled servicing periods.
(b) Before take-off, check serviceability of ADF receiver using two NDBs of known
bearing from the airfield.
(c) In flight, select the required frequency.
(d) With the function switch at ADF or ANT, check the Morse ident, and ensure that
there is no A2A station break-through.
(e) Select function switch to BFO. Check for steady DF tone, with no fading (night
effect), no high noise level (thunderstorm effect), and no A1A station break-through.
(f) Select function switch to ADF and ensure that the needle points steadily in what you
consider to be approximately the correct direction.
(g) Deflect the needle using the press to test button, release, and ensure that the needle
returns to its original position.
(h) Note bearing, heading (for RBI readings only), and time.
Self Assessed Exercise No. 2
QUESTIONS
QUESTION 1.
Under certain meteorological conditions radio waves in the VHF, UHF and SHF bands may be
received at ranges far beyond the normal direct wave range. This phenomenon is called _________ .
QUESTION 2.
A class C VDF bearing would have an expected accuracy of _________ .
QUESTION 3.
The range which might be expected from an NDB which is transmitting 10 Kilowatts of power over
the sea in average conditions is:
QUESTION 4.
The principal propagation path of an NDB is:
QUESTION 5.
What types of aerial are used with NDBs?
QUESTION 6.
The Loop aerial in an ADF is used for:
QUESTION 7.
When the induced signals from the loop and sense antennae are combined in an ADF receiver, the
resultant polar diagram is:
QUESTION 8.
What frequency selection range does ADF equipment cover?
QUESTION 9.
What is the purpose of the Bandpass Selector Switch (Broad/Sharp switch) on an ADF control panel?
QUESTION 10.
In an ADF receiver, night effect is most pronounced.
QUESTION 11.
When ANT is selected on the ADF function switch which aerial(s) are being used?
QUESTION 12.
In an ADF receiver, thunderstorm effect is caused by:
QUESTION 13.
Does the Beat Frequency Oscillator in ADF equipment generate an alternating current at an audio or
radio frequency?
QUESTION 14.
An NDB bearing is taken from an RBI and reads 057 relative. The heading of the aircraft is 359(C),
deviation is 3E and magnetic variation is 7W. What is the calculated true bearing to plot from the
NDB to the aircraft position?
QUESTION 15.
What is the quoted bearing accuracy of an NDB?
QUESTION 16.
How is Quadrantal Error corrected in an ADF system?
QUESTION 17.
Other than taking bearings that cross the coast at right-angles, how may the effects of Coastal
Refraction be reduced when using ADF equipment?
QUESTION 18.
What is the validity period of promulgated ranges?
QUESTION 19.
Does Coastal Refraction have the effect of bending a radio wave towards or away from the normal
to the coastline, when the signal is travelling from land to sea?
QUESTION 20.
The RBI bearing of an NDB is 343 relative. The heading of the aircraft is 350(M), deviation is 4W
and magnetic variation is 5E. What is the calculated true bearing to plot from the NDB to the
aircraft position?
ANSWERS:
ANSWER 1.
Super refraction (or ducting)
ANSWER 2.
10
ANSWER 3.
500nm
ANSWER 4.
Surface Wave
ANSWER 5.
T aerial or Tower aerial.
ANSWER 6.
Direction finding using the null positions of the polar diagram.
ANSWER 7.
Cardioid
See FIGURE 209 in the Reference Book
ANSWER 8.
190 Khz to 1750 Khz
ANSWER 9.
It reduces the bandwidth of the receiver to exclude unwanted noise.
ANSWER 10.
At dawn and dusk
ANSWER 11.
With ANT selected only the Sense Aerial will be in use.
ANSWER 12.
The ADF receiver being attracted to naturally occurring electromagnetic radiation.
ANSWER 13.
The BFO is a RADIO FREQUENCY oscillator
ANSWER 14.
Hdg = 359(C)
Dev = 003E
Mag Hdg = 002(M)
Varn = 007W
True Hdg = 355(T)
Brg = 057(R)
True Hdg = 355
= 412
- 360
= 052(T)
Brg from NDB = 180 + 052
= 232(T)
ANSWER 15.
5 by day only (within the promulgated range).
ANSWER 16.
A Quadrantal Error corrector is installed with the ADF system and the error is calibrated out.
ANSWER 17.
By using NDBs that are close to the coastline
ANSWER 18.
Promulgated Ranges are only valid by day due to the possibility of skywave interference at night.
ANSWER 19.
The radio wave will be bent away from the normal to the coastline.
ANSWER 20.
Mag Hdg = 350
Varn = 5E
True Hdg = 355
NDB Brg = 350
True Hdg = 355
= 698
- 360
Brg to NDB = 338(T)
Brg to NDB = 338(T)
- 180
Brg from NDB = 158(T)
VOR
Principle of Operation
VOR Frequency Range and Chart Symbology
Operational Range of VOR
VOR Errors
Types of VOR Transmitters
VOR Bearing Presentation
VOR
3VOR
1. VHF Omnidirectional Radio Range (VOR) is a system which gives accurate bearings with
reference to ground-based stations.
2. VOR stations transmit a carrier wave which is modulated in a manner previously described as
A9W in the Radio Theory part of the syllabus. This is to say that the single carrier wave is both
frequency and amplitude modulated at the same time.
3. By frequency modulating the carrier wave with a simple 30 Hz wave form, the reference
signal is achieved. This signal is so named since all airborne receivers at a given range from the
station will receive a reference signal which is at the same phase, regardless of the aircraft bearing
from the station.
4. The VOR station transmits in all directions (omnidirectionally), however the signal strength
varies depending on the bearing from the station at a given point in time. The polar diagram for the
VOR transmitter, which is known as a limacon, is illustrated at Figure 3-1.
VOR
FIGURE 3-1
Limacon Polar
Diagram
5. The limacon itself is rotated at the rate of 30 revolutions per second and this has the effect of
amplitude modulating the carrier wave arriving at an airborne receiver, see Figure 3-2.
6. At Figure 3-2(a), the aircraft to the east of the beacon is receiving a signal of minimum
strength, since the shortest radius of the limacon is facing the aircraft.
7. At Figure 3-2(b), the amplitude of the signal arriving at the aircraft is of mean value, since the
limacon has rotated through 90.
VOR
8. At Figure 3-2(c), the signal is at maximum amplitude, the limacon having rotated through a
further 90.
9. At Figure 3-2(d) the signal is back to a mean value, and at Figure 3-2(e) the signal is at
minimum strength, since the limacon has now rotated through one complete revolution.
VOR
FIGURE 3-2
Amplitude
Modulation
Produced by
Rotating the
Limacon
VOR
10. The phase of the amplitude modulated signal will depend upon the bearing of the airborne
receiver from the ground station. The amplitude modulation is therefore known as the variphase
signal.
11. Each airborne receiver is now receiving both a reference and a variphase signal and the
rotation of the limacon is so arranged that the two signals are in phase to any observer on a magnetic
bearing of 360 from the VOR beacon. The phase difference between the reference and variphase
signals will now relate directly to the magnetic bearing of the receiver from the beacon, see
Figure 3-3.
VOR
FIGURE 3-3
Signal Production
in a VOR
VOR
VOR Frequency Range and Chart Symbology
12. VOR operates in the VHF band between 108.0 MHz and 117.95 MHz. The frequencies
allocated to VOR within this band are:
(a) 108.0; 108.05; 108.2; 108.25; 108.4; 108.45 and so on up to 111.8 and 111.85 MHz
giving 40 channels;
(b) 112.0; 112.05; 112.1; 112.15; 112.2 and so on at 0.05 MHz (50 KHz) spacing to
117.9 and finally 117.95 MHz. MHz, giving a further 120 channels.
13. The reason for the gaps (for example 108.1 and 108.15 MHz) between 108 and 112 MHz is
that the 40 frequencies allocated to the ILS Localiser also lie between 108 and 112 MHz.
14. All VORs transmit a three-letter morse identification code (1020 Hz amplitude modulation),
which is repeated six times a minute, unless the VOR is paired with a DME, but more of that later.
When a VOR station is transmitting for test or calibration purposes, the normal three letter
identification is replaced with the three letters TST (see later). When this occurs the VOR must not
be used for navigation.
15. Chart symbology for VORs varies from chart to chart. Figure 3-4 shows the most common
symbols used.
VOR
FIGURE 3-4
VOR Chart
Symbols
VOR
16. When plotting a VOR radial on a navigation chart the reciprocal of the bearing taken from
an RMI (see chapter 4) should be noted, and converted to a True bearing by applying Magnetic
Variation at the beacon location. This True bearing should then be plotted, with respect to True
North, from the VOR position.
Operational Range of VOR
17. VOR operates in the VHF band and all transmissions are therefore limited to line of sight.
18. The power output of the VOR station will also affect the operational range. En-route VORs
normally use 200 watt transmitters giving a range in excess of 200 nm. Low power VORs are often
used as airfield beacons, and these stations normally transmit only 50 watts, giving a range of 100
nm or so.
VOR Errors
19. The VOR station produces a complex A9W carrier wave conveying magnetic bearing
information. If either the reference or the variphase signal shifts, the signals are no longer in phase
with each other at magnetic north. Consequently the bearing information is now erroneous. This
error is due to ground equipment malfunction. Such an error is not allowed to persist, since a
monitor station always forms part of the ground installation.
20. If the monitor senses an error in excess of one degree at the transmitter, a standby transmitter
is automatically brought to a state of readiness. This takes several minutes, but as soon as the
standby transmitter is ready a changeover is automatically achieved. During the period when the
standby transmitter is preparing for the changeover, the main transmitter continues to transmit
erroneous bearing information. To warn the pilot that the bearing information is unreliable, the
morse identifier is suppressed. During this changeover period it is unlikely that an alarm flag will
VOR
appear on the VOR indicator at the aircraft. In this case an omission of the morse identifier is the
only indication to the pilot of system malfunction. The monitor will also initiate a change to the
standby VOR transmitter in the event that a drop in the strength of the radiated signal from the
main transmitter of 15% or more is sensed. Again the identifier will be suppressed during the
changeover period. Finally, the morse identifier will be removed from the carrier wave in the event
that the monitor fails.
21. Having established that the ground equipment error will not exceed one degree, it is now
necessary to consider other errors which may degrade the accuracy of the bearing displayed at the
aircraft.
Site Errors
22. Figure 3-5 shows that transmitted energy from the beacon may reach the aircraft via
reflecting surfaces such as hills or nearby buildings, as well as along the direct path. The composite
signal reaching the aircraft in this case will have an electrical phase that differs from the direct wave
phase and this will result in significant bearing errors. To minimise site errors the transmitter aerial is
sited, whenever possible, on flat terrain in an area remote from buildings or hilly ground.
VOR
FIGURE 3-5
Site Errors
Airborne Equipment Errors
23. It is impossible to measure the phase difference between the reference and variphase signals
with total accuracy. Each one degree of error in measuring the phase difference results in a one-
degree error in bearing information. This phase comparison error at the aircraft should not exceed
plus or minus three degrees (3).
Propagation Errors
24. Propagation errors, otherwise known as scalloping, may occur at extreme range and at low
altitude where the signal is unevenly propagated over irregular terrain.
VOR
25. If a VOR beacon is known to be subject to either site error or propagation error, this
information will appear in the remarks column for that particular VOR in the COM section of the
AIP. From a practical point of view, beam bends and scalloping of VOR bearings/radials often
manifest themselves when flying along an airway centreline between two VORs. The aircraft may be
tracking the centreline quite happily using the bearing indications from the VOR behind the aircraft
however, when the pilots retune the VOR to the beacon ahead of the aircraft, the new indications
could show a relatively large deviation from track.
Station Interference
26. If an aircraft is operating at altitude the situation may arise whereby the VOR set is receiving
signals from two stations operating on the same frequency. One of these stations will presumably be
the station selected by the pilot, the other station will therefore be interfering with the desired signal.
The consequence of this station interference will be an erroneous bearing indication.
27. With only a limited number of spot frequencies allocated for use by a great number of VOR
stations, careful planning is essential if station interference errors are to be avoided. This is primarily
achieved by wide geographical spacing of VOR beacons using the same frequency.
28. When it proves impossible to prevent a degree of signal overlap, a Designated Operational
Coverage (DOC) is published in the AIP for the VOR stations concerned. The DOC defines the
volume of airspace within which harmful interference from distant stations is avoided. Unlike the
promulgated range of NDBs discussed previously, DOC is valid both by day and by night, since
skywaves do not occur in the VHF band at any time.
29. In some cases interference may be limited to one sector, or may be more significant in one
sector than in others. This is illustrated in the extract of the COM section of the AIP shown at
Figure 3-6.
VOR
FIGURE 3-6
Example of
Designated
Operational
Coverage
30. The table at Figure 3-7 summarises the errors likely to affect a VOR bearing.
FIGURE 3-7
Summary of
Errors in a VOR
Types of VOR Transmitters
31. Described below are the various types of VOR station in common use.
Station Service Callsign/Ident Frequency Remarks
Burnham VOR BUR 117.10 MHz DOC 60 nm/ 25,000 ft. Ignore
any DME indications, no
associated DME.
Dover VOR/DME DVR 117.70 MHz DOC 80 nm/50,000 ft (200 nm/
50,000 ft in sector 025 -
039(M). DME on channel 124X
Transmitter error - monitored to remain within
Airborne equipment error - typically a maximum of
Station interference - within the DOC should not exceed
Site error - insignificant with careful siting (or Doppler VOR)
Propagation error - insignificant if the VOR is used at sensible range and altitude
1
3
1
-
-
Total 5
VOR
Standard VOR
32. Widely used to define airways centrelines, transmitter power normally 200 watts.
Terminal VOR (TVOR)
33. Low-powered beacons used as airfield location aids. Widely used in some parts of the world,
in conjunction with DME, as a procedural approach aid.
Broadcast VOR (BVOR)
34. Broadcast VOR beacons provide bearing information in the usual manner. Additionally, a
voice modulation is superimposed on the carrier wave. The audio information normally provides an
Aerodrome Terminal Information Service (ATIS) giving present weather, runway in use and
serviceability state of the airfield and associated navigation aids.
VOR
Test VOR (VOT)
35. A VOT is a VOR, which operates on one of the normal VOR frequencies, and provides a test
signal for the pre-flight checking of VOR airborne equipment. The VOT radiates an RF carrier on
which are superimposed two separate 30 Hz modulated waveforms which are identical in format to
the reference and variphase signals of a conventional VOR. Both modulating waveforms are phase
locked together with 180 phase difference such that, no matter where an aircraft is positioned in
relation to a VOT, the indications on the flight deck will always show the aircraft to be on the 180
radial from the ground facility. Identification of the VOT beacon is done in the normal manner
however, the appropriate authority will ensure that the ident sequence is unmistakenly distinctive as
to the test function (in certain areas, where VOT coverage is confined to a single aerodrome, the
identification may consist of a series of dots). The accuracy of the VOT test bearing should be within
1.
Doppler VOR (DVOR)
36. VOR transmitter aerials should be sited on flat terrain to minimise site errors. If such a site is
not available, a complex aerial system may be employed to transmit the VOR signal. This type of
station is known as a Doppler VOR (DVOR) beacon and produces a signal which is reasonably free
of site errors even when the transmitter is sited in hilly terrain.
37. The way in which the bearing signal is produced is quite different from conventional VOR,
the received signals are indistinguishable from each other and the airborne receiver will operate on
either with equal facility. In doppler VOR the reference signal is amplitude modulated at 30 Hz,
whilst the bearing signal is frequency modulated at 30 Hz. Because this is the reverse of conventional
VOR, the bearing (or variable) modulation is made to lead the reference signal by a phase angle
equal to the aircraft's magnetic bearing from the VOR ground station.
VOR
38. The Doppler VOR transmitter comprises a circle of about 50 antennae surrounding a single
omni-directional antenna. The latter transmits the AM reference signal, whilst the circle of antennae
are sequentially energised in an anti-clockwise direction at 30 revolutions per second (30 Hz). From
any given direction, it will appear as though the transmitter is advancing and retreating at 30 Hz - in
other words there will be a Doppler shift. The phase relationship between the doppler shift and the
steady reference signal is arranged to be zero when received on a bearing of 0(M) from the
transmitter. Since both signals have the same modulating frequency (30 Hz), at 180(M) from the
VOR the phase difference will be 180, at 270(M) it will be 270 and so on.
VOR Bearing Presentation
39. VOR bearing information is presented to the pilot either on an Omni Bearing Indicator
(OBI), or on a Radio Magnetic Indicator (RMI).
The Omni Bearing Indicator
40. The basic Omni Bearing Indicator (OBI) is illustrated at Figure 3-8. The instrument is often
designed to serve a dual function as both VOR bearing indicator and ILS meter, depending upon the
facility selected. For clarity, the ILS glidepath needle is omitted from all illustrations in this chapter.
VOR
FIGURE 3-8
Omni Bearing
Indicator
41. Check the illustration at Figure 3-8 and note the following points:
(a) The instrument face illustrated is known as a five-dot display. The ring at the centre
represents the first dot.
(b) In the VOR mode the track deviation needle will deviate from the centre of the
instrument by one dot for every two degrees that the aircraft is displaced from the
magnetic track selected in the window. Full-scale deflection of the needle therefore
represents a track error of ten degrees or more.
VOR
(c) The needle represents the required magnetic track. The centre of the instrument
represents the aircraft.
(d) The required magnetic track is selected in the window using the omni bearing selector
(OBS) knob.
(e) A prominent alarm flag will appear whenever:
(i) The airborne receiver fails, or power supply is lost.
(ii) The aircraft receives no acceptable VOR signal, due to range, height, or
because the aircraft is directly overhead or abeam the station.
(iii) The VOR ground station fails.
(f) When the alarm flag is not visible it will be replaced by either a TO or a FROM
indication depending on the aircraft position in relation to the VOR station and to the
magnetic track selected in the window.
42. The VOR station does not transmit a usable signal vertically upwards. The inverted cone
above the transmitter is known as the cone of silence or the cone of confusion. The ICAO
requirement is that the cone subtends an angle of not more than 50 from the vertical, as shown at
Figure 3-9. The period during which an aircraft will not receive usable signals will increase as
altitude is increased. During this period the alarm flag will be visible, indicating station passage.
43. The maximum radius or diameter of the cone of silence can easily be calculated for a given
altitude using simple trigonometry or scale drawing.
VOR
FIGURE 3-9
Cone of Silence
44. The alarm flag will also be visible for a period of time if the aircraft flies abeam the beacon
(with respect to the magnetic track selected). The two areas of ambiguity (the two abeam sectors)
extend through 20 arcs equally displaced about the perpendiculars to the magnetic track selected,
see Figure 3-10.
VOR
FIGURE 3-10
Areas of
Ambiguity
VOR
45. Remember that the OBI does not think for itself, and it has no knowledge of aircraft heading.
The OBI will present positional information relative ONLY to the MAGNETIC TRACK selected in
the window.
46. Please re-read the last paragraph and make a mental note not to fall into the trap either in the
examination or in the air. Figure 3-11 and Figure 3-12 illustrate the problem.
FIGURE 3-11
Correct Track
Selection on an
OBS
VOR
FIGURE 3-12
Incorrect Track
Selection on an
OBS
47. At Figure 3-11 the aircraft is attempting to track 300(M) outbound from the VOR station
and the required magnetic track of 300 has been correctly dialled in the window. The aircraft is
presently located on the 306 radial, the OBI shows three dots fly left and the FROM flag is visible.
All is as it should be.
48. At Figure 3-12 the aircraft is attempting to track 120 inbound to the VOR station (to track
inbound on the 300 radial). The reciprocal of the required magnetic track has been dialled in the
window. The aircraft is again located on the 306 radial. The needle shows three dots fly left when
it should show three dots fly right. The FROM flag is visible and it should be the TO flag. All is
NOT as it should be.
VOR
49. In order to obtain a bearing to plot from a VOR station to the aircraft using an OBI simply
rotate the OBS until the needle is vertical with the FROM flag showing. The reading in the track
window can now be plotted using magnetic north at the station. Alternatively variation at the
station can be applied and the resultant bearing plotted from the meridian passing through the
station.
50. It is not necessary to apply convergency when plotting VOR bearing on a Lambert or polar
stereographic chart. It is however necessary to apply a correction for conversion angle when plotting
VOR bearings on a Mercator chart, if the change of longitude between aircraft and station is
significant.
51. Using the OBI for tracking is a straightforward exercise. Select the required magnetic track in
the window and keep the needle in the middle, making necessary allowance for drift. Appreciate that
the basic OBI described shows angular displacement from track, and consequently the corresponding
linear displacement expressed in terms of distance will depend upon aircraft range from the station.
For example (using the 1 in 60 rule), two dots fly left at a range of 60 nm represents a track error of
4 nm. The same two dots fly left at a range of 6 nm represents a track error of less than half a
nautical mile.
In-flight ADF and VOR Procedures using an RMI
4The Radio Magnetic Indicator (RMI)
1. The RMI is used both for ADF and VOR bearing information, and is illustrated at Figure 4-1.
FIGURE 4-1
RMI Presentation
2. The ADF needle on the RMI is still effectively showing the relative bearing of the NDB (the
NDB bears 090 relative to the aircraft nose, and the sharp end of the needle is 90 removed from the
top of the RMI). The difference is that the compass rose on the RMI is slaved to the aircraft gyro-
compass and presently indicates the aircraft heading of 060(M) at the top of the instrument. The
RMI has therefore mechanically added the magnetic heading to the relative bearing and the needle
shows the magnetic bearing of the NDB from the aircraft.
3. The VOR bearing is displayed on the RMI with the sharp end of the needle pointing to the
VOR station.
4. It is probable that the compass to which the RMI is slaved will suffer small amounts of
deviation. The amount of any deviation should be very small (certainly less than one degree for a
sophisticated gyro-slaved system) and is normally ignored. Should the amount of deviation become
significant it is necessary to correct ADF bearings on the RMI; VOR bearings are not affected
because the equipment first subtracts aircraft heading to produce a relative bearing which controls
the pointer, but on the display aircraft heading is re-applied to give the original QDM as the output.
FIGURE 4-2
The Effects of
Magnetic
Deviation
5. Figure 4-2 shows the same situation as given at Figure 4-1, however now 10 east deviation
(+10) has been introduced into the RMI compass rose.
6. At Figure 4-2 the compass rose now underreads by 10. The ADF needle still shows 090
relative but the indicated bearing is now 140. The compass underreads by 10, so does the ADF
bearing on the RMI.
7. The VOR needle continues to show the correct bearing of 270 to the station.
8. The following examples illustrate the relationship between the RMI and the position of the
aircraft relative to the VOR/NDB stations.
EXAMPLE 4-1
EXAMPLE
An aircraft is tracking towards VOR A maintaining the 140 radial with 17 of port drift. NDB B
bears 220 relative to the aircraft. VOR A and NDB B are approximately equidistant from the
aircraft.
(a) Draw a diagram to show the position of the aircraft, the VOR and NDB.
(b) Draw a diagram to show the appearance of an RMI on which both VOR and ADF
bearing information is shown.
SOLUTION
FIGURE 4-3
EXAMPLE 4-2
EXAMPLE
An aircraft is tracking away from VOR C maintaining the 245 radial with 15 of starboard drift.
NDB D lies to the west of VOR C. Heading will be altered to track inbound to NDB D when NDB
D is abeam track, the drift will then be 10 port.
Draw a diagram to show the aircraft RMI on which both ADF and VOR information is presented:
(a) shortly before turning
(b) shortly after turning.
SOLUTION
See Figure 4-4 and Figure 4-5. Figure 4-4 is not required as part of the answer, but it is obviously
much easier to see what's what with the aid of such a diagram.
FIGURE 4-4
FIGURE 4-5
In-flight ADF and VOR Procedures using an RMI
9. The following procedures, as detailed in ICAO Doc 8168, are those to be adopted when using
an RMI in conjunction with ADF/VOR equipment in the air.
Homing to an NDB/VOR Beacon
10. In a pure homing situation the aircraft heading is adjusted to keep the appropriate RMI
pointer (ADF or VOR) aligned with the heading index, i.e. the nose of the aircraft is always pointed
directly towards the beacon. Unless the wind is light and variable the aircraft heading will have to
be continually changed during the homing, with the aircraft flying a curved path to the station,
ultimately arriving overhead the beacon but facing into wind.
Tracking to an NDB/VOR
11. The homing procedure, as described above, is generally inappropriate in the commercial
world as the overriding requirement is usually to maintain a given track (e.g. maintaining the centre-
line of an airway). Say, for example, that an aircraft is required to track inbound to a VOR/NDB on
a track (QDM) of 090M and at the same time it is experiencing 20 starboard drift. Assuming the
aircraft is currently on track, the heading should be adjusted to 070M and the RMI will indicate a
bearing of 090M to the VOR/NDB (see Figure 4-6). If the drift were 15 port the heading would
have been 105M with the RMI still indicating a bearing of 090M to the beacon. In both of these
examples, providing the drift remains constant, all indications will remain the same and the aircraft
will maintain track until reaching the overhead.
FIGURE 4-6
Tracking using an
RMI
12. If during the procedure described above the RMI reading starts to increase, the aircraft will be
drifting port of track and it will be necessary to allow for less drift than was originally anticipated. If
the RMI reading starts to decrease, the aircraft will be drifting to starboard of track and therefore it
will be necessary to allow for more than 20 starboard drift.
Tracking from an NDB/VOR
13. Imagine that in Figure 4-6 the aircraft has now flown overhead the beacon and is required to
track outbound on the same track. Assuming the aircraft is on track initially, and the drift is still
20S, then by flying the same heading of 070M the aircraft will remain on track with the RMI now
reading 270M. If the RMI reading changes then the heading should be adjusted in the same manner
as before (i.e. if the RMI reading increases the aircraft will be drifting starboard of track; if the
readings are decreasing the aircraft will be drifting to port).
Interceptions
14. If, in the above tracking procedures, the aircraft becomes a long way off-track it may be
necessary to re-establish yourself by intercepting the particular track again. For example, in
Figure 4-7, if the aircraft is several miles to starboard of the inbound track (360M) to the NDB/
VOR, then an intercept heading should be selected (normally about 30 to the desired track - in this
case say, 330M), and the aircraft flown until the RMI pointer is just approaching 360M. The
aircraft would now be turned onto a heading of 360M drift allowance.
FIGURE 4-7
Interceptions using
an RMI
15. In practice the turn onto the required track is made with a few degrees still to go on the
RMI. This angle of lead allows for the fact that the aircraft cannot turn on a spot and will therefore
use up some distance in the turn. Providing the angle of lead is chosen correctly, bearing in mind the
range from the ground beacon, the aircraft should roll out onto the correct track, on the correct
heading.
Procedure Turns
16. A procedure turn, as illustrated at Figure 4-8, is a commonly used method of reversing the
track of an aircraft during say, a non-precision approach, whilst ensuring that the aircraft stays
within a safe sector. The procedure turn itself is a timed procedure, usually involving a 45 sec (still
air) straight leg, along a predetermined track (150M in Figure 4-8), however the RMI may be used
to facilitate accurate track keeping on the outbound and inbound parts of the procedure (either side
of the procedure turn).
FIGURE 4-8
Procedure Turns
using an RMI
17. In Figure 4-8 the RMI would be used in the manner described in paragraph 13 to follow the
outbound track of 105M. Having almost completed the procedure turn, the RMI would then be
used to intercept a track of 285M inbound to the beacon in the manner described in paragraph 14.
Holding Patterns
18. Holding patterns are race-track type patterns with all turns in the pattern being either right-
hand (RH pattern) or left-hand (LH pattern). The procedure is indicated on terminal approach charts
(TAPs). To enter the pattern, depending on the direction of approach to the VOR/NDB it may be
necessary to carry out a pre-entry manoeuvre. 360 approach directions around the beacon are
divided into three approach sectors as shown in Figure 4-9. Each sector has its own specific arrival
procedure.
FIGURE 4-9
Entry Procedure
for RH and LH
Holding Patterns
19. To clarify the sector division, review the RH holding pattern in Figure 4-9. The inbound track
is 270(M). The sector divisions based on this track are as follows :
20. If your approach track is along one of the dividing lines you may choose either sector. The
details of each sector join are as follows :
Sector 1
(a) On arrival overhead, fly parallel to the reciprocal of the inbound leg for the
appropriate time.
(b) Turn left and home back to the NDB/VOR.
(c) On second arrival over the facility turn right and commence the pattern.
Sector 2
(a) On arrival overhead, make good a track 30 to the reciprocal of the inbound leg
towards the inside of the pattern.
(b) At the appropriate time, turn right and join the pattern on the inbound leg, and home
to the facility.
Sector 3
(a) On arrival overhead, join the pattern directly.
Sector 1 - approaching the beacon between 090(M) and 200(M)
21. In each case the holding pattern proper, commences when overhead the beacon. Turn right
through 180 rate one and start timing when abeam the beacon. In zero wind conditions an RMI
pointer indicating 090 relative to the nose of the aircraft, (or 180M on the RMI) indicates the
abeam position. To this figure add the amount of drift if it is starboard, subtract from it if it is port.
For example in Figure 4-10 the aircraft has 20S drift and therefore the outbound timing would start
as the relative bearing indicates 110 (i.e. 180M again on the RMI).
FIGURE 4-10
Holding Pattern
Procedures
22. The outbound track is parallel to the inbound track. Apply drift and adjust the leg timing for
ground speed. At the end of the outbound leg, turn right through 180, rate one and fly inbound
using the RMI to track accurately to the VOR/NDB.
23. A LH race-track pattern is flown in a similar manner to that described above.
NOTE:
Now read Chapters 8 and 9
DME Frequencies
Interrogation Rates
Beacon Saturation
Maximum Range Limitations
Additional DME Functions
DME Accuracy
VOR-DME Frequency Pairing
Airborne Equipment
System Integrity
Use of a DME to Fly a DME Arc
DME Chart Symbology
Tacan
5Distance Measuring Equipment
1. Distance measuring equipment (DME) is a pulsed secondary radar system. The main purpose
of the equipment is to display to the pilot the range of his aircraft from a fixed ground station.
2. A series of double pulses, or pulse pairs, is transmitted in all directions by the aircraft DME
equipment. Providing that the aircraft is within line of sight range of the ground DME station (the
transponder) the pulsed energy from the aircraft will be received, amplified and re-transmitted by the
transponder, again in all directions. The pulse train which has been re-transmitted by the
transponder will arrive back at the aircraft DME receiver. The airborne equipment measures the
time interval between transmission and reception of each pulse pair and, using this time interval and
the known constant speed of propagation, determines the slant range of the aircraft from the
transponder. The pulses travelling from the aircraft to the transponder on the ground are termed the
interrogation pulses, and the identical sequence of pulses travelling from the transponder to the
aircraft the response pulses.
DME Frequencies
3. DME operates in the UHF band between 960 and 1213 MHz. Frequency spacing is at 1
MHz intervals. A DME channel consists of two carrier wave frequencies, always 63 MHz apart.
For example DME channel 1 uses a carrier wave frequency of 1025 MHz for the interrogation pulse
train, and a carrier wave frequency of 962 MHz for the response pulse train.
4. The advantages of secondary radar over primary radar are discussed in chapter 8. One of the
advantages of secondary radar is that the pulse trains can be coded. With DME the pulse trains are
not in fact coded (but they are unique, as will be explained shortly). The other advantage of
secondary radar, namely that equipment is smaller and lighter, most certainly does apply to DME.
The technique of changing the carrier wave frequency at the transponder is made necessary with
DME for the following reasons:
(a) The aircraft DME transmitter fires a continuous series of pulse pairs in all directions.
Let us take just one of these pulse pairs and consider what happens. The pulse pair
travels to the DME transponder on the ground, is regenerated, and fired back to the
aircraft. Unfortunately the aircraft DME receiver will already have received the
reflection of the interrogation pulse pair either from the ground immediately below
the aircraft or from nearer heavy clouds (weather clutter). In order to enable the
aircraft DME receiver to distinguish between ground (or weather) reflected pulses and
the reply pulses from the transponder, the carrier wave frequency from the
transponder is always 63 MHz above or below the airborne transmitter frequency.
(b) If no change of frequency were made at the transponder, the transponder itself could
become self-triggering. This would occur whenever a response pulse from the ground
station bounced off a nearby surface or cloud and returned to the transponder, to all
intents and purposes as a further interrogation pulse.
Interrogation Rates
5. When a DME channel is initially selected, the airborne equipment searches for a range lock-
on. During this search period, the airborne equipment interrogates the transponder, initially, at the
rate of approximately 150 pulse pairs per second. In order to avoid beacon saturation, if lock-on has
not been achieved once the airborne equipment has transmitted 15,000 pulse pairs (approximately
100 seconds), the interrogation rate is reduced to 60 pulse pairs per second.
6. Once the airborne equipment has locked-on to the reply pulses from the transponder, the
interrogation rate decreases to approximately 24 pulse pairs per second. The term lock-on simply
indicates that the airborne equipment has established the aircraft's slant range from the ground
station. In the event of the temporary loss of an incoming signal at the aircraft, for example during
an aircraft turn when a wing may well interrupt the line of sight signal path, the airborne equipment
will be prevented from commencing another range search for a period of 10 seconds.
Beacon Saturation
7. The ground transponder is capable of transmitting only 2700 pulse pairs per second.
Accepting that the majority of aircraft using a given transponder will be locked-on (24 pulse pairs
per second), whilst a few will be in the range search mode (150 or 60 pulse pairs per second) it is
reasonable to assume that the average number of pulse pairs per aircraft per second is 27. It can
therefore be seen that the transponder can only provide range information to 100 aircraft or so. If
more than this number of aircraft interrogate a single transponder, it is said to be saturated. Under
these circumstances, the ground beacon will reply only to the strongest signals, which are likely to
have originated from the nearest aircraft.
Maximum Range Limitations
8. DME operates in the UHF band and is therefore limited to line of sight range. Maximum
theoretical range may be determined for an aircraft at a given altitude using the by now familiar
formula:
It is for this reason that DME range display indicators generally do not exceed 300 nm (the max
range at which an aircraft at approximately 58,000 ft would receive a ground beacon whose
elevation is MSL).
Additional DME Functions
9. By monitoring the rate of change of range, the airborne DME equipment is able to determine
the aircraft's groundspeed. A read-out of groundspeed derived by DME will be reasonably accurate
only if the aircraft is tracking directly towards, or directly away from, the transponder. Even with
the aircraft tracking directly over the transponder, the groundspeed read-out will not be totally
accurate, especially at close range, since the equipment is calculating groundspeed using rate of
change of slant range rather than horizontal range.
10. By integrating slant range and groundspeed, the equipment is also capable of calculating time
to station (TTS). Obviously this figure will only be acceptably accurate if the aircraft is tracking
directly towards the ground station.
Maximum Range(nm) 1.25 H1 H2 + ( ) =
DME Accuracy
11. Considering solely the accuracy of the slant range read-out, DME is inherently very accurate.
The slant range may be considered to be accurate to within nm plus 1.25% of range; this being an
ICAO requirement. There is a small time delay at the transponder between the reception and the re-
transmission of each pulse. This delay (of 50 microseconds) is called the Echo Protection Circuit and
caters for any reflected or echo interrogations arriving at the ground beacon a short-time after the
line-of-sight interrogation. By suppressing the ground receiver for long enough after reception of the
initial interrogation the echo will not trigger a reply. The delay described is known to the airborne
receiver and is allowed for by the receiver when converting lapsed time into slant range. Remember
however that it is the slant range which is indicated and it is the indication of slant rather than
horizontal range which is considered to be the major error of the equipment. Obviously, slant range
error is greater at short ranges - see Figure 5-1.
FIGURE 5-1
Slant Range v Plan
Range
VOR-DME Frequency Pairing
12. VOR gives bearing information. DME gives range information. The optimum angle of cut
for a two-position line fix is a right angle, and this is achieved by using a VOR transmitter and a
DME transponder which are situated at the same point on the ground.
13. To simplify matters VOR frequencies and DME channels are paired, such that each VOR
frequency has a DME channel assigned to it under an ICAO agreement. There are 126 DME X
channels available (the X notation is explained shortly) and those which remain spare when each
VOR frequency has been paired are allocated to ILS localiser frequencies (in order to give range from
the touchdown point during an approach) and to some VHF R/T frequencies.
14. The X notation following the appropriate DME channel number denotes that the
interrogation carrier wave frequency is 63 MHz higher than the response carrier wave frequency for
channels 1 to 63 and 63 MHZ lower than the response carrier wave frequency for channels 64 to
126.
15. With the advent of additional VOR frequencies, such as Clacton which transmits on 114.55
MHz, there are now a greater number of VOR frequencies than DME X channels, and to overcome
this shortfall a further 126 DME Y channels have been introduced, simply by reversing the
relationship between DME interrogation and response carrier wave frequencies. You won't find a
channel X/Y selector on the DME control panel, the equipment automatically takes care of this
selection. This is achieved by the spacing of the transmitted pulse pairs. In X channel transmissions
the leading edges of the two pulses in each pair are 12 microseconds apart; in Y transmissions they
are 36 microseconds apart. The airborne transmitting equipment is programmed to select the
appropriate pulse spacing.
16. As an actual example of the use of X and Y channels in the frequency pairing of VORs and
DMEs, consider the following :
(a) A VOR on a frequency of 112.30 MHz is always paired with a DME on channel 70X
(interrogation frequency 1094 MHz ; response frequency 1157 MHz).
(b) A VOR on a frequency of 112.35 MHz is always paired with a DME on channel 70Y
(interrogation frequency 1094 MHz ; response frequency 1031 MHz).
17. In order to establish clearly the relationship between a VOR station and any DME station
operating on the paired channel, the Morse identifiers of both should be carefully checked. The table
at Figure 5-2 outlines the information which can be gleaned from a sensible comparison of the two
identifiers. First note the following points:
The term associated which is used at Figure 5-2 denotes that the VOR transmitter and the DME
transponder are either:
(a) co-located, or
(b) situated so close to each other as to make no practical difference. For en route
facilities this means that they are located within 2000 feet of each other, or for
terminal approach aids within 100 feet of each other.
The DME transmits its identifier once every 30 seconds and the VOR once every 10 seconds. The
term synchronised used in the right hand column of the table at Figure 5-2 indicates that each third
VOR identifier is suppressed, and is replaced by the DME identifier. In this event the two identifiers
are heard at different tones, to enable the pilot to distinguish one from the other.
FIGURE 5-2
VOR / DME
Frequency Pairing
Figure 5-3 shows a typical co-located conventional VOR/DME installation.
Relationship of VOR and DME Frequency
Relationship
Identifiers
VOR and DME associated Paired Identical three-letter Morse
groups, synchronised
VOR and DME not associated but
using the same location and may be
used in conjunction with each other
for normal en-route (airways)
navigation. The ground stations
would not normally be more than 6
nm apart in this case
Paired The first two letters of the
Morse identifiers are the same
but the last letter of the DME
identifier will be changed to a
Z. Again the identifiers are
synchronised
VOR and DME at entirely different
locations
Unintentional
frequency pairing may
exist
Entirely different and
unsynchronised Morse
identifiers are used
FIGURE 5-3
Co-located VOR/
DME Installation
Airborne Equipment
18. A block schematic diagram of a Boeing 737 DME system is shown at Figure 5-4.
FIGURE 5-4
Boeing 737 DME
Installation
19. An alternative type of airborne DME control panel is illustrated at Figure 5-5. There are two
options for selecting DME station, one is by channel number, the other is by paired VOR frequency.
With the equipment shown at Figure 5-5 the latter option is used. With the equipment shown the
function switch gives the operator the choice of displaying either slant range (NM), time to station
(MIN) or groundspeed (KT).
FIGURE 5-5
Typical DME
Control Panel
20. Many airborne DME sets are designed such that, by selecting the required frequency on a
VOR receiver, the DME set is automatically tuned to the two carrier wave frequencies constituting
the channel number which is paired with the VOR frequency selected. Figure 5-6 shows the control
panel of such a DME set. The NAV 1/NAV 2 positions on the station selector allow the pilot to
choose which of the two VOR receivers normally fitted is to be coupled with the DME set. The
HOLD function enables the pilot to leave the DME set tuned to the channel associated with the VOR
frequency selected on either NAV 1 or NAV 2 despite the fact that the appropriate VOR receiver is
subsequently retuned to a different VOR station.
FIGURE 5-6
Alternative DME
Control Panel
System Integrity
21. The basic principle of operation of DME has already been discussed, however further
consideration of the way in which the airborne equipment positively determines range is now
necessary.
22. Remember that the aircraft DME equipment fires pulse pairs which travel to the transponder
and back to the aircraft at a constant speed. It is the time interval between the transmission and the
reception of each pulse pair which the airborne equipment measures in order to determine range.
The problem lies in the fact that the transponder may be transmitting 2700 pulse pairs every second.
The airborne DME equipment will receive each and every one of these pulse pairs, despite the fact
that very few of them will be responses to its own interrogation pulse train. The airborne equipment
must therefore be able to distinguish between reply pulses to its own interrogation pulse train and
unwanted reply pulses from the transponder.
23. In order to achieve this vital recognition, the airborne unit transmits a unique pulse train.
That is to say, that the time between successive pulse pairs does not remain constant, but is jittered.
When this unique pulse train arrives at the transponder, it is exactly reproduced and re-transmitted,
albeit on a different carrier wave frequency. The airborne receiver recognises this unique pulse train
by virtue of the fact that these pulse pairs, and only these pulse pairs, will arrive back at the aircraft
consistently at a constant time interval after the interrogation pulses. To achieve this recognition, the
receiver employs strobing or time-gate circuits.
Use of a DME to Fly a DME Arc
24. Certain Instrument Approach procedures require that a DME Arc be flown prior to
intercepting the final approach track (i.e. the aircraft is flown such that the DME reading remains
constant). Usually the DME is co-located with another aid, either a VOR or NDB, such that the
additional aid can be used as part of the manoeuvre.
25. Figure 5-7 shows an aircraft flying a 20 nm arc against a co-located VOR/DME. Shortly
before 20 nm is reached, the aircraft is turned to keep the VOR reading 090 relative to the nose of
the aircraft. By holding this particular relative bearing the DME reading should remain
approximately constant, however slight alterations of heading may have to be made to fine tune the
range indication.
FIGURE 5-7
Procedure for
Flying a DME Arc
DME Chart Symbology
26. The following chart symbols are used in connection with a DME
FIGURE 5-8
DME Chart
Symbols
Tacan
27. Tacan is a military version of DME, giving both range and bearing information from the
transponder. An aircraft equipped with DME may interrogate a Tacan transponder. Range,
groundspeed and time to station information will be displayed in the normal manner once a lock-on
is achieved, however the airborne DME equipment is not able to utilise the bearing element of the
Tacan system.
28. For a civilian aircraft, Tacan is tuned by selecting the VOR frequency which is paired with it
(as is the case with DME). A Tacan and a VOR may serve the same location in much the same way
as a DME and a VOR. When the Tacan and the VOR ground stations are within 600 metres of each
other the same three letter identifier will be used for each. When the distance between the two
stations exceeds 600 metres the final letter of the Tacan identifier is changed to a Z.
QUESTIONS:
QUESTION 1.
What frequency range does DME operate within?
QUESTION 2.
There are two reasons why the interrogation and response frequencies for a particular DME channel
differ by 63 Mhz, what are they?
QUESTION 3.
After "lock-on" an airborne DME will be interrogating a ground based transponder at a rate of:
QUESTION 4.
A DME, that is at 1600 ft AMSL, is being received by an aircraft at 36000 ft. Given that there are no
other limitations, at what range would the aircraft theoretically lose the signal?
QUESTION 5.
What is the ICAO specified accuracy for a DME?
QUESTION 6.
How does a DME discriminate between X or Y channel transmissions?
QUESTION 7.
How often does a DME transmit its identification code?
QUESTION 8.
What does the term "associated" mean when used in connection with the frequency pairing of en-
route VOR and DME facilities
QUESTION 9.
When using a DME with a groundspeed readout,the groundspeed calculated will be at its most
accurate when the aircraft is:
QUESTION 10.
If a DME signal is lost, for example due to a change in aircraft attitude, how long will the equipment
range display remain "frozen" before the equipment re-enters "search" mode?
ANSWERS:
ANSWER 1.
960 to 1213 Mhz
ANSWER 2.
1. It prevents the equipment from locking-on to its own reflections
2. It prevents the ground transponder from self-triggering
ANSWER 3.
24 pulse pairs per second
ANSWER 4.
Range = 1.25
= 287nm
ANSWER 5.
nm plus 1.25% of range
ANSWER 6.
X channels have a pulse pair spacing of 12 sec
Y channels have a pulse pair spacing of 36 sec
ANSWER 7.
A DME identifies itself every 30 seconds
ANSWER 8.
The term associated means that the VOR and DME are either co-located, or are within 2000 ft (600
metres) of each other
ANSWER 9.
Flying directly towards or away from the facility at long ranges
1600 36 000 , + ( )
ANSWER 10.
The DME memory is 10 seconds
ILS Ground Equipment
Localiser Transmitter
Localiser Radiation Pattern
Glidepath Transmitter
Glidepath Radiation Pattern
ILS Glideslope vs Visual Glideslope
Glidepath Calculations
Height and Range Calculations
Rate of Descent Calculations
ILS Frequencies
Frequency Pairing
Station Identification
ILS Calibration
The ILS Meter
Alarm Flags
Localiser Needle Sensitivity
Glidepath Needle Sensitivity
Marker Beacons
Airways Fan Markers or Z Markers
The Airborne Marker Beacon Receiver
ILS Facility Performance Categories
ILS Monitoring Stations
The ILS Approach Plate
6The Instrument Landing System
1. The Instrument Landing System (ILS) is a runway approach aid which provides the pilot with
accurate guidance both in azimuth and elevation during an approach in bad weather.
ILS Ground Equipment
2. The ground installation consists of:
(a) A localiser transmitter which defines the extended centreline of the instrument
runway, and indicates any deviation from this centreline.
(b) A glidepath transmitter which defines a safe descent slope (normally three degrees),
and again indicates any deviation from this safe approach.
(c) Normally two (occasionally three) marker beacon transmitters for a typical
installation. That is to say that with many installations the inner marker is omitted,
leaving only the middle and outer markers.
3. The primary purpose of the markers is to define specified ranges from the ILS touchdown
point. Many modern ILS installations employ DME transponders rather than/in addition to marker
beacons to provide range information. In such an installation the DME channel is paired with the
ILS localiser frequency, so that in many aircraft the DME channel is automatically tuned when the
ILS is selected. With a paired ILS/DME installation the DME range information is zero referenced to
the ILS touchdown point. It is important to appreciate that the DME range information provided by
this system is considered to be precise only when the aircraft is in line with the runway on the
approach side. In other areas the range must be considered to be approximate.
Localiser Transmitter
4. A localiser antenna array is approximately 25 metres wide and four metres high, and is
normally situated some 300 metres beyond the upwind end of the instrument runway, see Figure 6-1.
FIGURE 6-1
Localiser Aerial
Location
5. Should it not be possible to locate the localiser aerial on the extended centreline, it may be
located to one side of the runway, giving what is known as an offset ILS. In this case, the QDM of
the localiser centreline will differ from the runway centreline QDM by a few degrees.
Localiser Radiation Pattern
6. The localiser transmits two overlapping lobes of electro-magnetic energy (designated A8W)
on the same VHF carrier wave frequency. The centre of the overlap area, the equisignal, defines the
ILS QDM, see Figure 6-2.
FIGURE 6-2
Localiser Radiation
Pattern
7. The lobe on the pilot's left during the approach is amplitude modulated at 90 Hz, whilst the
right lobe is amplitude modulated at 150 Hz. The depth of modulation of both the lobes is made to
vary, being greatest at the centre and least at the sides of the lobes. The airborne localiser receiver
compares the depth of modulation of the 150 Hz and 90 Hz waves. When they are of equal depth
the localiser needle will be centralised. When the depth of modulation is uneven the localiser needle
is deflected in the appropriate direction. Note that the Difference in Depth of Modulation (DDM)
increases with displacement from the centreline; hence, the greater the difference, the greater the
displacement of the localiser needle from the centre of the instrument.
NOTE:
DDM is calculated by subtracting the percentage modulation depth of the
smaller signal from the percentage modulation depth of the larger signal, and
then dividing by 100.
8. It should be noted that on the approach side of an ILS localiser aerial there is a Course Sector,
positioned equally astride the centreline of the runway, outside of which the localiser indicator will
show full scale deflection in the appropriate sense. This course sector is a maximum of 6 wide (i.e.
3 either side of the centreline) and, within the sector, the difference in modulation depths increases
linearly with displacement from the centreline.
9. In the United Kingdom ILS localisers which are associated with normal glidepath transmitters
provide coverage from the centre of the localiser antenna to distances of:
(a) 25 nm within plus or minus 10 of the equisignal (centre) line
(b) 17 nm between 10and 35 from the equisignal (centre) line as illustrated at
Figure 6-3.
FIGURE 6-3
Localiser
Coverage
10. In the United Kingdom ILS localisers which are associated with steep angle glidepath
transmitters provide coverage from the centre of the localiser antenna to distances of:
(a) 18 nm within plus or minus 10 of the equisignal (centre) line
(b) 10 nm between 10 and 35 from the equisignal (centre) line
11. As far as the above coverage areas are concerned, a normal glidepath transmitter should be
considered to be one which produces a glidepath angle of approximately three degrees above the
horizontal, and a steep glidepath should be considered to be one which defines an angle from the
horizontal of 4 or more.
12. Pilots are warned that use of the localiser outside these areas, even on the approach side, can
lead to False Course and Reverse Sense indications being received. Such use should not be
attempted. In particular it must be noted that there is no provision for localiser Back Beams to be
used in the United Kingdom, and any indications from them must be ignored. Tests have also shown
that FM interference, from broadcast stations transmitting on frequencies just below 108MHz, may
effect both the localiser course guidance and alarm flag signals (see later) of the airborne installation.
The effects of such interference vary depending upon the difference in depth of modulation of the
localiser signals being processed. All modern ILS localiser receivers have an FM immune filter fitted
to prevent this specific type of interference.
13. In some of the earlier ILS installations it is possible to receive false localiser signals which may
be at a considerable angle to the runway QDM. The use of low powered locator NDBs to guide the
aircraft onto the correct localiser beam (see later) has helped overcome this problem.
14. In circumstances where the use of the back beam (back course) is authorised, say for example,
to maintain the runway centreline outbound or following a missed approach (see paragraph 45), the
fly left and fly right demands must be reversed by the pilot in order to maintain the desired track.
Glidepath Transmitter
15. There are two glidepath aerials which are both mounted on a mast approximately ten metres
tall, which is displaced some 150 metres from the runway centreline and 300 metres upwind of the
threshold markings.
Glidepath Radiation Pattern
16. As with the localiser, the glidepath transmitter emits two overlapping lobes of electro-
magnetic energy (designated A8W) on the same carrier wave frequency. The frequency range used
for glidepath transmissions lies in the UHF band, and in this case the lobes overlap in the vertical
plane. Again the lobes are continuously amplitude modulated at 90 Hz and 150 Hz. Figure 6-4
shows the idealised radiation pattern with the equisignal defining the glidepath at a typical value of
3 above the horizontal plane passing through the touchdown zone.
FIGURE 6-4
Glidepath
Radiation Pattern
FIGURE 6-5
False Glidepaths
17. Since the lower (150 Hz) lobe lies adjacent to the surface ground-reflected waves result,
giving side lobes (Figure 6-5). These side lobes may produce additional equisignals and consequently
false glidepaths. Fortunately, these false glidepaths will be situated above the main glidepath and
cannot therefore result in an aircraft flying dangerously low during the approach should the false
glidepath be inadvertently followed. Indications that the aircraft is flying a false glidepath are listed
below:
(a) During a normal ILS procedure, the aircraft captures the glidepath from below. This
being the case, the true glidepath (being the lowest) will be the first one to be
intercepted. The Civil Aviation Authority has issued a warning to pilots emphasising
that special care must be taken at certain airfields around the world where procedures
are published involving capture of the glidepath from above.
(b) The first (lowest) false glidepath will give a descent slope which is inclined at least 6
to the horizontal for a normal 3 glidepath, or 5 to the horizontal for a 2.5
glidepath. This will result in a rate of descent of at least twice the expected value.
(c) The approach plate used by the pilot (see Figure 6-17) during an ILS approach shows
check heights and altitudes at the marker beacons, and locator beacons if appropriate.
If a false glidepath has been captured, a check of the altimeter will verify this. A
typical check height over the outer marker would be 1500 feet (QFE), whereas on the
first false glidepath the altimeter would read 3000 feet (QFE) or above.
18. Glidepath coverage in azimuth (for United Kingdom installations) is provided through an arc
of 8 on either side of the localiser centreline out to a range of 10 nm from the threshold, as
illustrated at Figure 6-6.
FIGURE 6-6
Glidepath
Coverage in
Azimuth
19. For glidepath transmitters which produce a steep glidepath, the coverage is reduced to a range
of 8 nm from the threshold, again through an arc of 8 on either side of the localiser centreline.
20. Glidepath coverage in elevation is provided through an arc of 1.35 above the horizontal to
5.25 above the horizontal. These figures apply to a standard 3 glidepath installation, and are based
on the formulae which state that glidepath coverage (in elevation) is provided through an arc
(measured from the horizontal) of between glidepath angle x 0.45 and glidepath angle x 1.75, as
FIGURE 6-7
Glidepath
Coverage in
Elevation
21. Pilots are warned that use of the glidepath outside these limits can lead to intermittent and
incorrect indications being received. In particular, use of the glidepath at very shallow approach
angles, (that is below 1500 ft aal at 10 nm range), should only be attempted when the promulgated
glidepath intercept procedure requires such use.
22. The glidepath indication must be ignored if the approach angle is so shallow as to put the
aircraft at a height of 1000 ft or below at a range from touchdown of 10 nm or more.
23. Certain glidepaths in the United Kingdom do not exhibit correct deflection sensitivity to one
side of the localiser course line. This effect is caused by terrain or other problems and can lead to
inadequate fly up indications being received. When this situation exists a warning will be
promulgated by NOTAM and subsequently appear in the appropriate columns of the COM 2 section
of the UK AIP.
ILS Glideslope vs Visual Glideslope
24. Where no obstacle clearance problem exists at an airfield both the ILS glideslope and visual
glideslope (either Precision Approach Path Indicator [PAPI] or Visual Approach Slope Indicator
[VASI]) will normally be set at around 3 (check the relevant documentation) and therefore there
should be direct correlation between the information provided by both systems. Unfortunately on a
long bodied aeroplane, such as a Boeing 747 or A300 Airbus, the wheels of the aircraft will be much
further below the pilots eyes and it is important that his eyes follow a parallel, but higher slope, to
ensure adequate wheel clearance at the runway threshold. To facilitate this, a 3 bar VASI has been
developed such that pilots of Long Bodied aircraft use only the second and third wing bars of the
VASI and ignore the first bar (the lower one). When on the correct visual glideslope the top bar will
appear red and the middle bar white.
Glidepath Calculations
25. Problems involving calculation of aircraft height at a given range from the threshold, or of
expected rate of descent, are frequently set in the examination.
26. There are essentially three methods for solving these types of problems. Firstly the rule of
thumb method based on the 1 in 60 rule but assuming a 6000 ft nautical mile. This is ideal for gross
error checks when flying, since you can do it in your head (the height reduction per nm on a 3
glidepath is 300 ft, on a 3.5 glidepath is 350 ft, and so on). The second option is the 1 in 60 rule
method using a 6080 ft nm, the third option involves basic trigonometry, and both of these methods
are considered in the following examples.
Height and Range Calculations
EXAMPLE 6-1
EXAMPLE
Determine the height above touchdown of an aircraft which is on a 3 glidepath at a range of 3 nm
from the threshold.
SOLUTION
FIGURE 6-8
Figure 6-8 illustrates the solution, which may be formulated in either of two ways:
(a) Using the 1 in 60 rule
[range from threshold (in ft) + 1000 ft] glidepath angle
1
60
----- - height (ft) =
EXAMPLE 6-2
This will give a height above touchdown of:
or alternatively, using trigonometry:
This will give a height above touchdown of:
3 6080 ( ) 1000 + [ ] 3
60
---------------------------------------------------------- 962 ft =
Tan (glidepath angle) range from threshold in ft 1000 + ( ) height (ft) =
Tan 3 3 6080 ( ) 1000 + [ ] 1000ft =
EXAMPLE
Determine the height above touchdown of an aircraft which is on a 3.25 glidepath at a range of
3.75 nm from the runway threshold.
SOLUTION
Using the 1 in 60 rule:
Using trigonometry:
The tangent of 3.25 is 0.057
[(3.75 6080) 1000] 3.25 +
60
--------------------------------------------------------------------------- 1289 ft =
Tan 3.25 3.75 6080 ( ) 1000 + [ ] 1357 ft =
27. It is important to appreciate that in both the previous examples the range has been given from
the runway threshold, and accordingly the 1000 ft distance to the ILS touchdown has been included
in the range calculation. If, in the question, the range is given from the ILS touchdown point, the
1000 ft must be omitted from the calculation.
Rate of Descent Calculations
28. A similar procedure is necessary in the examination when calculating the aircraft's rate of
descent for a given glideslope and groundspeed.
EXAMPLE 6-3
EXAMPLE
Determine the rate of descent required for an aircraft on a 3 glideslope at a groundspeed of 175 kt.
SOLUTION
Using the 1 in 60 rule:
Using trigonometry:
=
=
=
Rate of descent (ft/m in)
Groundspeed (in ft/min) glideslope
1
60
----- -
(175 6080) 3
60
-----------------------------------------
1
60
----- -
887 ft/min
=
=
=
Rate of descent (ft/m in) Groundspeed in ft/min Tan (glideslope)
175 6080
60
--------------------------- Tan 3
922 ft/min
ILS Frequencies
29. Two bands of frequencies are allocated solely for use with ILS installations.
Localiser
30. ILS localisers transmit on one of forty allocated frequencies in the VHF band. The frequency
range is from 108.1 MHz to 111.95 MHz at 50 KHz (0.05 MHz) channel spacing, (e.g. 108.1,
108.15, 108.3, 108.35 to 111.9 and 111.95 MHz but not 108.2, 108.25 and other frequencies with
an even number following the decimal point, since these frequencies are used by VOR).
Glidepath
31. ILS glidepath transmissions are in the UHF band, again with 40 frequency channels ranging
from 329.15 MHz to 335 MHz, with 150 KHz (0.15 MHz) channel spacing.
Frequency Pairing
32. Localiser and glidepath transmissions are always frequency-paired. Consequently each
localiser frequency has a glidepath frequency associated with it. When the pilot selects a localiser
frequency on the VOR/ILS control unit, the glidepath receiver is automatically tuned to the correct
glidepath frequency.
33. The advantages of frequency pairing are:
(a) Flight deck workload is reduced.
(b) Safety. Excluding equipment malfunction, it is impossible to select the wrong
glidepath frequency for a given localiser frequency.
Station Identification
34. Station indentification is achieved by modulating onto the localiser carrier wave a
horizontally-polarised, 1020Hz amplitude modulated tone to give the ident. The ident may be two or
more letters in morse transmitted at a rate of six or more words per minute. If it is necessary to
distinguish an ILS quickly from other navigation aids, the ident may be preceded by the letter I. In
some category 1 or 2 ILS systems, ground-to-air communications (i.e. voice) may be superimposed
onto the localiser carrier providing that it doesnt interfere with the ident or normal localiser
operation.
35. When an ILS is undergoing maintenance, or is radiating for test purposes only, the identifier
will either be removed completely or replaced by a continuous tone. Under these conditions no
attempt should be made to use the ILS as completely erroneous indications may be received.
36. Additionally, in some instances, because of an unserviceable glidepath, the ILS may be
radiating for localiser approaches only. In this case the identification coding will continue to be
radiated, and a warning to the effect that the ILS is radiating for localiser only approaches will be
given by the ATC. In this situation (localiser only approach) the glidepath may be radiating for
setting up purposes or for flight inspection. UNDER NO CIRCUMSTANCES should the glidepath
be used at this time, the glidepath radiation pattern may be subject to interruptions and alterations
without warning, and may at all times be given erroneous indications.
ILS Calibration
37. All ILS systems in the UK are regularly checked for accuracy (calibrated) by aircraft equipped
with a sophisticated airborne monitoring system. The localiser is checked for accuracy out to a range
of 10 nm, and is further checked to ensure that it is free from interference out to a range of 25 nm
and to a height of 6250 feet.
38. The glidepath is checked for accuracy out to a range of 10 nm through a horizontal arc
extending through eight degrees on either side of the localiser centreline.
The ILS Meter
39. Many modern aircraft are fitted with horizontal situation indicators (HSI's) which
incorporate a localiser beam bar and glideslope pointer. However, the following paragraphs deal
with the basic ILS meter, which, depending on the frequency selected, serves a dual role as either
VOR omni-bearing indicator (the horizontal needle being inoperative), or ILS meter.
40. Figure 6-9 shows a typical ILS/VOR meter. The instrument illustrated is known as a five-dot
display, other types use a different number of dots (often four); the ring at the centre of the display
always constitutes the first dot.
FIGURE 6-9
Typical ILS / VOR
Meter
41. The OBS window has been omitted from Figure 6-9 so as to emphasise that the omni-bearing
selector serves no control function when the instrument is used in the ILS mode. Many pilots elect to
dial the ILS QDM into the window, this is done purely as a reference and will in no way affect the
localiser needle indications.
Alarm Flags
42. The ILS system is designed to enable the aircraft to fly in close proximity to the ground in bad
weather. It is therefore essential that prominent alarm flags be fitted to the ILS meter to give
immediate indication of equipment unreliability, see Figure 6-9.
43. Either or both alarm flags will become visible under any the following circumstances:
(a) Following any significant distortion of the ground transmitter radiation patterns.
(b) Should the aircraft fly outside the ILS service area - that is, outside the radiation
pattern of either the glidepath or localiser transmitter. Note that the service area is
NOT confined to the calibrated coverage.
(c) Following failure of either ground or airborne equipment.
(d) Following intentional or inadvertent switching off of either ground or airborne
equipment or following power failure.
Localiser Needle Sensitivity
44. When used in the VOR mode, the vertical needle has a sensitivity of two degrees per dot of
deviation. When used in the ILS mode, the needle is far more responsive, and has a sensitivity of one
dot for each half-degree of deviation from the localiser. As with the VOR, remember that the needle
represents the required track, and the centre of the instrument the aircraft. At Figure 6-9 the needle
is showing a fly left indication, the aircraft being 1.0 degree to the right of the centreline.
45. When executing a procedural ILS pattern it may be necessary to fly outbound along the
localiser, see Figure 6-17. You must appreciate that the basic ILS meter always assumes that the
aircraft is inbound and the sense indications (fly right/fly left) are presented accordingly. Thus, for
an aircraft outbound, keeping the localiser on its right, the localiser needle will show fly left, see
Figure 6-10.
FIGURE 6-10
Localiser
Indications
Glidepath Needle Sensitivity
46. With modern ILS installations it is safe to assume a reasonably linear rate of needle deviation
with vertical angular displacement from the glidepath. Full-scale deflection of the needle will occur
when the aircraft is displaced by approximately 0.75 degrees above or below the glidepath. Taking a
standard five-dot display, one dot displacement of the needle represents approximately 0.15 degrees
of deviation above or below the glidepath.
47. As with the localiser, remember that the needle represents the glidepath and the centre of the
instrument, the aircraft. Thus at Figure 6-9, the needle is showing a fly up indication, the aircraft
being 0.375 below the glidepath.
48. For safety reasons, half full-scale fly up indication is considered to represent the maximum
safe deviation below the glidepath. Half full-scale deflection will of course be 2.5 dots on a five-dot
display and this maximum safe fly up indication is shown at Figure 6-9.
Marker Beacons
49. Marker beacons radiate fan-shaped patterns of energy vertically upwards. Figure 6-11 shows
an installation using three marker beacons, although the inner marker is not often used these days.
All marker beacons transmit on a set frequency of 75 MHz. Notice from Figure 6-1 and Figure 6-11
that there is no interference between adjacent beacons because of the narrow extent of the radiation
patterns along the glidepath.
FIGURE 6-11
Marker Beacon
Installation
50. The marker beacon transmissions are amplitude modulated with dots and/or dashes at given
tones. As the aircraft flies through the radiation pattern associated with a given marker beacon, the
pilot will receive both aural and visual indications as described at Figure 6-12.
51. One or two locator beacons (low powered NDBs) are often positioned at the same sites at the
Outer Marker and Middle Marker (if only one locator is used it is usually co-located with the Outer
Marker). The purpose of the locators is to assist the pilot when tracking to the station or when
joining the ILS procedure, to provide a holding facility, and to provide a cross check when passing
over the markers. In addition, the benefit of having a fan marker at the locator position is that it can
be used to determine a relatively accurate overhead whilst the aircraft is flying through the locators
cone of silence.
FIGURE 6-12
Marker Beacon.
Aural and Visual
Indications.
Airways Fan Markers or Z Markers
52. Marker beacons are still sometimes found straddling airway centrelines to denote reporting
points. As with the ILS marker beacons, the airways fan markers radiate a fan-shaped pattern on a
fixed carrier wave frequency of 75 MHz, however the power transmitted by an airways marker is
considerably greater to facilitate high altitude reception. The aural identifier is a single Morse letter
of high pitch tone (3000 Hz) which activates the white (inner marker) light on the aircraft marker
beacon panel.
53. In addition to the fan markers previously described there are also Z Markers which radiate
energy in a vertical cone-shaped pattern. Since all marker beacons radiate energy predominantly
upwards, it is impossible to home towards them. Markers therefore serve the sole function of
providing a range or position check.
Outer
Marker
Aural:
Visual:
Low pitch (400 Hz) dashes
A blue light flashing in synchronisation with the audible dashes at the rate
of two per second
Middle
Marker
Aural:
Visual:
Medium pitch (1300 Hz) alternate dots and dashes
An amber light flashing in synchronisation with the audible dots and
dashes at the rate of three characters per second
Inner
Marker
Aural:
Visual:
High pitch (3000 Hz) dots
A white light flashing in synchronisation with the audible dots at the rate
of six per second
The Airborne Marker Beacon Receiver
54. The aircraft marker beacon receiver is normally automatically switched on when the VOR/
ILS is in use. A typical marker beacon panel is illustrated in Figure 6-13. The high/low sensitivity
switch positions govern the receiver gain and also the brightness of the flashing lights. The lights
should always be checked by depressing the switch to the test position (which illuminates all three
lights simultaneously) before commencing an ILS approach.
FIGURE 6-13
Marker Beacon
Display Panel
55. The current trend seems to be to replace ILS marker beacons with a single DME transponder,
thus providing the pilot with a continuous range from the ILS touchdown point throughout the
approach.
ILS Facility Performance Categories
56. ILS is used to provide guidance down to the pilot's decision height. If, at the decision height,
the pilot does not have the specified visual references required to continue the approach and landing
visually, missed approach action must be initiated.
57. The decision height depends in part on the ICAO performance category of the ground
installation. There are three categories which are defined at Figure 6-14. It will be appreciated by
looking at Figure 6-14 that, as the category of ILS increases, the lower the permissable decision
height; hence the ILS equipment accuracy requirements will need to be much greater.
FIGURE 6-14
ILS Categories
ILS
CAT
Accurate Guidance Provided Down To Decision Height RVR
1 A height of 200 ft above the
horizontal plane containing the
runway threshold
Not lower than 200 ft Not less than 550 m
2 A height of 50 ft above the horizontal
plane containing the runway threshold
Lower than 200 ft
but
Not lower than 100 ft
Not less than 300 m
3A and along the runway (if any)
Lower than 100 ft
Not less than 200 m
58. Please appreciate that category 2 and 3 approaches may only be flown when all of the
appropriate requirements are met. These include aircraft equipment, ground equipment, aerodrome
procedures and flight crew qualification and training.
ILS Monitoring Stations
59. Both localiser and glidepath transmitters are automatically monitored by monitoring
equipment located in an area of guaranteed reception within the normal service sector. The ground
monitor station will check for the following:
(a) a localiser shift of more than 35 ft from the centreline.
(b) a glideslope angle change of more than 0.075 x basic glidepath angle.
(c) a reduction in power output of 50% or more of any of the transmitters.
3B and along the runway (if any)
Lower than 50 ft
Less than 200 m but
not less than 75m
3C along the runway and to the parking
bay
no decision height or RVR limitations
Note. It must be appreciated that the above table quotes the minimum decision heights for each
category of ILS. Actual decision heights at specific airfields may be higher, because of factors such
as surrounding topography (which will affect the terrain clearance during a missed approach
procedure), aircraft equipment, pilot currency on type and so on.
60. In any of the above circumstances, the monitoring unit will provide warning to a designated
control point and cause any of the following to occur before a standby transmitter is brought into
use:
(a) the cessation of all radiations
(b) the removal of the ident signal and/or the navigational information (i.e. localiser and
glide path)
(c) if the ILS is category 2 or 3, the monitor may permit operation to a lower category, i.e.
1 or 2.
61. The accuracy of the guidance information provided by an ILS equipment is dependent on
several factors, some of the most important of which are discussed in the following paragraphs.
Beam Bends
62. Local terrain can have the effect of bending localiser beams at some airfields and pilots will be
required to make a small, but nevertheless noticable, heading change to maintain the centreline. The
localiser indications will, of course, become more accurate as the aircraft approaches the runway
threshold.
Scalloping
63. The problem of propogation at long ranges over an even ground, and when the aircraft is at
low altitude, were discussed fully in paragraph 21 and paragraph 22.
Beam Noise
64. Under certain conditions the localiser and glideslope indications will fluctuate over a short
period of time; the name given to these fluctuations is beam noise. When beam noise is experienced
during an ILS approach the situation must be monitored carefully, if necessary by using information
from alternative sources.
Sensitive and Critical Areas
65. Interference to ILS signals is dependant on the total environment around the ILS antennas,
and the antenna characteristics. Any large reflecting objects, including vehicles or fixed objects such
as structures within the radiated signal coverage, will potentially cause multipath interference with
the ILS localiser and glidepath signals. The location and size of the reflecting fixed objects and
structures in conjunction with the directional qualities of the antennas will determine the course or
glideslope quality whether Category I, II or III. Moveable objects can degrade this structure to the
extent that it becomes unacceptable. The areas within which this degradable interference is possible,
need to be defined and recognised. For the purposes of developing protective zones, these areas are
divided into two types, i.e. critical areas and sensitive areas:
(a) The ILS critical area is an area of defined dimensions about the localiser and glidepath
antennas where vehicles, including aircraft, are excluded during all ILS operations.
The critical area is protected because the presence of vehicles and/or aircraft inside its
boundaries will cause unacceptable disturbance to the ILS signal-in-space.
(b) The ILS sensitive area is an area extending beyond the critical area where the parking
and/or movement of vehicles, including aircraft, is controlled to prevent the possibility
of unacceptable interference to the ILS signal during ILS operations. The sensitive area
is protected against interference caused by large moving objects outside the critical
area but still normally within the airfield boundary.
66. Typical examples of critical and sensitive areas that need to be protected are shown in
Figure 6-15 and Figure 6-16. To protect the critical area, it is necessary to normally prohibit all entry
of vehicles and the taxiing or parking of aircraft within this area during all ILS operations. The
critical area determined for each localiser and glidepath should be clearly designated. Suitable signal
devices may need to be provided at taxiways and roadways which penetrate the critical area to
restrict the entry of vehicles and aircraft. With respect to sensitive areas, it may be necessary to
exclude some or all moving traffic depending on interference potential and category of operation. It
would be advisable to have the aerodrome boundaries include all the sensitive areas so that adequate
control can be exercised over all moving traffic to prevent unacceptable interference to the ILS
signals. If these areas fall outside the aerodrome boundaries, it is essential that the co-operation of
the appropriate authorities be obtained to ensure adequate control. Operational procedures need to
be developed for the protection of sensitive areas.
FIGURE 6-15
Typical Localiser
Critical and
Sensitive Area
Dimension
Variations for a
3,000 m (10,000
ft) Runway
FIGURE 6-16
Typical Glidepath
Critical and
Sensitive Area
Dimension
Variations
67. The size of the sensitive area depends on a number of factors including the type if ILS
antenna, the topography, and the size and orientation of man-made objects, including large aircraft
and vehicles. Modern designs of localiser and glide path antennas can be very effective in reducing
the disturbance possibilities and hence the extent of the sensitive areas. Because of the greater
potential of the larger types of aircraft for disturbing ILS signals, the sensitive areas for these aircraft
extend a considerable distance beyond the critical areas. The problem is aggravated by increased
traffic density on the ground.
68. In the case of the localiser, any large objects illuminated by the main directional radiation of
the antenna must be considered as possible sources of unacceptable signal interference. This will
include aircraft on the runway and on some taxiways. The dimensions of the sensitive areas required
to protect Category I, II and III operations will vary, the largest being required for Category III. Only
the least disturbance can be tolerated for Category III, but an out-of-tolerance course along the
runway surface would have no effect on Category I or II operations.
69. In the case of the glidepath, experience has shown that any object penetrating a surface above
the reflection plane of the glidepath antenna and within azimuth coverage of the antenna must be
considered as a source of signal interference. The angle of the surface above the horizontal plane of
the antenna is dependant on the type of glidepath antenna array in use at the time. Very large
aircraft, when parked or taxiing within several thousand feet of the glidepath antenna and directly
between it and the approach path, will usually cause serious disturbance to the glidepath signal. On
the other hand, the effect of small aircraft beyond a few hundred feet of the glidepath antenna has
been shown to be negligible.
70. Experience has shown that the major features affecting the reflection and diffraction of the
ILS signal to produce multipath interference are the height and orientation of the vertical surfaces of
aircraft and vehicles. The maximum height of vertical surface likely to be encountered must be
established, together with the worst case orientation. This is because certain orientations can cause
out-of-tolerance localiser or glidepath deviations at greater distances than parallel or perpendicular
orientations.
NOTE:
The following are factors which affect the size and shape of the critical and
sensitive areas :

- aircraft types likely to cause interference
- antenna aperture
- antenna type (log periodic dipole/dipole, etc)
- type of clearance (single/dual frequency)
- category of operations proposed
- runway length
- static bends
71. When protection to the degree required for category two or three operation are in force,
pilots of arriving and departing aircraft will be informed that low visibility operations (LVOs) are in
force.
72. Bearing in mind the above, it will be obvious that it is necessary to establish two holding
points for traffic wishing to take-off from or to cross the ILS runway in use. In low visibility
conditions aircraft and other traffic will be required to hold well clear of the runway in use (at the
category 2/3 holding point). In less critical weather conditions traffic may be permitted to hold at the
category 1 holding point, which is closer to the ILS runway. The category 2/3 holding point may be
used, at the discretion of ATC, when requested by pilots making an ILS approach in simulated low
visibility conditions, despite the fact that the actual meteorological conditions do not in fact
necessitate them.
The ILS Approach Plate
73. The student should be familiar with the following definitions which are relevant to ILS
procedures.
Initial approach segment. That segment of an instrument approach procedure between the
initial approach fix and the intermediate approach fix or, where applicable, the final approach fix or
point.
Intermediate approach segment. That segment of an instrument approach procedure between
either the intermediate approach fix and the final approach fix or point, or between the end of a
reversal, racetrack or dead reckoning track procedure and the final approach fix or point, as
appropriate.
Final approach segment. That segment of an instrument approach procedure in which
alignment and descent for landing are accomplished.
Minimum sector altitude. The lowest altitude which may be used which will provide a
minimum clearance of 300m (1000 ft) above all objects located in an area contained within a sector
of a circle of 46 km (25 nm) radius centred on a radio aid to navigation.
74. Figure 6-17 shows part of a typical ILS approach plate - in fact, the ILS approach onto
runway 24 at Manchester International. If applicable you will be fully briefed on the use of the
approach plates during your instrument rating flight training. For now, it will suffice to go briefly
through the procedure as an initial familiarisation exercise.
75. Let us assume that the STAR (standard instrument arrival) procedure has been followed. The
ILS procedure starts at 3000 ft (QNH) outbound on the reciprocal of the ILS QDM (237 - 180 =
057), descending to 2750 ft QNH once the aircraft is east of the outer marker/ME locator beacon.
Having flown outbound from the outer marker for 30 seconds (corrected for wind, not specified on
the portion of the plate which is shown at Figure 6-17), the aircraft is then required to execute a
procedure turn (using an outbound track of 012(M) to establish on the ILS QDM of 237(M),
maintaining an altitude of 2750 ft until intercepting the 3 glidepath at a MCT/DME range of 8 nm.
76. On crossing the OM inbound the height should be 1470 ft QNH, descending to Decision
Height (DH). At DH the appropriate visual reference for landing must have been established and, if
it can be maintained, the aircraft may continue to descend. If not, then at DH the aircraft must climb
ahead on the missed approach procedure shown by dashed lines on the Plan and Elevation diagram
at Figure 6-17.
FIGURE 6-17
Typical ILS
Approach Plate
Coverage
Data Communications (Special Information)
AZ Angular Measurement
EL Angular Measurement
Frequencies
Development of Multi-mode Receivers (MMR)
Positioning of Ground Transmitters
Sources of Error
7The Microwave Landing System
1. The present universal approach and landing aid is ILS. The requirement for a replacement
system is justified when the shortfalls of ILS are realised, namely:
(a) ILS has a narrow, single approach path
(b) Only forty channels are available
(c) Signals, particularly those of the glideslope, are site and terrain sensitive
(d) With ILS it is only possible to radiate beams which define a single glideslope angle at
any given installation. This makes the system inflexible in terms of, for example,
helicopter and STOL aircraft operations.
2. In 1978 the Air Navigation Commission of ICAO evaluated four systems, as a replacement
for ILS. The system which was chosen was of American design and was known originally as the
Time Referenced Scanning Beam (TRSB), but now more commonly as the Microwave Landing
System (MLS). Until at least the early part of 2002 ILS will remain the ICAO non-visual standard
aid.
3. MLS offers the following advantages over ILS :-
(a) not subject to the siting problems (buildings, terrain etc) that are inherent with ILS.
(b) elimination of ILS/FM broadcast interference problems;
(c) provision of all-weather coverage up to 60 from runway centreline, from 0.9 to
15 in elevation, and out to 20 nautical miles (nm);
(d) capability to provide precision guidance to small landing areas such as roof-top
heliports;
(e) continuous availability of a wide range of glidepaths to accommodate STOL and
VTOL aircraft and helicopters;
(f) accommodation of both segmented and curved approaches;
(g) availability of 200 channels - five times more than ILS;
(h) potential reduction of Category I (CAT I) minimums;
(i) improved guidance quality with fewer flight path corrections required;
(j) provision of back-azimuth for missed approaches and departure guidance;
(k) elimination of service interruptions caused by snow accumulation; and
(l) lower site preparation, repair, and maintenance costs.
4. Like ILS, the system is based upon ground transmitters radiating information which is
interpreted by an aircraft receiver. The difference between ILS and MLS lies in the fact that, in MLS
the receiver calculates angles in both azimuth and in elevation by measuring the time interval
between successive passes of narrow (fan shaped) radiated beams. Ranging is derived from an
accurate DME installation, rendering marker beacons unnecessary.
5. The system may be divided into five functions :
(a) Approach azimuth;
(b) Back azimuth;
(c) Approach elevation;
(d) Range; and
(e) Data communications (Special Information)
6. With the exception of DME, all MLS signals are transmitted on a single frequency through
time sharing. Two hundred channels are available between 5031 and 5090.7 MHz. By transmitting a
narrow beam which sweeps across the coverage area at a fixed scan rate, both azimuth and elevation
may be calculated by an airborne receiver which measures the time interval between sweeps. For the
pilot, the MLS presentation will be similar to ILS with the use of a standard CDI or multi-function
display.
Coverage
7. As with ILS, it is necessary to consider the coverage both in terms of azimuth and of elevation
as well as the area of DME coverage.
Approach Azimuth Guidance
8. The azimuth antenna provides lateral guidance during the approach. Azimuth station (AZ)
coverage extends 40 on either side of the runway centreline, with a planned option of up to 60 on
either side of the centreline, and out to a range of 20 nm. The azimuth coverage is illustrated at
Figure 7-1.
FIGURE 7-1
Approach Azimuth
Coverage
Back Azimuth Guidance
9. The back azimuth antenna, if provided, gives lateral guidance for missed approach and
departure navigation. The back azimuth transmitter is essentially the same as the approach azimuth
transmitter. However, the equipment transmits at a somewhat lower data rate because the guidance
accuracy requirements are not as stringent as for the landing approach. The equipment operates on
the same frequency as the approach azimuth but at a different time in the transmission sequence. On
runways that have MLS approaches at both ends, the azimuth equipment can be switched in their
operation from the approach azimuth to the back azimuth and vice versa. Bi-directional MLS
facilities will have a separate DME/P and elevation TX (see later) for each direction of operation;
only one DME/P and elevation TX will be operational at a time. If required, the left and right
coverage can be asymmetric. The back azimuth coverage is illustrated at Figure 7-2.
FIGURE 7-2
Back Azimuth
Coverage
Elevation Guidance
10. The elevation station (EL) transmits signals on the same frequency as the azimuth station. The
elevation station provides a wide range of glidepath angles. The glidepath angle which is required
for the approach by a specific aircraft is selected by the pilot. The EL signal coverage extends
through the AZ coverage, and so provides precision glidepath guidance at all points where azimuth
guidance is available. Figure 7-3 below shows the EL coverage.
FIGURE 7-3
Elevation
Coverage
Range Guidance
11. The precision DME (DME/P) provides continuous range information out to a range of 22 nm
omnidirectionally. Accuracy is in the order of 100 ft during final approach. The principle of
operation is the same as conventional DME, but since no new frequency allocations are available, the
200 channel capability has been provided by pairing with existing ILS installations and by the
adoption of further values of pulse-pair spacing.
Data Communications (Special Information)
12. The azimuth ground station includes data transmission in its signal format which includes
both basic (i.e. system data) and auxillary data (i.e. approach conditions). Basic data may include
approach azimuth track and minimum glidepath angle. Auxillary data may include such information
as runway condition, windshear or weather.
AZ Angular Measurement
13. The principle of azimuth angular measurement is shown at Figure 7-4.
14. The azimuth signal is a narrow vertical fan-shaped beam which sweeps back and forth across
the coverage area. Seen from the approach side, the beam starts at the left and sweeps at a uniform
rate (constant angular velocity) to the right. This is known as the TO scan. After a short period,
known as the guard time, the beam sweeps back to the starting point, and this is known as the FRO
scan (derived from to and from). Thus, within the complete cycle of the TO and FRO scan, two
pulses will be received by the aircraft, and it is the accurately calculated time interval between these
two pulses which is proportional to the angular location (in azimuth) of the aircraft. The rate of scan
is 13.5 scan cycles per second. Obviously, accurate time referencing is required and the TO scan is
preceded by what is known as preamble information which comprises basically a receiver reference
time code and a function identity code.
15. At Figure 7-4 an aircraft to the left of the centreline measures a certain time interval between
the TO and the FRO passage of the beam. At Figure 7-5, where the aircraft is to the right of the
centreline, the time interval between the passage of the TO beam and the FRO beam is reduced.
16. It can therefore be seen that the maximum time interval between the passage of the TO and
FRO beams would be measured when the aircraft is at the extreme left edge of coverage and
minimum time when the aircraft is at the extreme right hand edge of coverage. The measured time
interval represents angular position and therefore displacement from the centreline. This
information is supplied to a CDI or similar MLS display.
FIGURE 7-4
The Principle of
Azimuth Angular
Measurement
FIGURE 7-5
The Principle of
Azimuth Angular
Measurement
EL Angular Measurement
17. The EL scanning principle is the same as that of the AZ. The beam is now a narrow
horizontal beam sweeping up and down at 40.5 scan cycles per second.
18. By combining the elevation information with the azimuth and range information previously
discussed, it is now possible to determine a 3 dimensional position which can be used by the on-
board equipment to compute steering commands in relation to curved approaches, varying
glideslopes, segmented approaches etc. In the case of curved or segmented approaches the steering
information will be provided by two cross bars, directed by a computer which has been programmed
with the precise approach path to be flown.
19. It will be appreciated that in the absence of a DME/P signal only two dimensional
information will be available to the pilot, and it will therefore only be possible to fly straight-in
approaches in a similar manner to normal ILS approaches.
Frequencies
20. The number of available channels is 200, spaced 300 KHz apart from 5031.0 MHz to 5090.7
MHz (SHF). Since the basic technique is that of time multiplexing, (illustrated at Figure 7-6), all
functions can take place on a single channel. Essentially, each function in the time-spaced
transmission format is a separate entity and is preceded by identification preamble. The receiver can
therefore recognise each element of the sequential transmission. The emission designators used for
MLS are NOX (the unmodulated carrier) and G1D (the data transmission component).
21. As mentioned earlier Basic data words include the station indentification (four character
designator starting with the letter M) as well as the digital data needed by the receiver for processing
the azimuth, back-azimuth and elevation angle functions. Auxillary data words may contain such
information as system condition, runway condition and weather. Both Basic and Auxillary data
words are transmitted at a rate of once per second.
FIGURE 7-6
The Multiplexing
of MLS
Information
Development of Multi-mode Receivers (MMR)
22. The Microwave Landing System (MLS) and the Global Positioning System (GPS-see Chapter
17) are both navigation programs that will play major roles in future Air Traffic Control Systems.
For example, the FAA is committed to the implementation of MLS for precision approaches, and is
pursuing an extensive program to determine the capabilities of GPS for use during all phases of
flight.
23. GPS has a primary role to provide en-route navigation, however, in the terminal area GPS can
provide guidance to the MLS coverage area. GPS also has the capability to replace or supplement
some of the MLS functions, for example, it could provide the ranging information replacing DME/P.
24. Since ILS equipment is unlikely to be totally replaced by MLS for a number of years, multi-
mode receivers have now been developed which have a fully integrated ILS/MLS/GPS capability
together with Area Navigation (RNAV) facilities. (See Chapter 12).
Positioning of Ground Transmitters
25. The diagram at Figure 7-7 shows the position of the MLS transmitters.
FIGURE 7-7
Positioning of MLS
Transmitters
Sources of Error
26. Critical areas are regions around the MLS transmitters where vehicles and aircraft may cause
signal errors as a result either of shadowing (where the offending aircraft or vehicle interrupts the
signal path) or multipath transmissions (where the signal is reflected by the offending aircraft or
vehicle).
27. To minimise shadowing it is proposed to site the EL transmitter on the opposite side of the
runway from the entry taxiway and the small transmitter size facilitates this. Multipath or reflected
signals are more difficult to address. MLS uses a wavelength of 6 cm and therefore small flat
surfaces can produce high intensity reflections. Fortunately, these reflections tend to be highly
variable in amplitude and in duration. The MLS receiver design is such that acquisition and
validation circuits are able to select and process the strongest and most persistent signal, thereby
minimising multipath errors.
NOTE:
Now read Chapter 10
Primary Radar
Secondary Radar
Continuous Wave Radar
8Basic Radar Principles
1. There are many applications for radar in Civil Aviation. A list of the most common uses is
given at Figure 8-1.
FIGURE 8-1
Ground Radar
Types,
Wavelengths and
Frequencies
Type Frequency Wavelength
ATC Radars
Surveillance Radar 600/1300/3000 MHz 50/23/10 cm
Secondary Surveillance Radar 1090/1030 MHz 27 cms
Precision Approach Radar 9-10 GHz 3-3.3 cms
Airborne Radars
AWR/Mapping Radar 9.375 GHz 3.2 cm
Radio Altimeter
4.2 to4.4 GHz
7 cm
Doppler 8.75 to 8.85 GHz
13.25 to 13.4 GHz
3.4 - 2.25 cm
DME 960 to 1213 MHz 27 cms
Meteorological Radar
Weather Detection Radars 3000 MHz
9-10 GHz
10 cm
3-3.3 cm
2. There are basically two types of radar currently in use, pulsed systems and continuous wave
systems. Apart from a brief comparison of the properties of continuous wave radar and pulsed radar
at the end of this chapter, the following paragraphs deal mainly with pulsed radar principles and
pulsed radar systems.
3. The principle of pulse modulation was mentioned briefly in the Radio Theory part of the
syllabus where it was described as a short burst of electro-magnetic energy followed by a relatively
long quiescent period during which the transmitter is inactive.
4. A typical system might operate on a carrier wave frequency of 10 GHz with a pulse repetition
frequency (PRF) of 1000 pulses per second (PPS) and a pulse width of 1 sec (one millionth of a
second or one microsecond).
5. Appreciate firstly that each pulse will contain 10,000 cycles of electro-magnetic energy (1 x
10
-6
seconds at 10 x 10
9
Hz), and secondly that the relatively long period of transmitter quiescence is
in this case only very slightly less than one thousandth of a second.
Primary Radar
6. With primary radars a continuous train of pulses is beamed from the transmitter, via the
aerial, into the atmosphere. In the event that these pulses strike a target, a small proportion of the
transmitted energy will hopefully be reflected back to the aerial and fed into the receiver. The
direction in which the aerial is pointing at this time denotes the bearing of the target, whilst the time
between transmission and reception of each individual pulse is used to determine target range from
the radar head.
Beaming Technique
7. If a primary radar system is to accurately determine target bearing, and to achieve optimum
range for a given transmitter power output, it is necessary that the beam of electro-magnetic pulses
be as narrow as possible. The reader will undoubtedly have seen radar dishes of varying shapes and
sizes, however most dish aerials are based on the geometry of the parabola. The essence of such an
aerial arrangement is that the energy is transmitted from the antenna back into the dish. If the
antenna is precisely positioned, all of the energy striking the dish will reflect into a parallel-sided
beam. Unfortunately the antenna is necessarily of finite dimensions and so the beam is not quite
parallel-sided and spreads slightly giving the beam width shown at Figure 8-2.
FIGURE 8-2
Typical Radiation
Pattern
8. With pulsed systems it is normal to use one aerial system for both transmission and reception
of the pulses. It is necessary to disconnect the receiver from the aerial whilst the transmitter is firing
and this renders primary pulsed systems unsuitable for very short-range systems, since the leading
edge of the pulse will arrive back at the radar head whilst the transmitter is still firing and will not
therefore reach the receiver. In other words, it is the pulse length which governs the minimum range.
The longer the pulse length the greater the minimum range.
9. If the pulse length of a radar were 2 sec that would mean that a received pulse could not
enter the receiver for this amount of time after the start of the transmitted pulse. The minimum range
of this radar would therefore be;

NOTE:
12.36 sec is the time taken for a pulse to travel out to a target 1 nm from the
radar head, and back again-see paragraph 22.
10. In order to achieve a realistic range a narrow beam of pulsed energy is required and this may
be achieved by using the directly fed parabolic reflector described above, or a flat plate planar array.
For a given diameter and wavelength the flat plate aerial provides a higher gain, a narrower beam
and the least side lobe power.
2
12.36
-------------nm approximately1000 ft =
11. The flat plate aerial produces a very narrow beam which is normal to the plane of the plate.
With the parabolic reflector, there is a considerable amount of energy spilled out of the aerial which
leads to the possibility of ground returns (see Figure 8-2). A further factor to consider is that the
larger the dish, the narrower the beam width, hence at a frequency of 9 GHz a 12 inch diameter dish
will give a 7 beamwidth, whereas a 30 inch diameter dish will give a 3 beamwidth.
12. The beamwidth of an aerial can be calculated relatively easily by using the following formula:
Transmitter Power vs Range
13. The pulse from a primary radar system not only has to travel out to a target, but must travel
an equal distance back to the receiver with enough strength to overcome any receiver noise. The
formula which relates power to range is:
14. In other words, in order to double the range of a radar the power must be increased by 16
times its original value.
Beamwidth (in degrees) =
where
D
= wavelength in use
diameter of aerial dish
Both in the same units
=
70
TX
D
----------------------
TX
max range power
4
Range Determination
15. The first thing to appreciate with regard to range determination is that, regardless of whether
the radar head is ground-based and the target is airborne, or the radar head is airborne and the target
on the ground, it is SLANT RANGE which is determined. Figure 8-3 illustrates this fact, showing in
this case a ground-based radar head and an airborne target.
FIGURE 8-3
Slant Range
Determination in a
Radar
16. Mathematically the determination of range is simple, since the speed of propagation is a
known constant (3 x 10
8
metres/second) and distance = speed x time. Remember however that the
distance involved is for the return journey, and so the target slant range is half of the distance in the
above formula.
17. The maximum range which can be achieved by any primary pulsed radar depends on several
factors, one of which is the pulse repetition frequency employed. For example, ignoring pulse length,
if the radar were firing 2 pulses per second then each pulse would have only half a second for the out
and back journey before the next pulse was fired. More typically, if the radar were firing 1000 pulses
per second then each pulse would only have one thousandth of a second (1000 sec) for the out and
back journey before the next pulse was fired. In other words, the pulse repetition frequency affects
the maximum range of a pulsed radar, the higher PRF the shorter the maximum range.
18. Other factors which affect range, since radar equipments invariably operate at UHF or above,
are:
(a) the height of the radar head
(b) the height of the target
(c) the presence of intervening high ground
and additionally such factors as:
(d) the power transmitted, and the beam width
(e) the nature of the target in terms of material, size, shape and aspect
Antenna Rotation Speed
19. In those applications where a radar antenna is required to rotate through 360 in order to
search for a target (e.g. a surveillance radar) there is a need to select the rotation speed very carefully.
The optimum scan rate will be related to the following factors:
(a) pulse duration
(b) pulse repetition frequency (PRF)
(c) transmission power
20. The selection of antenna rotation speed is described in brief in Chapter 9.
Primary Radar Range Calculations
21. To cope with these calculations, simply remember that:
(i) The distance travelled by
the pulse (metres)
= Speed of propagation
(metres/sec)

x
Time between transmission
and reception of the pulse
(ii) The target range = Half the distance
travelled by the pulse
(iii) The maximum range of a primary radar (ignoring pulse width and timebase flyback, to be
covered later) is governed by the pulse repetition frequency (PRF). In order to avoid range
ambiguity each pulse must return to the radar head before the following pulse is transmitted.
In other words the time taken for the return journey of the pulse must not exceed
seconds.
1
PRF
-----------
EXAMPLE 8-1
EXAMPLE
The time between transmission and reception of a single pulse is 300 microseconds. Determine
the range of the target.
SOLUTION
Distance
=
2 x range
=
Range
=
Range
=
Range
=
Range
=
speed of propagation (m/sec) time (sec)
2
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- -
300,000,000 (m/sec) 300 sec ( )
2 1 000,000 ,
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------
45,000 metres
45km
EXAMPLE 8-2
EXAMPLE
Ignoring pulse width and flyback, calculate the maximum range in nautical miles for a primary
radar having a PRF of 500 pulses per second.
SOLUTION
2 x maximum range (metres)
=
2 x maximum range
=
maximum range
=
=
=
=
speed of propagation (metres/sec) time (sec)
speed of propagation
1
PRF
-----------
2 PRF
--------------------------------------------------
300 000,000 ,
2 500
-------------------------------
300 km
162 nm
EXAMPLE 8-3
EXAMPLE
Ignoring pulse width and flyback, calculate the maximum permissible PRF for a primary radar
which is required to give a range of 200 nm.
SOLUTION
Time
=
=
PRF
=
200nm = 370 km
PRF
=
PRF
=
PRF
=
2 maximum range (metres)
speed of propagation (m/sec)
--------------------------------------------------------------------- -
1
PRF
-----------
2 maximum range
---------------------------------------------------
2 maximum range
--------------------------------------------------
300 000 000 , ,
2 370 000 ,
-------------------------------- -
30 000 ,
74
------------------
405 pulses per second
The Radar Mile
22. The radar mile will often be found to be a useful short cut to the basic calculation equations
shown in the previous examples. The radar mile is the time taken for a radar pulse to travel two
nautical miles (that is to say one nautical mile out and one nautical mile back). Its value is 12.36
sec (12.36 microseconds or 12.36 x 10
-6
seconds). Thus, if the time between transmission and
reception of a pulse were 100 sec, the target range (100 / 12.36) would be 8.1 nm. Appreciate that
the answer is always in nautical miles (or alternatively the entry of distance must be in nautical
miles).
Example 8-1 (reworked)
Range =
=
=
300
12.36
-------------
24.3 nm
45 km
Time =
=
Range =
=
Time =
=
PRF =
=
=
1
PRF
-----------
2000 sec
2000
12.36
-------------
162 nm
200 12.36
2472 sec
1
time
-----------
1,000,000
2472
-------------------------
405pulses per second
Dead Time
23. As mentioned earlier the choice of PRF determines the maximum range of a pulse radar. In
practice the transmitted pulse does not stop at the maximum range and may therefore be reflected
back from a more distant target. A further period (known as the dead time) is therefore allowed for
any echoes returning from targets beyond the specified range of the equipment.
24. Consider this example. A Terminal Area Surveillance Radar has a typical maximum range of
75 nm. The time required for the radar pulse to complete this two way journey is 927 secs.
However, as the PRF of this type of radar is approximately 450 pps (2222 secs pulse spacing) this
allows for a dead time of 1295 secs. It is still possible, under certain meteorological conditions, to
receive intermittent responses during the dead time although, from a practical point of view, they
create little real problem.
Primary Radar Displays
25. Primary radar information is normally displayed on a cathode ray tube (CRT). Figure 8-4
shows three aircraft in relation to a ground radar head the aircraft paints as they would appear on a
plan position indicator (PPI) type of cathode tube display. Notice the distinctive tails of the target
paints which give the radar operator some idea of target heading and speed.
FIGURE 8-4
Plan Position
Indicator (PPI)
Display
26. The timebase on a PPI is synchronised with the aerial such that as the aerial sweeps through
north the timebase passes through north on the screen (normally screen vertical).
27. The timebase is produced by a beam of electrons striking the fluorescent coating on the face
of the screen. The timebase generator is synchronised with the transmitted pulse train such that as
the pulse leaves the transmitter the spot of light leaves the centre of the screen and travels radially
outwards at a linear rate, reaching the circumference of the screen a finite time later but before the
next pulse is fired. Because this spot of light is painting very rapidly on the screen the result appears
to the operator as an unbroken line rotating continuously about the screen at the same rate as the
aerial is itself rotating.
28. As a return of energy is received via the target it is amplified and fed to the CRT causing a
momentary increase in the electron flow producing the timebase, and therefore an increase in the
intensity of the light spot. This brighter spot, which represents the target, will linger on the screen
once the timebase has passed, fading only slowly and being re-illuminated next time around. Since
the rate at which the timebase is manufactured is linear, the distance of the target paint from the
centre of the screen accurately represents the actual (slant) range of the target from the radar head.
Range rings may be etched onto the face of the CRT or electronically painted onto the screen. Please
note that on some radar systems it is possible to determine the position of an aircraft by reading
bearing and distance off the radar screen with the aid of electronic devices such as electronic bearing
lines and variable range rings.
The Radar Resolution Rectangle
29. We have already discussed the desirability of using a narrow beam for pulsed radar systems,
in order to achieve maximum range by greater concentration of power, and to accurately determine
the target bearing.
30. Similarly, we have already mentioned that the pulse width (or pulse length, the terms are
synonymous) will determine the minimum range of the system, whilst the pulse repetition frequency
will govern the maximum theoretical range.
31. It is now necessary to look briefly at how pulse width and beam width will distort the target
paint on the screen of a plan position indicator type of display. The distortion which occurs because
of these two factors (plus in fact one other consideration), is termed the radar resolution rectangle.
32. The PPI at Figure 8-4 shows a timebase originating at the centre of the screen and rotating
clockwise around the screen, in synchronisation with the transmitter aerial. Put another way, the
timebase is aligned with the centre of the beam. Unfortunately the beam has a finite width (which
increases with range), and the target will start to paint on the screen when the leading (right hand)
edge of the beam first illuminates the target, and will continue to paint until the rear (left hand) edge
of the beam finally ceases to illuminate the target. The lateral dimensions of the target will therefore
be distorted (stretched) by one whole beamwidth.
33. As an example of this particular problem consider a radar with a beamwidth of 4. Using the
1 in 60 rule it can be calculated that two targets at a range of 50 nm will be stretched by about 3
nm, and would therefore also have to be separated by 3 nm in order to show as separate returns.
As the target range increases, the amount of spacing required between the aircraft will also need to
increase. The ability of a radar to discriminate in a lateral direction between two targets is called
azimuth resolution.
34. Similarly, the leading edge of the pulse, reflecting from the target and arriving back at the
receiver will determine the range at which the target first starts to paint on the screen. The target will
continue to paint on the screen until the trailing edge of the pulse has ceased to illuminate the target.
This will result in a range (or depth) distortion of the target of a distance equivalent to half the pulse
width, converted into metres, using a speed of 300 metres per micro-second (3 x 10
8
metres / second).
The depth distortion is governed by half the pulse width, since the time involved covers the return
journey.
35. If the pulse width/length in a primary radar was 2 sec, the target depth (range) distortion
could be calculated as follows:
36. To put it another way, if two targets are on the same bearing but within 984 ft of each other
they will not show as separate returns. The ability of a radar to discriminate in a ranging sense
between two targets is called radial resolution.
37. The target will be further enlarged, both in width and depth, by the radius of the spot of light
which is used to generate the visual timebase, and to paint the target.
38. Modern air traffic control PPI radars overcome the problems of target distortion due to the
resolution rectangle, and the consequent tendency for two adjacent targets to overlap and paint as
one on the screen, by suppressing the target paints entirely and replacing them with electronically
produced crosses. Additionally you would expect to see the information supplied by the SSR
equipment and a map of the airways structure on such a sophisticated display.
Depth Distortion
2sec
12.36sec
-------------------------

nm 984ft = =
Other Factors Affecting Quality of Target Depiction on a
PPI Display
39. The following additional factors affect the quality of the target as displayed on a PPI display.
Super Refraction. Under certain meteorological conditions the detection range of objects close to
the Earths surface can be considerably increased. This process is called super refraction and is more
fully described in Chapter 9.
Sub Refraction. Again, under certain meteorological conditions the detection range of objects
close to the Earths surface can be considerably reduced. This process is called sub refraction and is
more fully described in Chapter 9.
Attenuation with Distance. As a radar pulse travels out from the radar head its strength will
weaken due to atmospheric attenuation. Consequently the greater a given targets range, the smaller
will be the amount of reflected energy that will be returned to the antenna.
Condition and Size of Reflecting Surface. Factors that determine the amount of reflected
energy from a given target are the size and shape of the reflecting surface, the actual material that the
reflecting surface is made from (e.g. metal reflects better than wood), and the aspect of the target (e.g.
an aircraft flying directly towards a radar head will reflect less energy than an aircraft flying at a
constant range). If an aircraft changes attitude whilst being illuminated by a radar there may be a
change of polarisation of the radio wave, which could result in the target fading from the radar
screen (the stealth bomber utilises this fact to become invisible to a radar system).
Moving Target Indication (MTI) A technique called Moving Target Indication may be used to
reduce clutter on a PPI screen generated by echoes from permanent objects such as hills, buildings
etc. MTI is more fully discussed in Chapter 9.
Secondary Radar
40. Secondary radar does not rely on reflections of the interrogation pulse arriving back at the
radar head via the target. Instead, a booster transmitter or transponder is situated at the target and
this is used to revitalise the interrogation pulse for the return journey. Obviously such a system
requires the co-operation of the target. Two examples of secondary radar will be considered shortly,
namely SSR and DME.
41. Secondary radar has the following advantages when compared with primary radar:
(a) Since only enough energy need be transmitted for a one-way journey, the required
transmitter power is lower and consequently the equipment lighter and less bulky.
(b) Pulse sequences may be coded, thereby conveying additional intelligence, for example
mode C (pressure altitude readout) with SSR.
Continuous Wave Radar
42. The only continuous wave primary radio/radar system presently considered in this syllabus is
the radio altimeter.
43. Pulsed radar systems use a single antenna which is switched in turn between transmitter and
receiver. It therefore follows that transmission and reception cannot take place at the same time in a
pulsed radar system. This leads to the minimum range problems of pulsed systems, especially those
using wide pulse widths. There is a dark area around the radar antenna and aircraft flying in this
area do not paint on the display, since the returns from these targets arrive back at the antenna whilst
it is still switched to the transmitter.
44. Continuous wave radars transmit and receive continuously and therefore have separate
antennae for each function. Consequently the receiver is always on line and therefore no minimum
range problem exists.
45. Pulsed radars determine the range of a target by measuring the time taken for a transmitter
pulse to travel to the target and to return. Since continuous wave radars, by definition, do not use
pulses, it would appear that range determination is impossible. In fact, very accurate range
determination is achieved (for example in the radio altimeter) by frequency modulating the
continuously transmitted signal and by then comparing the frequencies of the transmitted and the
received signals at precisely the same point in time.
46. Continuous wave radars transmit much lower power signals than pulsed radars. A further
advantage of continuous wave systems is that they can operate with a much narrower bandwidth,
consequently a better signal to noise ratio is more easily attainable.
Ground Based Radars
En-Route Surveillance Radar (RSR)
Airfield Radars
Airport Surveillance Detection Equipment (ASDE)
Second Trace Returns
Accuracy of Ground Based Radars
Ground Based Radars
9Ground Based Radars
1. Ground Based Radars can be generally divided into two groups: Long range radars or short
range radars.
Long Range Radars employ lower frequencies (i.e. longer wavelengths, typically 10-20 cm),
lower PRFs and larger pulses to give greater ranges with less attenuation. Antenna rotation rates are
low (5-15 rpm) as target movement at long ranges is relatively slow.
Short Range Radars use high frequencies (i.e. short wavelengths, typically 3 cm) to give short
rectangular pulses at relatively high PRFs for low minimum range, better resolution and greater
accuracy. Antenna rotation rates are high (up to 60 rpm) as target movement at short ranges is
relatively fast and frequent radar updates of position are therefore required.
2. Two categories of ground based radars are briefly discussed below, en-route surveillance
radars which are used for middle and upper airspace control, and airfield radars.
En-Route Surveillance Radar (RSR)
3. En-route surveillance radars are used to monitor airways traffic at ranges up to 250 nm.
Range and bearing information is provided by a Primary Radar, with a Secondary Surveillance Radar
(SSR - refer to Chapter 11) providing additional information.
4. The preferred frequency for these radars is 600 MHz, giving a wavelength of 50 cm. At these
relatively long wavelengths, rain and weather present far less of a problem than with higher
frequency systems.
Ground Based Radars
Airfield Radars
5. Larger airfields are normally equipped with ground-based primary radar systems. These will
normally comprise of a Terminal Area Surveillance Radar, with perhaps an additional Precision
Radar system. Surveillance radars are installed at most major civil airports whereas Precision Radars
are more usually confined to military airfields, particularly in the UK.
Terminal Area Surveillance Radar (TAR)
6. The surveillance radar consists of a scanner which rotates through 360 degrees in the
horizontal plane at between 5 and 15 rpm. Presentation of the radar picture is achieved by using a
plan position indicator (PPI) which enables the controller to determine the aircraft's range and
bearing from the airfield (but not its height). Once again this radar is normally supplemented by SSR.
7. Surveillance radars normally use a beam which has a horizontal width of one degree and a
vertical depth of 40 degrees. Three frequencies are commonly used:
(a) 3000 MHz - giving a wavelength of 10 cm.
(b) 1300 MHz - giving a wavelength of 23 cm.
(c) 600 MHz - giving a wavelength of 50 cm.
8. The higher the frequency, the smaller the aerial array for the desired beam width.
Unfortunately, however, the higher the frequency the greater the likelihood of the screen becoming
cluttered by weather returns. This weather clutter can be electronically suppressed with modern
radars, but not without the loss of some degree of picture definition.
Ground Based Radars
9. The range of surveillance radars depends on the power transmitted, and of course on line of
sight considerations. Typically such systems achieve ranges of 75 nm.
Moving Target Indication (MTI)
10. Some surveillance radars make use of the Doppler principle to eliminate radar returns from
fixed objects such as hills, buildings, masts and so on. This process is known as Moving Target
Indication (MTI). The principle is that returns from moving targets suffer a doppler shift, whereas
those returns from stationary targets do not - the radar only displays those that experience the
Doppler shift. Since the Doppler principle requires that there be relative motion between a target and
a transmitter, it will be obvious that a dangerous situation could occur when the target is maintaining
a constant range from the radar head and therefore would not paint on the controllers screen.
Surveillance Radar Approach (SRA)
11. The surveillance radar may be utilised to give the pilot guidance during a descent to land in
poor visibility. During a surveillance radar approach (SRA) the PPI display provides the talk-down
controller with the aircraft's range and bearing. By electronically or physically superimposing the
extended centreline of the runway in use on the cathode ray tube, the controller is able to give the
pilot fly left or fly right instructions in order to maintain the centreline. These instructions are
quantified, for example:
(i) you are left of the centreline, turn right five degrees on to 262 degrees
(ii) maintain 262 degrees, closing centreline left to right
(iii) on the centreline, turn left three degrees on to 259 degrees
and so on.
Ground Based Radars
12. The surveillance radar gives no height information and consequently the descent is monitored
by the pilot with the aid of the controller who passes ranges from touchdown and check heights for,
typically, a three degree glidepath. Surveillance radar approaches normally terminate at 2 nm from
touch down, however when a high resolution radar is used, the surveillance radar approach may
terminate as close as nm from touch down.
Precision Approach Radar (PAR)
13. Airfields equipped with a precision radar system can offer a far more accurate talk-down,
principally because the precision talk-down controller can monitor the height of the aircraft during
the approach.
14. Precision radars normally operate in the 9 to 10 GHz frequency band, giving a 3.3 to 3 cm
wavelength. These shorter wavelengths give the high definition required for precision approaches,
but at these frequencies weather clutter presents a significant problem.
15. The precision approach system employs two independent radars and associated aerial systems
which may be equated to the localiser and glidepath of the ILS.
16. The aircraft's approach is monitored in azimuth by a radar using a beam which is typically
half a degree wide and two degrees in the vertical, and which scans 10 degrees either side of the
extended runway centreline out to a distance of at least 9 nm. The radar return from the aircraft is
displayed on a rectangular screen which has electronically superimposed upon it the extended
centreline and range markers from the touchdown point.
Ground Based Radars
17. The aircraft's approach is monitored in elevation by a radar using a beam which is typically
two degrees in the horizontal and half a degree in the vertical, and which scans through seven degrees
in the vertical plane from one degree below to six degrees above the horizontal plane. The radar
return from the aircraft is displayed on a second rectangular screen which has electronically
superimposed upon it the glidepath (typically three degrees) and again range from touchdown
markers, at one nautical mile intervals.
18. A typical PAR monitoring arrangement is illustrated at Figure 9-1 showing both the elevation
and azimuth screens as they would be situated in front of the controller.
Ground Based Radars
FIGURE 9-1
Typical PAR
Monitoring System
Ground Based Radars
19. During a PAR (sometimes called a GCA-Ground Controlled Approach) the talk-down
controller will give the pilot instructions to fly left or right together with instructions regarding his
rate of descent in relation to his position above or below the glidepath. The instructions in azimuth
are again quantified but (in this country at least) the instructions in elevation are not, unless the
controller wishes to emphasise to the pilot that he is dangerously low on the glidepath.
20. Since the aircraft is positively monitored in both azimuth and elevation during a PAR
approach, the obstacle clearance height (OCH) and the pilot's decision height will be lower for a
PAR than for an SRA.
Approach Radar Procedures
21. The pilot of an aircraft requiring a radar approach at an airfield, or indeed radar vectoring
for an ILS or visual approach, should contact the airfield on the published approach frequency at
least 10 minutes before his ETA at the airfield. If it is the pilot's intention to fly a PAR or SRA
approach, the controller will hand the aircraft over to the director whose first job is to positively
identify the aircraft in question on the surveillance radar screen. This identification may be achieved
in a number of ways:
(a) By using Secondary Surveillance Radar (SSR).
(b) By the director instructing the pilot to make identification turns and observing these
turns on the radar screen.
(c) By a pilot report over a designated reporting point.
(d) By the pilot obtaining a VOR/DME fix and passing this information to the director.
(e) By radar handover from another unit, or another controller within the same unit.
Ground Based Radars
Having identified the aircraft, the director will:
(a) Vector the aircraft, effecting separation from other aircraft, until the aircraft is
positioned for the PAR or SRA approach.
(b) Pass heights/altitudes to fly.
(c) Pass aerodrome information, including the weather.
(d) Pass the obstacle clearance height (OCH) for the type of approach to be used, and ask
the pilot to check his decision height.
(e) Pass the radio failure procedure, if this is not published.
22. A typical radar circuit followed by a PAR approach is shown at Figure 9-2. Notice that the
director normally hands over control of the aircraft to the precision talk-down controller at
approximately seven nautical miles from touchdown. By this time, the director will have positioned
the aircraft on the extended runway centreline.
Ground Based Radars
FIGURE 9-2
Typical PAR Profile
Ground Based Radars
ILS Approaches Monitored by PAR
23. Providing that PAR is available for the ILS runway in use, ILS approaches will be monitored
by PAR whenever the weather is below prescribed minima, or when requested by the pilot.
24. When monitoring an ILS approach, the precision controller will take no action unless:
(a) The aircraft strays outside the approach funnel which extends half a degree above and
below the glidepath and two degrees either side of the centreline.
(b) A dangerous situation is seen to be developing.
(c) It appears certain that overshoot action may result if a certain action is not taken.
25. The PAR controller will at all times be prepared to convert the approach to a PAR talk-down
if so requested by the pilot. The controller will terminate his monitoring of the approach when the
aircraft is known to have landed or have gone around.
Airport Surveillance Detection Equipment (ASDE)
26. Ground movement radars, which are frequently referred to as Airport Surveillance Detection
Equipment (ASDE) are installed at major aerodromes to control the safe movement of aircraft on the
ground, principally during low visibility operations (LVO).
Ground Based Radars
27. The latest generation of ground movement radars operate in the SHF band. This frequency
gives the required target definition with acceptably low levels of weather clutter at the very short
ranges required of the system. Earlier systems tended to operate in the EHF band which gave
excellent target definition but which suffered unacceptable signal attenuation in precipitation. The
beam width of the radar is narrow and the pulse length short, in order to minimise distortion of the
targets (see The Radar Resolution Rectangle in Chapter 8). The very high PRF employed also
enhances target definition, and in any event is necessary due to the very high sweep rate which is
employed (60 rpm). This high sweep rate is used, not only to improve target definition, but also to
show the speed of movement of the target.
28. A comparison of the operating dynamics of two ground movement radars (Racal and Astre),
together with typical equivalent values for ATC surveillance radars (dealing with airborne targets) is
shown in the table at Figure 9-3.
FIGURE 9-3
Parameter
Comparison
between GMRs
and RSR/TAR
Type Wave-length Power Pulse length Scan rate Max range Beam width PRF
Racal 3 cm (SHF) 20 Kw 0.04 sec 60 rpm 2.5 nm 0.4 4000
pps
Astre 1.8cm SHF 20 Kw 0.04 sec 60 rpm 6.5 nm 0.35 8200
pps
RSR/
TAR
50 cm to 10 cm 60 to
600Kw
2 to 5 sec 5 to 15
rpm
75 to
250nm
1 to 2 250 to
1000
pps
Ground Based Radars
29. Ground movement radars are capable of differentiating between large, medium and small
aircraft, but not between specific types of aircraft. Large aircraft appear on the screen as distinct
aircraft shapes, except that the wing which is shielded by the fuselage together with those parts of the
wing which overhang the grass areas adjacent to taxiways, will not paint. Medium size aeroplanes
paint as aircraft shaped returns in areas of good coverage, but in rough cruciform shape in other
areas. Small aircraft tend to paint as blips and could be confused with vehicles.
Second Trace Returns
30. The choice of PRF in a ground radar is a compromise between two factors; too low a PRF
will mean that information updates on the radar screen are too slow, whilst too high a PRF gives a
problem due to second trace returns.
31. Suppose that having considered a radars parameters it can be calculated that its maximum
detection range is 200 nm. The total round trip time for a pulse travelling to a target at maximum
range would be approximately 2500 sec. If a PRF of 500 pps had been chosen for this radar (i.e.
time interval between pulses of 2000 sec), the time base on the controllers screen would start to
regenerate 500 sec before the returning echo from the previous pulse, for a target at max range.
This second trace return would therefore appear to be at 40 nms range (Figure 9-4).
Ground Based Radars
FIGURE 9-4
Second Trace
Returns
32. In the above example the maximum PRF that could have been used was 400 pps and in old
radars this was indeed a commonly used PRF. As the maximum range of radars has improved in
recent years it is now common place to find PRFs in the range 100 to 250 pps.
Accuracy of Ground Based Radars
33. As described in the previous chapter, all of the above mentioned ground radar equipments
will experience accuracy degradation, to a certain extent, due to azimuth and radial resolution
problems. To be specific, the target size in the azimuth direction (i.e. lateral dimension) will be
increased by one whole beamwidth (the amount of distortion therefore increases with range from the
radar head). The target size in the radial direction (i.e. range) will be increased by half the pulse
width, converted to a distance using . 3 10
8
m/sec
Ground Based Radars
34. The following factors affect the range and accuracy of ground radars:
Super-Refraction. Under certain meteorological conditions, radio waves in the VHF, UHF and
SHF bands, which normally travel only in straight lines, may behave in a way which is at first sight
similar to skywaves.
The meteorological conditions required for this type of propogation (duct propogation) are a marked
temperature inversion and a rapid decrease in humidity with height. Figure 9-5 shows ducting which,
in this case, is occurring between the surface and a low level inversion. The signal is effectively
trapped under the inversion and may travel hundreds of miles with little attenuation. In this way,
when high pressure systems prevail, signals may be received from distant SHF transmitters which are
far beyond the normal direct wave range.
FIGURE 9-5
The Ducted Wave
(Super Refraction)
The process of ducting is also known as super refraction and as such it can extend the detection
range of a ground based radar system.
Ground Based Radars
Sub-Refraction. Sub-refraction is a condition of atmospheric refraction, created by gradients of
temperature and humidity, when radio waves are bent less than normal. This reduction in bending
will result in a much smaller horizon distance than would be the case under normal propogation
conditions.
Absorption and Reflection by precipitation. Precipitation is a cause of both absorption and
reflection of radio energy. In general terms, as frequency increases (and wavelength decreases) the
amount of absorption by precipitation increases, whereas an increase in frequency will cause the
amount of reflected energy to increase as well. It is for this reason that airborne weather radars
operate with compromise wavelengths between 3-10 cm; at wavelengths below 3 cm there is too
much absorption of the radio wave, on the other hand at wavelengths above 10 cm there is too little
reflected energy. As a general statement it can be said that a radar pulse will reflect most energy from
water droplets whose size is compatible to the wavelength in use.
Ground Based Radars
QUESTIONS:
QUESTION 1.
The maximum range of a pulsed radar is governed by which parameter?
QUESTION 2.
What is the formula for calculating the beamwidth of an aerial?
QUESTION 3.
Ignoring flyback, the maximum theoretical range of a primary radar with a prf of 800 pps is:
QUESTION 4.
A radar with a maximum range of 265 nm will have a maximum theoretical prf of:
QUESTION 5.
Given a prf of 3200 pps, the maximum theoretical radar range is:
QUESTION 6.
A primary radar system is required to have a maximum range of 400 nm. Ignoring pulse width and
flyback, the maximum prf that the system could employ is:
QUESTION 7.
The advantage of CW radar over a pulse system is that:
Ground Based Radars
QUESTION 8.
A pulse radar gives best target definition with:
QUESTION 9.
What is the purpose of having 'Dead Time' in a radar?
QUESTION 10.
What are the two items of information that can be determined about a target from a simple primary
radar PPI display?
QUESTION 11.
If the pulse length in a particular primary radar was 4 microseconds, what would be the amount of
target depth distortion?
QUESTION 12.
What principle does the Moving Target Indication (MTI) facility (as used in a ground radar) utilise?
QUESTION 13.
What are two the advantages of secondary radar when compared to primary radar?
QUESTION 14.
What frequency do En-Route Surveillance Radars (RSR) operate at and why?
Ground Based Radars
QUESTION 15.
At what range does a Surveillance Radar Approach (SRA) normally terminate?
QUESTION 16.
What frequency does PAR normally operate at, and what is the approximate wavelength?
QUESTION 17.
In a PAR what is the area of sweep of the azimuth radar?
QUESTION 18.
What guidance information is passed by the talk-down controller to an aircraft flying a PAR
letdown?
QUESTION 19.
What is the typical scan rate of an RSR/TAR?
QUESTION 20.
What is the name given to the phenomenon where radio waves are bent less than normal due to
temperature and humidity gradients?
Ground Based Radars
ANSWERS:
ANSWER 1.
Pulse repetition frequency (PRF)
ANSWER 2.
Beamwidth (in degrees) =
where:
= wavelength in use
D = diameter of aerial dish (with both in the same units)
ANSWER 3.
101 nm
ANSWER 4.
305 pps
ANSWER 5.
25 nm
ANSWER 6.
203 pps
70 T
x
D
----------------------
T
x
Ground Based Radars
ANSWER 7.
There is no minimum range problem
ANSWER 8.
Short pulse/narrow beam
ANSWER 9.
Dead time is a portion of the period of time between pulses which allows for any echoes returning
from targets beyond the specified range of the equipment
ANSWER 10.
Slant range and bearing.
ANSWER 11.
Depth Distortion =
= 1968 ft
ANSWER 12.
The fact that there will be a Doppler shift in frequency in the reflected energy from a moving target.
4 sec
12.36 sec
--------------------------

nm
Ground Based Radars
ANSWER 13.
Lower power requirements and the option of conveying additional intelligence by means of pulse
coding.
ANSWER 14.
600 Mhz - because rain and weather are less of a problem at this frequency.
ANSWER 15.
2 NM
ANSWER 16.
9-10 Ghz, wavelength approximately 3cm.
ANSWER 17.
10 degrees either side of the extended runway centreline.
ANSWER 18.
Fly left/right instructions together with instructions regarding rate of descent in relation to the
aircraft position above or below the glidepath.
ANSWER 19.
5-15 rpm.
Ground Based Radars
ANSWER 20.
Sub-Refraction.
Weather Radar Frequency
The Aerial
The Control Unit
Hill Shadow
Functional Check of AWR
Determining the Height of Cloud Tops
Using a Monochrome AWR for Weather Avoidance
Use of AWR for Navigation Position Fixing
Coloured Screen Weather Radars
Factors Affecting the Range of an AWR
10Airborne Weather Radar
1. Airborne weather radar is a primary radar system, which as the name suggests is designed to
determine the presence ahead of the aircraft of hazardous weather, namely turbulent cloud. The
radar may also be used to paint a radar map of the ground features ahead of the aircraft.
Weather Radar Frequency
2. The most commonly used transmitter frequency for airborne weather radar systems is 9375
MHz in the SHF band. This frequency gives a wavelength of just over three centimetres.
3. In order to detect turbulent cloud the radar must receive reasonably strong target returns
from the large water droplets contained in the strong upcurrents associated with the turbulence.
4. The ability of water droplets to act as efficient targets depends upon their size relative to
wavelength of the transmitted frequency. The larger the target droplet in relation to the transmitted
signal wavelength, the better the return. A 3 cm wavelength gives a good return from these large
water droplets, but no significant return from the smaller water droplets associated with non-
turbulent cloud. If a higher frequency were to be used (with a correspondingly shorter wavelength),
the signal would be scattered by small water droplets, reducing effective range and cluttering the
screen with unwanted returns. Conversely, a lower frequency would be of no use since even large
water droplets would not give a satisfactory paint on the screen. Note that AWR will not detect clear
air turbulence (CAT) since it is reliant on the presence of water droplets for its operation.
The Aerial
5. In order to achieve a realistic range a narrow beam of pulsed energy is required and this may
be achieved by using a either a directly fed parabolic reflector, or a flat plate planar array. For a given
diameter and wavelength the flat plate aerial provides a higher gain, a narrower beam and the least
side lobe power. Since the flat plate array is approximately twice as efficient as the parabolic reflector
it is invariably used in a modern AWR system.
6. The flat plate aerial described above produces a very narrow beam which is normal to the
plane of the plate. Note that when using the cheaper parabolic reflector the energy does not radiate
from a point source at the focal point of the aerial, but generally from a dipole feed which gives a
narrow, slightly diverging beam, which is circular in cross-section, and which is often referred to as
either a conical or pencil beam. With the parabolic reflector, there is a considerable amount of energy
spilled out of the aerial which leads to the possibility of ground returns (see paragraph 8). A further
factor to consider is that the larger the dish, the narrower the beam width, hence a 12 inch diameter
dish will give a 7 beamwidth, whereas a 30 inch diameter dish will give a 3 beamwidth at the same
transmitted frequency (9375 MHz).
7. The beamwidth of an AWR aerial can be calculated relatively easily by using the following
formula:
=
=
=
Beamwidth (in degrees) 70
TX
D
----------------------
where
TX
wavelength in use
both in the same units
D diameter of aerial dish
8. The side lobe of energy escaping downwards from the dish serves a useful purpose on this
equipment. If the radar is searching ahead for turbulent cloud but none is present, the screen will be
clear of target echoes. It may appear that the equipment is unserviceable, however this is easily
checked because, if the equipment is functioning correctly, the downward side lobe will cause a
height ring to be painted on the screen at a range corresponding to the height above the ground of the
aircraft (except, perhaps, over a smooth water surface).
9. The scanner on an airborne weather radar is located in the nose of the aircraft and scans
typically from 45 to 60 degrees on either side of the aircraft centre-line. The timebase on the weather
radar screen is synchronised with the aerial.
10. There are two fundamental types of airborne weather radar currently in use. The earlier type
uses a monochrome screen, usually giving a green or an amber paint. Later radars present a coloured
paint and use the ascending colours of green, yellow and red to distinguish between light, medium
and heavy target returns (i.e. increasing intensity of precipitation). We will initially consider the
monochrome option and subsequently discuss colour weather radars.
The Control Unit
11. An AWR control panel is illustrated at Figure 10-1. The purpose served by the various
controls is discussed below.
FIGURE 10-1
Typical AWR
Control Panel
Power Switch
12. This control is used in conjunction with the timebase range switch, especially during the
equipment switching-on procedure. With the POWER switch ON (either on STAB ON or STAB
OFF) and the RANGE switch in the STANDBY position, the equipment is brought up to operating
temperature but does not transmit.
Timebase Range Switch
13. With the POWER switch ON the RANGE switch may be selected to the required range once
airborne and clear of the ground, the transmitter will fire immediately. The range options are
typically 20 nm, 50 nm and 150 nm.
14. Figure 10-2 shows typical range markers for these options. The range markers are
electronically superimposed on the screen and their brilliance may be adjusted using the MARKER
BRILLIANCE control. The radial lines illustrated are etched on to the surface of the screen. These
lines represent angular deviation from the zero degrees relative position which is of course the
aircraft extended centreline.
FIGURE 10-2
Typical AWR
Range Options
Tilt Control
15. The scanner sweeps from side to side in a plane of elevation which is selected by the operator
using the tilt control. This control can tilt the scanner through 30 degrees vertically, 15 degrees
either side of level. The level datum will either be the aircraft's yawing plane with the POWER
switch in the POWER ON - STAB. OFF position, or Earth horizontal with the POWER switch in
the POWER ON - STAB. ON position, see Figure 10-3. Note that the scanner is stabilised in both
pitch and roll.
FIGURE 10-3
Effect of Stab on/
stab off Selection
Function Switch
16. The FUNCTION switch has four positions. The WEA (weather) and CONT (contour)
modes are designed for cloud detection, whilst the MAN (manual) and MAP (mapping) modes are
designed for ground mapping. These functions are discussed below.
WEA In the WEATHER mode the narrow conical beam is used. The manual gain control is
inoperative and an automatic gain control circuit operates. The equipment is designed to paint only
turbulent cloud on the screen. At close range even non-turbulent cloud may reflect enough energy to
cause a paint. The sudden appearance of apparently turbulent cloud at close range might alarm and
confuse the pilot. To avoid this, the automatic gain control circuitry reduces the sensitivity of the
receiver progressively from 20 nm range down to the minimum range of the equipment. Remember
that beyond this range the strength of return will become weaker as range increases.
CONT The type of AWR considered here is fitted with a monochrome screen. On this type of
equipment the difference between very turbulent cloud and less turbulent cloud is simply a difference
in the intensity of the target paint on the screen. Even with a modern daylight screen, distinguishing
between intense and less intense paints is almost impossible for the human eye. It is necessary to
incorporate a CONTOUR mode.
The function of the iso-echo circuitry, which functions when the contour mode is selected, is to invert
the target signal above a given level. This results in particularly turbulent cloud painting on the
screen with a hole in the middle, the hole indicating the area of intense turbulence.
Figure 10-4 shows a high amplitude signal (turbulent cloud) and the resulting display with the
equipment in the WEA mode. Figure 10-5 shows the signal amplitude and resulting display for the
same cloud, but with the equipment operating in the CONT mode.
FIGURE 10-4
Portrayal of
Information in
WEA Mode
FIGURE 10-5
Portrayal of
Information in
Cont Mode
MAN In the MANUAL mode the radar is used for long-range ground mapping, typically at
ranges in excess of 60 to 70 nm. In this mode the narrow conical beam is used to achieve the
required range but now the automatic gain control is inoperative and the MAN GAIN (manual gain)
control is used by the operator to achieve the best picture definition.
MAP For short-range mapping the MAP mode should be selected on the function switch. Spoilers
are now introduced into the dish of the aerial which distort the beam into the fan shape illustrated at
Figure 10-6. Now a much greater area of the ground ahead is covered by the beam but of course the
available power is spread over a correspondingly greater area thereby reducing the effective range.
Again the automatic gain control circuits are inoperative and the manual gain control is used to best
effect. Because the strength of the returns at say 50 nm range, would normally be weaker than
returns from the same sized object at 20 nm range, (due to the extra distance travelled by the
transmitted and reflected energy), the power distribution throughout this beam is varied so that a
valid comparison of targets can be made by the operator. The power spread is adjusted so that
maximum power is directed to the front of the beam, and thereafter is progressively reduced as
distances decrease, so that the power directed to the closest object is minimum. The reduction in
power with decreasing range is a function of the cosecant of the depression angle and the beam so
produced is sometimes referred to as a cosecant beam. This beam shape is best for mapping since
it enables returns over a wide area to be displayed, allowing the necessary cross checking between the
chart and the display to identify fixing points. However, because of the power spread, returns
beyond about 70 nm tend to be weak and it is then preferable to use the pencil beam for position
fixing.
FIGURE 10-6
Beam Shape in
Map Mode (Fan or
Cosecant
2
Beam)
17. It will probably be fairly obvious that, when using the ground mapping modes of a AWR to
illuminate a particular ground feature, the tilt setting must be increased in the downwards direction
as the selected range decreases. Similarly the tilt setting will also have to be increased in the
downwards direction if the aircraft climbs to a higher altitude.
Hill Shadow
18. Figure 10-7 shows a mapping beam being used over mountainous terrain. The ground in the
shadow of the closest mountain is not being swept by the beam and will not therefore paint on the
screen. This could be interpreted erroneously as an indication of the presence of a stretch of water
where none would be expected. This effect is known as hill shadow.
FIGURE 10-7
The Problem of
Hill Shadow in an
AWR
Functional Check of AWR
19. It is obviously advisable to check the serviceability of the AWR on the ground prior to flight.
When conducting these checks, certain precautions must be observed to avoid damage to personnel,
ground installations and to the AWR itself. The following precautions are worthy of note:
(a) Ensure that the POWER switch is OFF prior to engine start to avoid surge currents
which may damage the equipment.
(b) Following engine start, ensure that the RANGE switch is on STANDBY before
turning the POWER switch to the ON - STAB OFF position. This will allow the
equipment to reach its normal operating temperature.
(c) Turn the TILT control to the full tilt UP position.
(d) Whilst taxying, and when clear of personnel, buildings, other aircraft and fuel
installations turn the RANGE switch to the 20 nm, 50 nm and 150 nm range
positions, checking for timebase sweep, cloud returns (if appropriate) and range
marker illumination. Return the RANGE switch to the STANDBY position.
(e) When carrying out the above check the absence of any ground or cloud returns on a
cloudy day, will obviously be indicative of a system failure. Similarly any spoking of
the radar (radial lines on the AWR screen eminating from the radar origin like the
spokes of a wheel) will almost certainly be caused by a fault within the radar system.
(f) Before take-off, turn the POWER switch to the ON - STAB ON position, ensure that
the function switch is in the WEA mode and set the tilt control as required.
(g) When airborne and clear of the ground with a positive rate of climb select the
appropriate range.
(h) It should be noted that when carrying out a functional check on a coloured screen
AWR there is a specific test facility the function of which is described towards the end
this chapter.
Determining the Height of Cloud Tops
20. The approximate height of the tops of active clouds may be determined by using the weather
radar in the WEA mode with the stabilisation circuit ON. The angle of tilt of the scanner is
gradually increased until the cloud in question just ceases to paint on the screen. The tilt elevation
and the range of the cloud are then noted. Figure 10-8 illustrates the situation when the pencil beam
is just clearing the top of the cloud. The tilt angle shown on the tilt control is appropriate to the
centre of the pencil beam, and so to determine the elevation angle of the lower edge of the beam it is
necessary to subtract half the beam width. The height of the cloud above the aircraft is now
calculated using trigonometry, and converting range in nautical miles to feet. Evolving the formula
gives:
Height of cloud top above the
aircraft (feet)
= Tan (tilt angle - half beam width) x range in feet
= Tan (tilt angle - half beam width) x 6080 x range in nm
FIGURE 10-8
Calculation of
Cloud Height
21. Taking the example given in Figure 10-8, where the cloud is at 45 nm range, the aircraft is at
6000 feet amsl, the tilt angle at which the cloud just disappears is 5 degrees, and the beam width is 4
degrees.
Height of cloud top above the aircraft (feet) = Tan (5 - 2) x 6080 x 45 nm
= Tan 3 x 6080 x 45
= 14,230 feet
The top of the cloud is therefore at 14,230 + 6000 = 20,230 ft amsl.
In the event that you are not given/aware of the value of the tangent of the angle (tilt angle - half
beam width), the 1 in 60 rule gives the following easier formula:
In the example previously considered the cloud tops would appear to be at 19,500 ft using this
formula.
Using a Monochrome AWR for Weather Avoidance
22. As discussed, the contour facility on a monochrome weather radar is a very useful tool in
distinguishing between moderate and heavy target returns. The problem is that the hole which
indicates a heavy return is the same colour as those areas where the level of target return is either non
existent or so low as to not paint at all on the screen. The problem is illustrated at Figure 10-9 and
Figure 10-10. At Figure 10-9 cumiliform cloud is shown on the 50 nm range with the contour off
(WEA is selected on the function switch). At Figure 10-10 the same cloud is shown painting with the
contour on (CONT is selected on the function switch).
Height of cloud top above the aircraft (feet) = (tilt angle - half beam width) x 100 x range in
nm
FIGURE 10-9
Weather Radar
Screen Display
with WEA
Selected
FIGURE 10-10
The Effect of
Selecting Cont
Function
23. Were the operator to use the radar continuously in the contour mode it would be easy to
interprete the apparently weak paint of the weather ahead as cloud of little significance. It is
therefore recommended that the operator alternates between the WEA and the CONT functions
when assessing the severity of weather returns and planning the subsequent path for weather
avoidance. Areas which paint in the WEA mode but not in the CONT mode should most definitely
be avoided. With some monochrome systems this is done automatically when the contour mode is
selected. This gives the holes a flashing appearance which serves as an attention getter.
24. Another problem which needs to be adressed is that of the signal strength contour gradient.
We know that a zero paint area which is in fact a hole represents an area of large water droplets; that
an area which is painting (in the contour mode) represents an area of smaller but still significant
water droplets; and that the no paint area outside this represents an area of little or no signal return.
Whilst it is prudent to associate the hole with moderate or severe turbulence, the worst turbulence
may in fact be encountered where the signal gradient is steepest, in other words where the size of the
droplets is changing very rapidly. Such areas are indicated on the screen as a narrow paint between
the hole and the free air outside of the cumiliform cloud, as indicated at Figure 10-11.
25. Finally, it will be apparent that the setting on the tilt control will have a major effect on the
use of an AWR for weather avoidance. With the tilt set too far downwards the pilot could spend a
considerable amount of time avoiding clouds that are below the aircraft flight path. Similarly, with
the tilt set at too high an angle the presence of a thunderstorm may not be detected until it is too late
to take avoiding action.
FIGURE 10-11
Identification of
Turbulent Area
using an AWR
Display
I
Use of AWR for Navigation Position Fixing
26. Study Figure 10-12 which shows an AWR in ground mapping mode with the tip of a
peninsular of land showing on the screen. At the time of this observation the heading of the aircraft is
338C, the compass deviation on this heading is 2E, and the aircraft is at a position where the
variation is 11E. The pilot now wishes to use the AWR information to plot his position on a chart.
FIGURE 10-12
Use of AWR for
Navigation
Position Fixing
27. An examination of Figure 10-12 reveals that this particular radar scans from 90 left to 90
right of the nose of the aircraft therefore the four etched bearing lines represent 30 and 60 right and
left of the nose. The tip of land displayed on the screen is therefore presently 30 right of the nose, or
on a bearing of 030 relative. In the same way the range markers indicate that this must be a 50 nm
display and therefore the tip of land is at a range of 45 nm.
28. In order to plot the aircraft position on a chart the pilot would have to make the following
calculations:
aircraft heading 338C
compass deviation 2E
29. The bearing of the tip of land is 030 relative and therefore the bearing to plot is calculated in
the same manner as a bearing from an RBI :
30. The pilot would therefore plot the aircraft position as 201 T/45 nm from the fixing point.
Coloured Screen Weather Radars
31. As already mentioned, coloured screens use green, yellow and red as the basic colours to
show the ascending strengths of the signal returns.
32. The control and display unit of a colour weather radar is shown at Figure 10-13.
33. The Display Select buttons enable the operator to limit the scan of the dish aerial to one of
three sectors (left, right or ahead) and also to freeze the screen display.
magnetic heading 340M
magnetic variation 11E
true heading 351T
true heading = 351
relative bearing = 030
bearing TO tip of land = 381 - 360 = 021T
bearing FROM tip of land = 021 + 180 = 201T
34. Automatic gain control operates in all modes other than the mapping mode where manual
gain is available. The intensity control should not be confused with the gain control, it simply
brightens or dims the entire screen display to account for differing light levels on the flight deck.
35. The GCS button is functional only in the weather (WX) mode and suppresses ground clutter
in order to give a cleaner paint.
36. The test button causes a coloured test pattern to be painted on the screen to ensure that all
colours are available, as well as running a self test programme on the antenna elevation and scan
circuitry.
37. The contour mode of a monochrome system is replaced by the weather plus turbulence (WX/
T) mode on this coloured radar. With this mode selected, areas of great signal strength and also areas
where there is a steep signal strength gradient, are painted magenta.
FIGURE 10-13
Typical Colour
Weather Radar
38. With EFIS equipped aeroplanes the coloured weather returns are normally displayed on the
electronic horizontal situation indicator (EHSI) screen rather than on a dedicated weather radar
screen. This makes it much easier to assess the proximity of any weather to the planned track.
Factors Affecting the Range of an AWR
Heavy Rain. In the event that there is an area of heavy rain in front of the aircraft, virtually all of the
transmitted energy will be reflected by the water droplets thereby creating a shadow area behind the
rain into which no radio waves will penetrate. Any active clouds within the shadow area may
therefore not show on the radar screen until the aircraft is at a much closer range than normal.
Water in the Antenna Radome. Any deposits of water present in the radome surrounding the aerial
will prevent energy from being transmitted in that particular direction giving a blank spot in the
radar.
Ice Accretion on the Radome. Icing on the radome will cause attenuation of the transmitted and
received signal, such that targets which would have been displayed will remain undetected until very
close.
QUESTIONS:
QUESTION 1.
A frequency which is commonly used for AWR is ___________, which has a wavelength of
__________ and which lies in the _________ band.
QUESTION 2.
Which types of aerial are generally used for AWR equipment?
QUESTION 3.
In AWR what is the name given to the narrow beam produced by a parabolic dish aerial?
QUESTION 4.
Sidelobe energy is often quite useful in an AWR as it can produce a ______________ on the radar
display:
QUESTION 5.
What does the "POWER ON STAB OFF" position imply when selected on an AWR control panel?
QUESTION 6.
What are the three range scales commonly used on a typical AWR:
QUESTION 7.
Whilst some AWRs scan 90 either side of the aircraft nose, a more typical figure would be:
QUESTION 8.
What are the four modes of operation of an AWR?
QUESTION 9.
In order to use an AWR for long range mapping, the function switch must be selected to
_____________ which means that the ___________ beam will be utilised.
QUESTION 10.
In MAP mode are the AGC circuits in operation, or does the operator have manual control of the
gain?
QUESTION 11.
When using a monochrome AWR in CONT mode, where would you expect the area of worst
turbulence to be when interpreting the display?
QUESTION 12.
A storm echo just ceases to paint on an AWR screen when the tilt control is 4 up. The radar
beamwidth is also 4 and the range of the storm is 50nm. How far above/below the aircraft is the top
of the cloud?
QUESTION 13.
When using an AWR for navigation position fixing, the bearing of a particular landmark is 30 left
of the nose and it is at a range of 35nm. Given that the heading of the aircraft is 337(M) and
magnetic variation is 9E, what is the bearing to plot on a chart from the specified landmark?
QUESTION 14.
The colours used in a coloured screen AWR, in descending order of severity, are:
QUESTION 15.
What is the purpose of the GCS button in a typical coloured screen AWR:
QUESTION 16.
What is the main effect of Ice Accretion on the radome covering an AWR:
ANSWERS:
ANSWER 1.
9375 MHz 3.2 cm SHF
The most commonly used transmitter frequency for airborne weather radar systems is 9375 MHz in
the SHF band. This frequency gives a wavelength of just over three centimetres.
ANSWER 2.
Commonly used AWR aerials are a Parabolic Dish or a Flat Plate Planar Array
ANSWER 3.
The narrow beam produced by the AWR parabolic dish aerial is called a Conical Beam or a Pencil
Beam
ANSWER 4.
Height ring
ANSWER 5.
It means that any tilt angle setting on the tilt control will be referenced to the aircraft longitudinal
axis
ANSWER 6.
20, 50 and 150 nm
ANSWER 7.
45 - 60 either side of the nose
ANSWER 8.
WEA (weather), CONT (contour), MAP and MAN (manual)
ANSWER 9.
MAN should be selected on the function switch, therefore the conical (pencil) beam will be used.
ANSWER 10.
In MAP mode manual control of the gain is required
ANSWER 11.
The worst areas of turbulence would be indicated by a narrow paint between the "hole" and the free
air outside of the cloud
ANSWER 12.
Height of cloud (above/below aircraft) = (+ 4.0 - 2.0) x 100 x 50
= +10,000 ft, ie. above aircraft
ANSWER 13.
Answer = 136(T)
Heading 346(T)
Target rel brg 330
676
- 360
316(T)
Plot bearing of 316 - 180 = 136(T) from target
ANSWER 14.
MAGENTA, RED, YELLOW and GREEN
ANSWER 15.
The GCS button suppresses ground clutter in order to give a cleaner picture
ANSWER 16.
Ice accretion causes attenuation of the transmitted and received signals thereby reducing detection
range
SSR Frequencies
Ground Antenna
Aircraft Antenna
Mode A Operation
Mode A Validation
Mode C Operation
Mode C Validation
Mode S
11Secondary Surveillance Radar
1. Secondary Surveillance Radar (SSR) is a development of a military equipment which was
introduced during the last war to positively distinguish between friendly and enemy aircraft (IFF).
2. One of the functions of SSR is to positively identify an aircraft in flight which is painting as a
target on the radar screen. SSR therefore eliminates the possibility of the mis-identification of an
aircraft, which is a distinct possibility if an identification turn, or the pilot's estimation of his
aircraft's position, is used to identify a target on the radar screen in an area of congested traffic.
3. The basic target paint on the screen is termed the primary return, logically since it is the
product of the primary radar equipment. Assuming that both the ground radar station and the
aircraft are SSR equipped a four-figure code will appear on the screen adjacent to the primary paint,
and this secondary return will correspond to the code selected by the pilot on the airborne SSR
equipment.
4. A second function of SSR is to present the controller with a continuous readout of the
aircraft's height, normally presented as pressure altitude. Now the primary target paint is
accompanied by the four-figure code previously discussed, plus another three-figure group denoting
the aircraft's flight level.
5. A PPI radar screen showing both primary and secondary target information is shown at
Figure 11-1. The airways shown on the screen are electronically produced. Reporting points, major
airfields, danger areas and Altimeter Setting Region (ASR) boundaries are normally also
superimposed, but these have been omitted for clarity. Note the primary paints with their distinctive
tails indicating the direction of travel of the aircraft, together with their associated SSR codes and
flight level read-outs.
6. A further stage of computerisation at the ground station enables the controller to replace SSR
codes with the aircraft's callsign and supplementary information may follow the height read-out to
indicate the aircraft type, destination, intended routing, or ground speed. An example of a typical
target display as seen on the air traffic controllers radar is shown at Figure 11-2.
FIGURE 11-1
Typical PPI Radar
Screen
FIGURE 11-2
Typical Target
Display
SSR Frequencies
7. The ground-based interrogator transmits on 1030 MHz and receives on 1090 MHz. The
airborne transponder transmits on 1090 MHz and receives on 1030 MHz. Both of these frequencies
are within the UHF band and so the maximum theoretical range of the system is limited to line of
sight.
Ground Antenna
8. SSR is a secondary radar system operating, as it were, the other way round to DME. In other
words with SSR the interrogating radar is ground based and the transponder is airborne. The
interrogator transmits uni-directionally, the SSR aerial being located on the top of the primary radar
head, or separately as shown at Figure 11-3.
FIGURE 11-3
Typical SSR
Antenna
(dimensions
approx 4m x
1.5m)
9. The horizontal polar diagram radiated by an SSR aerial is very narrow, as depicted at Figure
11-4, and will invariably have several sidelobes of energy eminating from the aerial but in different
directions to the main beam.
FIGURE 11-4
SSR Antenna -
Horizontal Polar
Diagram
10. The vertical polar diagram is very broad but radiates minimal output below the horizontal or
at very high angles of elevation (i.e. most of the radiation is directed at those angles of elevation
normally used).
Side Lobe Suppression (SLS)
11. When a reply is received its angular position on the controllers PPI is determined by the
direction of the main lobe radiation from the interrogating aerial. If the reply is due to an
interrogation from a side lobe then the indicated bearing will be incorrect. The most common
method of suppressing replies to side lobe interrogations is described in the following paragraph.
12. SSR transmits a series of interrogation pulse pairs (see later), the individual pulses of which
are separated by a specific time interval, from the directional antenna previously described. A third
pulse, called the Side Lobe Suppression Control Pulse (SLS), is radiated from an omnidirectional
antenna (see Figure 11-5) at a time between the original pulses. The amplitude of the SLS control
pulse is such that, if an aircraft were positioned in the main lobe of the SSR, the two interrogation
pulses would be received more strongly than the SLS control pulse and an aircraft response would
therefore be generated. If the aircraft was positioned outside the main lobe, the SLS control pulse
would be the strongest of the 3 pulses and no response would be generated.
FIGURE 11-5
SLS Control Pulse
- Polar Diagram
Aircraft Antenna
13. It should be noted that the transmitter polar diagram for the aircraft antenna is circular (i.e. it
transmits response pulses omnidirectionally).
14. Since the SSR transmitter has only to transmit enough energy for a one-way journey, its
power output is much lower than the output of the associated primary radar. The interrogator
transmits a pair of pulses as an interrogation signal, and it is the spacing between the leading edges of
a pair of pulses which determines the Mode of interrogation. There are presently four modes:
Mode A - The interrogator transmits two pulses 8 microseconds apart.
Mode B - The interrogator transmits two pulses 17 microseconds apart.
Mode C - The interrogator transmits two pulses 21 microseconds apart.
Mode D - The interrogator transmits two pulses 25 microseconds apart.
Mode A - Achieves positive identification of primary radar returns, using the four-figure coding
already discussed.
Mode B - Serves the same purpose as mode A, but is not presently used in Europe
Mode C - Achieves height (pressure altitude) readout, using the three-figure coding already
discussed.
Mode D - Presently used to research future possible applications of SSR.
15. Current airborne SSR transponders normally operate only on Mode A and Mode C, as shown
at Figure 11-6, where the ON position on the function switch gives Mode A operation only, and the
ALT position gives both Mode A and Mode C operation.
16. A further mode, known as Mode 'S' is designed to provide an encoded data link between a
ground station and an aircraft, or between one aircraft and another aircraft. Mode S is discussed at
the end of the chapter.
FIGURE 11-6
Typical Airborne
SSR Control Panel
Mode A Operation
17. As already discussed, if the airborne transponder is being interrogated for Mode A
information the coded interrogation signal will consist of pulse pairs, 8 microseconds apart. In reply
to this interrogation, the transponder will transmit omni-directionally a series of up to 14 pulses.
The first and last pulses, the frame pulses, are always transmitted. By either including or omitting
any or all of the twelve pulses in between the two frame pulses, 4096 possible combinations of
unique response codes are obtained.
18. Any of these codes (response pulse combinations) may be selected by dialling the appropriate
number between 0000 and 7777 (which will not contain the figures 8 or 9) in the code selected
windows of the transponder.
19. The coded pulse train transmitted by the transponder in response to a Mode A interrogation
will arrive back at the ground station. Here a computer decodes the signal and paints the
appropriate four-figure code (corresponding to the figures selected at the transponder) on the radar
screen adjacent to the primary radar paint.
20. Figure 11-7 shows the reply pulse train with all twelve pulses transmitted. The letters A, B, C
and D refer to the four Mode A code numerals in sequential order. The numerical values assigned to
each pulse are summated by the ground equipment to decode the transmitted pulse train. It will be
seen that each numeral has three pulses assigned to it, with values of 1, 2 and 4. If all pulses are
transmitted, as in Figure 11-7, the code selected must be 7777.
FIGURE 11-7
Total SSR Pulse
Profile
21. Figure 11-8 shows how some pulses would be suppressed in order to transmit the code 5432
FIGURE 11-8
SSR Pulse Profile
for Code 5432
22. A further pulse (SPI - Special Position Identification) is transmitted 4.35 microseconds after
the second frame pulse whenever the pilot presses the IDENT button on the transponder control
unit. This ident pulse will be continuously transmitted for 20 seconds once the button is depressed,
and the indication to the radar controller when this happens is, typically, that a ring appears on the
screen encircling the primary return.
23. The pilot normally selects a code at the transponder only when requested to do so by air
traffic control. There are however occasions when the pilot should automatically select certain
codes, as follows:
(a) Code A7700 is selected to indicate an emergency situation.
(b) Code A7600 is selected to indicate a radio failure.
(c) Code A7500 is selected to indicate an unlawful interference with the flight (hijack).
(d) Code A2000 is selected when crossing a European boundary inbound and no
alternative code has been assigned by air traffic control.
(e) Code A7000 is selected as a conspicuity code, to be used at all times within the UK
FIR/UIR by SSR equipped aircraft except when;
(i) discrete Mode A code has been assigned by air traffic control.
or:
(ii) one of the other special purpose codes is being used (2000/7500/7600/7700).
(f) Code A7007 is selected by aircraft operating under Open Skies Treaty arrangements.
24. The indication to the radar controller when code A7700 is selected by the pilot is, typically,
that a flashing SOS appears on the screen adjacent to the primary paint. For A7600, a flashing RTF
appears, and for A7500 a flashing HIJ.
Mode A Validation
25. A controller assigning any Mode A code must validate the code by checking as soon as
possible, either by direct reference to his display or with the assistance of another controlling agency,
that the data displayed corresponds to the code which has been assigned.
26. The Mode A code must be checked by one of the following methods:
(a) Instructing the aircraft to squawk the assigned code and observing that the correct
numbers appear on the radar display.
(b) Instructing the aircraft to squawk IDENT and simultaneously checking the screen.
(c) Matching a radar return already identified by primary radar with the assigned code
for the flight.
(d) When an aircraft which is squawking a Mode A code which has previously been
validated is handed over from one radar unit to another, the unit accepting the aircraft
may also accept that the Mode A readout is validated.
27. Additionally, at units where code to callsign conversion equipment is in use, procedures to
ensure the correct correlation of the callsign to the assigned code must be applied.
28. If the Mode A code readout does not correspond to that assigned, the pilot is instructed to re-
cycle the assigned code. If this fails to achieve display of the assigned code, the pilot is then
instructed to select code A0000. If a corrupt code still exists the pilot will normally be instructed to
switch off the transponder, however the controller may under certain circumstances elect to use the
corrupt code in order to assist identification and tracking.
29. From the pilots point of view, the important thing is that the unserviceable SSR transponder
should be rectified on landing. If this is not possible and the next sector is one on which the carriage
of SSR equipment is mandatory, the permission of ATC must be sought to continue with the next
sector, and the flight plan must be annotated accordingly (even if it is a pre-stored flight plan for a
regular schedule).
Mode C Operation
30. The transponder is interrogated for Mode C information by firing a series of pulse pairs 21
microseconds apart from the ground station. The transponder now produces one of the 4096 codes
regardless of the code selected in the window. The code produced is determined by the output of the
height encoder of a pressure altimeter. This output will always be based on a 1013.2 mb datum and
is quite independent of any sub-scale setting. Automatic altitude telemetering is available up to
128,000 feet. Altitude is displayed in 100 ft increments.
31. The Mode C response pulse train is again transmitted omni-directionally from the aircraft
and is received at the radar head on the ground. This time the computer will decode the pulse train
and paint the appropriate flight level on the screen (together with the Mode A code) adjacent to the
primary target paint.
32. With many modern ground SSR systems, it is possible to manually input into the radar
computer the current QNH. For aircraft flying below the transition altitude, the computer will now
convert the flight level decode into altitude, and the three-figure height readout will then be replaced
by a two-figure readout followed by the letter Z or A on the screen. For example 15Z will indicate
to the controller that the aircraft is flying at 1500 feet relative to the QNH.
Mode C Validation
33. Before the radar controller uses the Mode C readout to effect vertical separation of aircraft,
the Mode C readout must also be validated. This is achieved by asking the pilot to state his flight
level. Providing that the read-out on the screen is within 200 feet of the stated flight level, the
Mode C read-out is thereafter considered to be within acceptable limits. Whilst a tolerance of 200
feet is used within the UK FIR/UIRs, in other parts of the world the ICAO tolerance of 300 feet
may be accepted.
34. If the Mode C output is found to be in error, the pilot will normally be asked to switch off the
Mode C, and to continue with Mode A only. If independent switching of Mode C is not possible, the
pilot may be asked to squawk code A0000, and to continue with this code in order to indicate that
the associated Mode C read-out is corrupt.
35. Problems associated with the Mode A/C system are:
Garbling, ie; interference due to overlapping replies from two or more aircraft in close prox-
imity in azimuth and distance. The target aircraft have to be less than 1.7 nm apart (10,000
ft) measured in the vertical plane perpendicular to, and from, the ground antenna.
Fruiting, ie: interference at one interrogator caused by the replies from a transponder in
response to interrogations from another interrogator.
Availability of only 4096 codes in Mode A for the identification of aircraft.
Shielding of the antenna caused by the attitude of the aircraft.
Additionally the Mode C capability is limited to identifying altitudes by 100 ft increments.
Mode S
36. The allocation of 24 bits for aircraft address in Mode S gives it a considerably greater
capacity than Mode C; specifically, it permits individual communication with over 16 million aircraft
(sufficient for all aircraft currently flying throughout the world). Mode S differs from Modes A, B
and C in that it can function as a communcation system as well as a secondary radar surveillance
system. This is known as data linking and has the potential to drastically reduce the volume of
verbal information which presently passes between the aircraft and the ground by means of
congested R/T channels. Finally, Mode S offers the facility to identify altitudes in increments of 25 ft.
37. Mode S can work in any of the following ways:
Selective Addressing. The Mode S equipment addresses a particular message to a specific Mode
S address, thereby permitting direct communication between two users.
Mode All Call. In order to aquire further Mode S equipped aircraft a special roll call
interogation is broadcast at intervals. Any Mode S transponders within range will recognise the roll
call request and will reply with an all call reponse consisting of the aircraft identity plus the
capability of the onboard equipment.
Selective Calling. Similar to the above, however only specific Mode S addresses are asked to
respond.
Levels of Mode S Transponders
38. ICAO Annex 10 stipulates that Mode S transponders shall conform to one of four Levels of
capability as described below.
European Regulations for the Carriage and Operation of
Mode S Airborne Equipment
39. Eurocontrol have submitted the following requirements to ICAO as the basis for an
amendment to ICAO Doc 7030 to mandate the carriage and operation of Mode S airborne
equipment.
(a) For IFR/GAT flights, in airspace designated by the appropriate ATS Authority, a Level
2 Mode S transponder as a minimum, with Downlink Aircraft Parameters (DAP)
capability (Basic and Enhanced Surveillance Functionality), required by new aircraft
with effect from 1 January 2001 and by all aircraft with effect from 1 January 2003.
Level 1: This is the basic level which permits surveillance based on Mode A/C as well as Mode S.
It incorporates a uniquely assigned 24 bit Mode S aircraft address which enables
minimum capability for operation with Mode S interrogators. It has no additional data
exchange capability and is not prescribed for use on international flights within the
European region.
Level 2: Incorporates automatic aircraft identification reporting and standard length air/ground
and ground/air data exchange in addition to the Level 1 capability. It is the minimum
level permitted for international flight.
Level 3: Incorporates the Level 2 capability with the addition of uplink (ground/air) extended
datalink communications.
Level 4: Incorporates the Level 3 capability but allows extended downlink (air/ground) datalink
communications.
(b) For VFR flights, conducted in Class B and C Airspace as designated by the appropriate
ATS Authority and in defined portions of Class D, E, F and G Airspace where the
carriage and operation of SSR transponders has already been prescribed, a Level 2
transponder as a minimum, with DAP capability (Basic Functionality), required by
new aircraft with effect from 1 January 2003 and by all aircraft with effect from 1
January 2005.
(c) Mode S equipped aircraft shall report automatically Basic Functionality DAPs which
includes aircraft identification (callsign used in flight).
(d) Mode S equipped aircraft with a maximum mass in excess of 5700kg or a maximum
cruising true airspeed in excess of 176 kt (324 Km/h) shall operate with antenna
diversity (subject to airframe practicability).
(e) Specific provisions relating to State aircraft shall be subject to regulations issued by
the States concerned.
Downlink Aircraft Parameters
40. The specific requirements for DAPs are classed separately as follows :
(a) Basic Functionality:
Automatic Reporting of Flight Identity (callsign used in flight);
Transponder Capability Reporting;
Altitude Reporting in 25ft increments (subject to aircraft capability).
Flight Status (airborne/on the ground).
(b) Enhanced Surveillance Functionality:
Basic functionality with the addition of:
Magnetic heading;
Speed (IAS/TAS/Mach No);
Roll Angle;
Track Angle Rate;
Vertical Rate (barometric rate of climb/descent, or, preferably baro-inertial);
True Track Angle/Ground Speed.
(c) Intended Future Use Functionality:
Additional DAPs which include those relating to aircraft intention are currently under
evaluation. Their employment in Mode S Enhanced Surveillance is subject to the
resolution of certain technical and institutional issues. In addition, it is anticipated
that an extended squitter capability and Surveillance Identifier (SI) functionality will
be required following formal adoption of ICAO SARPS.
NOTE:
Basic Functionality DAPs are defined in ICAO Annex 10/Manual on Mode S
Specific Services (Doc 9688).
NOTE:
Enhanced Surveillance DAP parameters are defined in the ICAO Manual on
Mode S Specific Services, BDS Registers 5,0 and 6,0.
NOTE:
Squitter is the ability of a transponder to automatically transmit pre-formatted
information which is not in response to an interrogation request.
41. Despite its sophistication, Mode S operates on the same basic principle as conventional SSR
and employs the same interrogation and response frequencies.
Future Expansion of Mode S Surveillance Services
42. In anticipation of further expansion of Mode S Surveillance Services, consideration has been
given to the downlinking of additional aircraft parameters. Those which indicate aircraft intention
(selected parameters) offer the greatest potential benefit to the ATM system and in particular to the
safety nets in terms of enhanced tracking and anticipated knowledge of aircraft manoeuvres.
However, the resolution of certain technical and institutional issues associated with the downlinking
of these parameters is essential before they can be introduced for operational use. Therefore, once
these issues have been resolved, the following parameters as defined in the ICAO Manual on Mode S
Specific Services, BDS Register 4,0, are likely to be recommended for inclusion in regulations:
Selected Flight Level/Altitude
Selected Magnetic Heading
Selected Course
Selected IAS/Mach No
Future Airborne Datalink Equipment Requirements
43. It is important that aircraft operators are made aware as early as possible of planned ground
infrastructure developments which could affect future airborne equipment carriage requirements.
Mode S Level 2 transponders, as a minimum, have been prescribed because the employment of the
full Mode S datalink has not yet been endorsed in the context of an overall European Datalink
Strategy. However, work is ongoing to evaluate its suitability for this purpose. Endorsement of the
extended use of Mode S datalink would lead to a requirement for Mode S Level 4 transponders as a
minimum.
Airborne Collision Avoidance Systems (ACAS)
44. ACAS SARPS were adopted by ICAO in 1995. However, since December 1993, the Traffic
Alert and Collision Avoidance System (TCAS II) has been mandated for use in US Airspace by
aircraft of more than 30 passenger seats. Additionally, evaluation of TCAS II operations has been
ongoing in European airspace for a number of years. These systems, which incorporate the use of a
Mode S transponder integral to the TCAS system, interrogate both Mode S and Mode A/C
transponders of other aircraft. The received responses are processed to provide, where appropriate,
collision avoidance in the vertical plane of traffic in the vicinity of ACAS equipped aircraft.
45. European ACAS policy is to require the mandatory carriage and operation of an ACAS II
conforming to ICAO SARPS in the airspace of ECAC Member States. An implementation schedule
has been adopted, in principle, as follows:
(a) With effect from 1 January 2000, all civil fixed wing turbine engine aircraft having a
maximum take-off mass exceeding 15000 kg or maximum approved passenger seating
configuration of more than 30 will be required to be equipped with ACAS II.
(b) With effect from 1 January 2005, all civil fixed wing turbine engine aircraft having a
maximum take off mass exceeding 5700 kg or maximum approved seating
configuration of more than 19 will be required to be equiped with ACAS II. It should
be noted that the weight and seat parameters are subject to confirmation.
Flight Management Systems
Boeing 737-400 FMS Operation
Flight Director Systems
Electronic Display Systems
Electronic Flight Instrument Systems (EFIS)
VOR/DME Area Navigation (RNAV)
12Area Navigation Systems
1. Area navigation (RNAV) is the process of calculating the range and bearing from the aircraft
of any given location within the area, in order to fly a straight-line track to that point. It is
particularly useful when the desired geographical location is not marked by any radio navaid, as is
often the case when operating off airways. In many parts of the world RNAV routes have been
developed to allow navigation outside standard routes thereby decreasing traffic congestion and
making optimum use of the available airspace.
2. All RNAV systems are computer based. Complex RNAV systems may use inputs from all
available navaids (INS, Loran, VOR, DME) plus TAS, altitude and heading inputs from the Central
Air Data Computer (CADC). More basic systems give range and bearing to a selected location using
external inputs from VOR/DME only, with internal inputs of latitude/longitude of the selected
location and of the VOR/DME stations used to achieve the solution. The latter would normally be
pre-programmed in the computer memory against the VOR frequency.
3. There are two levels of accuracy of operation for RNAV equipment: B-RNAV and P-RNAV.
To be eligible for B-RNAV operations , on board navigation equipment will be required to provide
en-route track keeping accuracy of 5 nm or better for 95% of the flight time. B-RNAV has an
accuracy comparable with that of aircraft currently operating the present system on routes defined
by VOR/DME. Precision RNAV (P-RNAV) requires a track-keeping accuracy of 0.5 nm standard
deviation or better.
4. The student will by now appreciate that, as a general statement, fixing of an aircraft position
using radio navigation systems (e.g. VOR, DME, Loran, and GPS (see Chapter 17)), will result in a
bounded error, whilst fixing of an aircraft position using an INS or IRS will result in an unbounded
error (i.e. the error gets worse with time). In sophisticated RNAV systems the radio navigation
system inputs can be used to tie down the INS/IRS position information in those areas where
ground/space-based fixing cover is good.
5. An RNAV system is programmed to calculate the most accurate continuously updated
position possible by using the various radio navigation inputs however, should these not be available,
it will continue in dead reckoning mode until such information is restored.
6. A general block schematic diagram of an area navigation system is shown in Figure 12-1.
FIGURE 12-1
Simple Area
Navigation System
7. The purpose of the components of this simple system are briefly described below.
Flight Data Storage Unit This part of the system is where permanent information is stored; for
example location, elevation and frequency of beacons and airports, standard departure and arrival
routes etc.
Automatic Data Entry Unit. This unit allows an operator to automatically feed into the system
the companys standard routes together with the relevant waypoint data.
Navigation Computer Unit. The NCU processes the information from the various sensors and,
by comparing the result with the selected flight profile, it generates various output commands.
Control Display Unit. The CDU is the interface between the pilot and the NCU and as such it
allows the pilot to modify the flight profile, as necessary, and to display selected information in the
cockpit.
Compass System. Magnetic heading is fed from the main compass and is fed as an input into the
NCU.
Air Data Computer An Air Data Computer provides TAS and altitude inputs to the NCU.
Information Displays Navigational outputs from the NCU are fed to various cockpit
instruments such as the RMI (discussed in Chapter 4) or an EHSI (see later).
Sensor Inputs. Figure 12-1 shows some of the possible sensor inputs into the NCU (precise
availability will depend on the individual aircraft fit). It should be noted that there are different types
of sensor input :
In large aircraft like the Boeing 737, 747, 757 etc, the tasks associated with Area Navigation will be
executed by the Flight Management and Guidance System (FMS).
(a) Self Contained on-board systems
INS/IRS/Doppler Present position, as displayed on the CDU of
self-contained navigation systems, is fed into
the area navigation system as an input
(whether it be in geographic co-ordinates or
graphical form).
(b) External Sensor Systems Position fixing obtained by using radio
navigation aids.
GPS-Position information in latitude and longitude / velocity
DME/DME-Range/Range (RHO/RHO)
DME/VOR-Range/Bearing (RHO/THETA)
(c) Air Data Inputs
TAS typically from a CADC
Altitude
(d) Compass Input
Magnetic Heading
Flight Management Systems
8. The Flight Management System (FMS) is an integration of the aircraft subsystems, the
purpose of which is to assist the flight crew in controlling and managing the flight path of the
aircraft. The flight path is divided into lateral and vertical profiles, commonly known as LNAV and
VNAV. The system allows the pilots to select the degree of automation required at all stages of flight
and consequently the need for many routine tasks and computations is eliminated.
9. Primarily the FMS provides automatic three-dimensional navigation, fuel management and
fuel monitoring together with the optimising of aircraft performance. It also provides information to
the appropriate displays, including the electronic map, which is fully described in the section dealing
with Flight Directors and Electronic Flight Information Systems (EFIS). FMS also provides airspeed
and engine thrust cues.
10. The main components of an FMS are :
(a) Flight Management and Guidance Computer (FMC)
- uses both manual and automatic inputs of data to compute 3 dimensional position,
performance data etc in order to fly the aircraft accurately and efficiently along a
pre-defined route.
(b) Multipurpose Control and Display Unit (MCDU)
- the interface between the pilots and FMC.
(c) Flight Control Unit
The Flight Management and Guidance Computer
11. A schematic diagram of the component parts of a typical flight management system is shown
at Figure 12-2. The heart of the system is the Flight Management Computer (FMC) and its associated
Multipurpose Control and Display Unit (MCDU). A CDU of the type found in the Boeing 737 is
- supplies the commands to control the lateral and vertical flight path of the aircraft.
(d) Flight Management Source Selector
- selects the sources of input to be used by the FMC.
(e) Display System
- any means of displaying the required data/ information to the pilots.
FIGURE 12-2
A Typical FMS
FIGURE 12-3
A Typical FMS
Multipurpose
Control and
Display Unit
(MCDU)
12. The MCDU combines flight plan information entered by the pilots with information supplied
from supporting systems and information contained in memory. This enables the FMC to determine
the aircraft position and to provide pitch, roll and thrust information in order to fly the profile
required. Commands are sent by the FMC to the autopilot, the flight director and the autothrottle
(autothrust) system. FMC navigational and performance computations are displayed on the MCDUs
for reference or monitoring. Related FMC commands for lateral and vertical navigation are coupled
to the AFDS and Autothrottle through the Mode Control Panel (L NAV and VNAV). The IRSs and
other aeroplane sensors provide additional required data. MCDUs also permit interface with the
Aircraft Communications Addressing and Reporting System (ACARS). Additionally, map
information is sent to the Electronic Horizontal Situation Indicator (EHSI) and displayed in the
manner described in the section dealing with EFIS.
The FMC Data Base
13. The information which is stored in the FMC data base is divided into two main sections,
namely navigation information and aircraft performance information.
14. The navigation data includes the location of radio navigation aids, SIDs, STARs, company
routes, airports, runways, approach aids and airways structures. The data base is tailored to the
needs of the individual carrier. This navigation data base is produced by a specialist agency (such as
Jeppesen) and is normally updated on a 28 day cycle. Data transfer hardware (using a magnetic tape
cassette) is provided to enable the operator to load a new data base into the aircraft FMCs. In order
that flight operations do not come to a grinding halt at midnight on the last day of validity of the
expiring data base, the current data base together with the next effective data base are both stored in
the FMCs. For the pilot then, step one when setting up the FMCs is to ensure that the correct data
base for the date of the flight is the operational one.
15. Within a given 28 day period it is likely that certain information contained in the navigation
data base will become invalid, for example NOTAMs may inform us that a given VOR is out of
service for a period of time. The pilot can access the data base and delete that VOR, but only for the
duration of the flight. It is therefore impossible for the pilot to corrupt the data base itself. It is
important to remember that the data base is produced by another human being and may therefore
contain errors. Because of the high degree of automation involved when, basically, the FMC is
driving the aeroplane, it is essential that the pilots monitor the aircrafts progress using conventional
navigation techniques (raw data), and also that any errors in the data base are fed back through
reporting channels so that they can be remedied.
16. During flight the FMC will search the navigation data base and automatically select the best
two DME stations with which to determine the aircrafts present position. In the absence of suitable
DME/DME crosscuts the system will use co-located VORs and DMEs. When DME/DME or DME/
VOR fixing is not possible, for example on an oceanic leg, the aircrafts position is determined by the
inertial reference systems plus a correction vector that has been developed by a Kalman filter over a
period of time. In those systems that use GPS position as an input into the FMC, it is usually possible
for the pilot to delete any satellite that has automatically been selected by the GPS receiver, in order
to obtain the best fix geometry.
17. The Kalman filter uses hybrid navigation techniques. It takes, for example, position
information from a number of sources and then statistically analyses that data (taking into account
the possible errors) to produce a final solution which, in the case of position, would be the FMC
position. The filter also produces the correction vector discussed in paragraph 16.
18. Take the situation where an aircraft, equipped with say 3 inertial systems, is flying from
Europe to the USA. As the aircraft crosses the UK, on its way to join the NAT track system, the FMS
will be using DME/DME radio ranges to assist in determining position. Figure 12-4 gives a pictorial
presentation of the computations involved.
FIGURE 12-4
Position
Determination by
an FMC
19. In simple terms the FMC first averages out the 3 IRS positions to determine a mean inertial
position. Secondly, it compares the mean inertial position with the radio aid position (in this case
DME/DME ranging is used) and, taking account of the likely error in each position, it computes a
final FMC position which is used to steer the aircraft along the planned track.
20. The position correction vector in the above example stretches between the mean inertial
position and the final FMC computed position. (In an aircraft equipped with a single inertial system
the vector would obviously start from that single position).
21. It will be obvious from the above explanation that, in order to develop the position correction
vector over a given time, there must be a continuous supply of radio information. However, once the
aircraft leaves the area of ground based radio aids the FMC can still use the history of the vector to
develop it further, and hence continues to provide the best possible estimate of position. As the
aircraft coasts in again over the USA radio aid fixing will once again be used to tie down the FMC
position.
22. The accuracy of a Kalman filtering system such as the one described is dependant upon two
main factors :
(a) The quality and complexity of the Kalman filter design.
(b) The error characteristics of the various navigation sensors used by the system must
be complementary. (i.e. any single system input which is subject to alot of noise/
variation, or drifts in value, may cause a significant error in FMC computed
position).
23. The FMCs will automatically select the VOR/DME stations which are displayed on the EHSI
needles, the standby RMI needles and the DME range readouts. The system will decode the morse
identifier and display letters on the screen. If a satisfactory identifier decode is not achieved, the
frequency will be displayed rather than the identifier. In this event it is up to the pilot to identify
ground station in the conventional manner. Similarly, providing that the FMC has been informed that
the intention is to fly an ILS approach to a given runway at the destination/alternate aerodrome, the
relevant ILS will be autotuned and identified, again with the morse identifier displayed to the pilot,
but this time on the Electronic Attitude Direction Indicator (EADI). Where the departure is from an
ILS runway, the FMC will again autotune the ILS in order to provide centre line guidance
immediately after take-off. When NDBs form part of a SID, STAR approach procedure or (unusually
these days) an airways structure, these are also autotuned and identified by the FMC. The option
always exists for the pilot to override the automatics by hard tuning stations of his or her choice.
24. The performance data base contains all of the information normally contained within the
performance manual, such as engine characteristics, the aircraft limiting speeds for the various
configurations, optimum/maximum cruise altitudes and an aerodynamic model of the aeroplane. The
data base may be individually tailored for an individual aeroplane within a fleet. Variables such as
fuel quantity, zero fuel weight and a company cost index are entered by the flight crew. This data is
peculiar to the next sector only and is automatically dumped by the FMC following the next landing
and engine shutdown. The simplest explanation of the cost index is that it is a numerical value which
tells the FMC whether the operator considers that fuel economy (with larger sector times) or
minimum sector times (with a resultant higher fuel burn) is the preferred option. The cost index can
therefore be altered on a sector by sector basis to account for the circumstances of that flight.
Modes of Operation for Dual FMC Installations
25. FMC systems are normally duplicated and each FMC has its own CDU. There are 4 modes
of operation :
Dual Mode. With the system operating normally the two CDU/FMCs are interconnected and
pilot entered data which is entered at one CDU is automatically transferred to the other one. In other
words, one FMC provides the master function and the other the slave function. The pilots may select
their own EHSI display (full or expanded VOR, full or expanded ILS, map or plan) regardless of
what is displayed on the other EHSI.
Independent. The first stage of degradation of the system occurs when a disparity is sensed
between the outputs of the two FMCs. Now each CDU/FMC works Independently of the other and
the pilots are left to identify the serviceable system. Each CDU will supply its own EHSI, however
now the pictures on each of the EHSIs (assuming that they are in the same mode with the same range
option selected) will differ.
Single. The next stage of degradation of the system when one FMC or CDU fails altogether. You
are now down to a single system operation, however both EHSIs can be driven from the same FMC/
CDU providing only that both pilots select the same mode and range setting.
Back-Up Navigation. Finally, should both FMC/CDUs fail, the pilots are left with blank EHSIs
and the prospect of limited use of the FMS. Navigation is achieved by manually tuning en route and
approach aids which are subsequently displayed on a conventional RMI and analogue DME readout.
Lateral Navigation Guidance
26. The FMC calculates the great circle tracks and distances between successive waypoints in the
active flight plan. These are the track lines which are shown on the EHSI map display. The active
flight plan includes the SID, the STAR and any relevant holding patterns. Under normal
circumstances (managed guidance) the FMC will command the autopilot to maintain the defined
track (at a particular altitude and speed). With the aircraft flown manually (selected guidance) the
FMC commands the human pilot to maintain a particular value of a parameter (heading, speed etc)
by making selections on the Flight Control Panel (FCP). At any time the pilot can take control of the
lateral navigation of the aircraft by going into heading mode. The FMC will automatically revert to
heading mode whenever LNAV capture parameters are out of limits or when, for example, a
waypoint is reached and no route is defined beyond that point.
Vertical Navigation Guidance
27. Providing that the pilot does not modify the climb profile, the FMC will command a climb
with thrust at the airspeed limit associated with the departure airfield until above the speed limit
altitude or flight level. Thereafter the climb will continue at climb thrust and economy speed to the
demanded cruise level. Where altitude/level constraints are imposed by the SID (cross point X at/at or
below/at or above a given altitude or flight level), these constraints will be shown on the EHSI map
and plan displays. The aircraft will comply with these constraints providing that the FMC remains in
the fully managed mode. In the event that ATC impose an altitude constraint, this can be entered by
the pilot as a vertical revision to the waypoint to which the constraint applies. If, during the climb,
the FMC senses that the aircraft will not be able to comply with the constraint due to an insufficient
rate of climb, the pilot will be warned. The FMC will capture any altitude which is selected and
armed on the Mode Control Panel (MCP)/Flight Control Unit (FCU).
28. During the cruise, economy speed will be used until the top of descent point.
29. The top of descent point is computed by the FMC, as it were, from touchdown backwards.
The FMC has knowledge of the aerodrome elevation, and the QNH is manually entered by the
pilots. The exact vertical distance from the cruise level to touch down is therefore known. Flight level
or altitude constraints, as defined by the STAR and the approach procedure are stored in the
navigational data base, and the descent profile is computed to account for these constraints. The
descent will normally be computed such that, wherever possible, the engines will be at idle power
(which is fuel efficient). The descent will be computed at economy speed down to the point where
the STAR imposes a maximum speed constraint, and thereafter at speeds which will enable the slats/
flaps/landing gear to be extended at the appropriate points. Wind velocities for the descent can be
manually entered by the pilots in order to refine the computation.
30. Typical VNAV climb, cruise and descent profiles for a B757 are illustrated at Figure 12-5 and
Figure 12-6.
FIGURE 12-5
Typical VNAV
Climb / Cruise
Profile
FIGURE 12-6
Typical VNAV
Descent Profile
Boeing 737-400 FMS Operation
31. The foregoing paragraphs gave a brief overview of an FMS, in general terms. The following
paragraphs describe, in some degree of detail, the operation of the Boeing 737-400 FMS plus
information regarding the processes involved in providing the systems navigation solution.
Pre-Flight
32. The CDUs are used during preflight to manually initialise the IRSs and FMC with departure
information such as present position, flight plan routing, zero fuel weight, and planned cruise
altitude. These CDU entries and the data bases then form the starting point for FMC computations.
33. If the permanent data base does not contain all of the required flight plan data, additional
airports, navaids, and waypoints can be defined by the crew and stored in either a supplemental or a
temporary navigation data base. Use of these additional data bases provides world-wide navigational
capability, with the crew manually entering desired data into the FMC via various MCDU pages.
Information in the supplemental nav data base is stored indefinitely, requiring specific crew action
for erasure ; the temporary nav data base is automatically erased at flight completion.
34. Stored waypoint identifiers may be entered manually on either the RTE or RTE LEGS pages,
or they may be entered automatically as part of a company route designation. The following are
valid CDU entries for published waypoint indentifiers stored in the permanent navigation data base
(five characters maximum) :
waypoint indentifier (waypoint name)
navaid indentifier
runway number
airport ICAO indentifier
Created Waypoints
35. If the permanent nav data base does not contain the desired stored waypoint(s), then new
(previously unstored) Created Waypoints can be defined by the crew. On the RTE or RTE LEGS
pages, Created Waypoints are keyed into the Scratch Pad as any of the following :
Place Bearing/Distance (for example, SEA250/40), where Place is any identi-
fier already stored in either the permanent, supplemental, or temporary nav
data base.
Place Bearing/Place Bearing (for example, SEA180/ELN270), the intersection
of bearings from two different Places.
Along-Track Displacement (for example, SEA/-10), the distance either side of
an existing flight-plan waypoint.
Latitude and longitude (for example, N4731.8W12218.3).
36. The waypoints are automatically stored in the temporary nav data base for one flight only.
On the NAV DATA pages, entry of the FMC - assigned identifier on the WPT IDENT line provides a
display of the parameters originally keyed -in to define that waypoint.
37. Alternatively, Created Waypoints can also be initially defined using crew-assigned identifiers
on either the SUPP NAV DATA or REF NAV DATA pages. This method allows waypoints to be
defined in any of three FMC categories ; Waypoints, Navaids or Airports. Entries defined on the
SUPP NAV DATA pages (accessible on the ground only) are automatically stored in the supplemental
nav data base until deleted by the crew. Entries defined on the REF NAV DATA pages are
automatically stored in the temporary nav data base for one flight only.
38. The supplemental and temporary data bases share storage capacity for forty Navaids and six
Airports, the entries being stored in either data base on a first come, first served basis. For the
Waypoint category, exclusive storage is reserved in the temporary data base for twenty entries
(including those created on the RTE or RTE LEGS pages). An additional twenty Waypoints (up to a
maximum of forty) can be stored in either the temporary or supplemental data base on a first come,
first served basis.
39. When any storage category is full, entries which are no longer required should be deleted by
the crew to make space for additional new entries. Created Waypoints cannot be stored in the data
base Runway category.
Conditional Waypoints
40. The preceding waypoints all refer to geographically-fixed positions. Waypoints which are not
geographically fixed are called Conditional Waypoints, and are embedded within stored procedures
and displayed on the CDU in parenthesis. They cannot be entered manually. Conditional Waypoints
are displayed as any of the following:
(1500) altitude condition
(SEA330) VOR radial crossing condition
(SEA-10) DME crossing condition
(INTC) intercept course to next waypoint
(VECTOR) maintain heading indefinitely
NOTE:
When (VECTOR) is the active leg, the FMC does not automatically sequence
to the next waypoint. The next waypoint becomes active only upon
EXECution of the procedures for Proceeding Direct To a Waypoint or
Intercepting a Leg to a Waypoint.
Inertial Reference Systems
41. Two independant Inertial Reference Systems (IRSs) are installed, plus Mode Selectors and one
IRS Display Unit (ISDU) located in the cockpit. The IRSs are the aeroplanes sole source of attitude
and heading information, except for the standby attitude indicator and standby magnetic compass.
42. In their normal navigation mode, the IRSs provide attitude, true and magnetic heading,
acceleration, vertical speed, ground speed, track, present position, and wind data to appropriate
aeroplane systems. IRS outputs are independant of external navigation aids.
IRS Alignment
43. The IRS must be aligned and initialised with the aeroplane position before it can enter the
NAV mode. The position is normally entered through the FMC CDU during alignment. If the
position cannot be entered through the FMC CDU, it may be entered through the ISDU keyboard. At
major airports present position may be inserted into the CDU by inserting the appropriate Gate
number (providing the appropriate latitude and longitudes are stored in the database). The aeroplane
must remain stationary during alignment.
44. Normal alignment, between 7012 North and 7012 South Latitudes, is initiated by rotating
the IRS Mode Selector from OFF directly to the NAV position. The IRS performs a short DC power
test, during which the ON DC Light illuminates. When the ON DC Light extinguishes and the
ALIGN Light illuminates, the IRS has begun the alignment process. Aeroplane present position
should be entered at this time. The IRS will automatically enter the NAV mode after approximately
10 minutes, and the ALIGN Light will extinguish.
45. High latitude alignment, at latitudes between 7012 and 7815, requires an extended
alignment time. The Mode Selector must be left in the ALIGN position for 17 minutes, then rotated
to the NAV position. The IRS will then immediately enter the NAV mode.
46. Magnetic variation between 73 North and 60 South latitudes is stored in each IRS memory.
The data corresponding to the present position are combined with true heading to determine
magnetic heading.
Fast Realignment
47. During transit stops with brief ground times, a thirty-second realignment and zeroing of
ground speed error may be performed by selecting ALIGN from NAV while the aeroplane is parked.
Present position should be simultaneously updated by manually entering latitude and longitude prior
to reselecting NAV.
NOTE:
If the aeroplane is moved during alignment or fast realignment, (ALIGN light
illuminated), the IRSs automatically begin the full 10-minute alignment
process over again.
In-Flight
48. The FMC compares planning information with actual data from a number of other sources
(including required IRS inputs). With LNAV and VNAV engaged, the CDU displays allow the crew to
monitor proper FMS operation and flight progress. With LNAV and VNAV disengaged, the displays
are used for reference, allowing the crew to fly the selected route/profile either manually or with
conventional autoflight modes. The CDUs are also used to : provide what if previews of flight plan
options ; make revisions to the flight plan ; and provide reference data.
49. FMC navigational computations are bases upon an FMC position which is established using
radio inputs and/or IRS present position. The FMC position may be based upon IRS data only
(inertial/dead reckoning mode) ; however, available DME inputs are normally used to refine and
update the FMC position (radio/inertial mode). Just prior to take-off, the crew may set the FMC
position to a point on the departure runway via the CDU TAKEOFF REF page. Activation of the
TO/GA button updates the FMC to this position.
50. It should be noted that radio updating does not occur on the ground. Consequently,
navigation position error can accumulate in the FMC during transit. Fast realignment of the IRSs
with a new present position removes the errors. The errors will also be removed after take-off when
updating again becomes available.
51. With normal operation the DMEs are automatically tuned by the FMC. The stations to be
tuned are selected based upon the best available signals (in terms of geometry and strength) for
updating the FMC position, unless a specific station is required by the flight plan. Radio position is
determined by the intersection of two DME arcs. Manual selection/deselection of a particular DME
is possible via the MCDU.
52. If the DMEs fail, or if suitable DME stations are not available, FMC navigation is based upon
IRS position information only. The two VHF Nav Radios are used by the FMC for LOCALISER
updating during an ILS approach and by the crew for navigation monitoring.
NOTE:
The FMC is designed to automatically reject unreliable navaid data during
FMC position updating. However, in certain conditions, navaids which are in
error may satisfy the reasonableness criteria and provide the FMC with an
inaccurate radio position. One of the most vulnerable times is when a radio
position update occurs just after take-off. This is usually manifested in an
abrupt heading correction after engaging LNAV. The position shift can be seen
on the EHSI map which will shift the desired track and runway symbol to a
position significantly different from that displayed during the ground roll.
53. When radio updating is not available, the FMC uses the IRS position as a reference. This
mode of navigation is referred to as IRS NAV ONLY, and a message is displayed to warn the flight
crew that navigation accuracy may be less than required. During IRS NAV ONLY operation, the
FMC applies an automatic correction to the IRS position to determine the most probable FMC
position. This correction factor is developed by the FMC by monitoring IRS performance during
periods of radio updating to determine the IRS error. Flight crews should closely monitor FMC
navigation during periods of IRS NAV ONLY operation especially when approaching the
destination. The accuracy of the FMC navigation should be determined during the descent phase of
flight by using radio navaids and radar information if available.
NOTE:
Inaccurate radio updating may cause the FMC to deviate from the desired
track.
System Control
54. The crew may select any degree of automation desired. This can mean simply using the CDU
Data Displays for reference during manual flight, or using conventional autopilot functions, or
selecting full FMS operation with automatic flight path guidance and performance control.
55. Even with full FMS operation, management and operation of the aeroplane is always under
the total control of the flight crew. The flight crew should monitor FMC navigation throughout the
flight to ensure that the desired route is being accurately followed by the automatic systems.
Flight Director Systems
56. Flight director systems (FDS) integrate the information presented by traditional flight
instruments (artificial horizon, turn and bank, gyrocompass) with the information received from
external sources (VOR, DME, ILS, Radio Altimeter) to produce control commands. This achieves
more accurate flight guidance and control whilst reducing the pilots workload in terms of
monitoring and co-ordinating the many individual sources of information. The FDS presentation is
in the form of two displays, an attitude direction indicator (ADI) and a horizontal situation indicator
(HSI). The ADI presents flight guidance commands in pitch and roll, whilst the HSI presents the
navigational situation. The two displays are shown at Figure 12-7. Note the command bars on the
ADI shown at Figure 12-7. An alternative presentation of the command bars are shown on the ADI
57. The student may have difficulty in visualising the display movement of the ADI in
Figure 12-7, hence two diagrams are shown at Figure 12-8 which illustrate the use of the equipment.
The first diagram shows commands of 5 pitch up and a right turn; the second diagram shows both
commands having been satisfied and where 15 of right bank is displayed.
58. Flight director systems have existed for many years as analogue instruments, indeed it is an
analogue system which is shown at Figure 12-7. In this chapter we will subsequently consider a
system which employs modern glass cockpit technology and which therefore presents far more
information to the pilots.
FIGURE 12-7
Conventional
ADI and HSI
Displays
FIGURE 12-8
Examples of ADI
Indications
Electronic Display Systems
59. To display all the necessary information and data concerned with in-flight management of the
aircraft systems would demand a vast array of instrumentation, impossible for a typical two or three-
person flight-deck crew to comprehensively monitor. Furthermore, much of the data is only relevant
at certain flight phases or in particular circumstances and therefore need not be permanently
displayed.
60. This has led to the development of electronic display systems (the glass cockpit) in which the
data is processed and stored by large capacity computers and displayed as required on colour CRT
screens in either alphanumeric form or as symbols. The following colours are being recommended in
JAR 25 based on current-day common usage. Deviations may be approved with acceptable
justification.
(a) Display features should be colour coded as follows:
(b) Specified display features should be allocated colours from one of the following colour
sets:
Warnings
Flight envelope and system limits
Cautions, abnormal sources
Earth
Engaged modes
Sky
ILS deviation pointer
Flight director bar
Red
Red
Amber/Yellow
Tan/Brown
Green
Cyan/Blue
Magenta
Magenta/Green
(c) Precipitation and turbulence areas should be coded as follows:
(d) Background colour: Background colour may be used
(Grey or other shade) to enhance display presentation
Fixed reference symbols
Current data, values
Armed modes
Selected data, values
Selected heading
Active route/flight plan
Colour Set 1
White
White
White
Green
Magenta**
Magenta
Colour Set 2
Yellow*
Green
Cyan
Cyan
Cyan
White
The extensive use of the colour yellow for other than caution/
abnormal information is discouraged. In colour Set 1, magenta is
intended to be associated with those analogue parameters that
constitute fly to or keep centred type information.
Precipitation
Turbulence
0 - 1 mm/hr
1 - 4 "
4 - 12 "
12 - 50 "
Above 50 "
Black
Green
Amber/Yellow
Red
Magenta
White or Magenta
61. The screens can be arranged to display primary information on a continuous basis, with fault
or emergency information superimposed as necessary. Programmes of secondary information can be
called up and displayed when required.
62. The displayed data falls into two broad categories; navigational and aircraft systems.
63. The computer-generated electronic displays which show the navigational data are jointly
known as the Electronic Flight Instrument System (EFIS). The upper screen shows the ADI whilst the
lower screen shows the HSI, either in a format similar to that shown at Figure 12-7 or in one of the
pilot selectable formats subsequently discussed.
64. The computer-generated electronic displays which show the aircraft systems are jointly
known as either the Engine Indicating and Crew Alerting System (EICAS) or as Electronic
Centralised Aircraft Monitoring (ECAM). Basically, EICAS is a Boeing term whereas ECAM is an
Airbus term.
65. In the remainder of this section only the EFIS portion of the total electronic display system is
considered.
Electronic Flight Instrument Systems (EFIS)
66. EFIS displays information on two, approximately 5 inch square, screens for each pilot. One
screen corresponds to the ADI (attitude direction indicator) and the other to the HSI (horizontal
situation indicator), although the computer-generated displays convey far more navigation
information than is possible with the conventional electro-mechanical flight director system.
Figure 12-9 shows a typical interface between EFIS and signal inputs. These displays are capable of
presenting all of the necessary primary and secondary flight information.
67. Conventional (analogue) back-up pressure and gyro instruments are usually retained for
airspeed (ASI), altitude (pressure altimeter), pitch and bank (artificial horizon) and heading (direct
reading compass).
68. The symbol generators interface between the aircraft systems, the control panels and the
display screens. They perform the main control functions of the EFIS, including system monitoring
and generation of the digital and analogue displays on the electronic ADI (EADI) and electronic HSI
(EHSI) screens.
69. Appreciate that some manufacturers refer to the EADI as the primary display and to the EHSI
as the navigation display.
FIGURE 12-9
EFIS Interface
Diagram
The EFIS Control Panel
70. An example of a control panel is at Figure 12-10. Remote light sensors respond to ambient
flight-deck lighting levels and adjust the CRT displays accordingly to maintain optimum display
visibility. Display brightness can also be adjusted manually by brightness controls (BRT) on each half
of the pilots' EFIS control panel (EADI and EHSI). The buttons at the bottom of the panel (the EHSI
Map Mode Selector Switches) are illuminated when pressed to select on.
FIGURE 12-10
EFIS Control Panel
The EADI Screen
71. The upper (EADI) screen conventionally displays aircraft attitude in pitch and roll against a
shaded (raster-scanned) background, the upper half of which is coloured blue (cyan) and the lower
half yellow (or light brown). The source for the attitude data is the aircraft's inertial reference
system(s). The EADI also displays flight director command bars for roll and pitch commands, as well
as ILS localiser and glideslope deviation, selected airspeed deviation, ground speed, automatic flight
system and autothrottle system operating modes, radio altitude and decision height. A typical EADI
display is shown at Figure 12-11.
72. Radio altitude is displayed digitally between 2500 feet and 1000 feet agl, as shown in the top
right hand corner of the EADI at Figure 12-11. Below 1000 feet agl the display becomes analogue/
digital, again as illustrated at Figure 12-11. There is a decision height (DH) setting knob on the EFIS
control panel (Figure 12-10). At radio altitudes above 1000 feet the selected DH is displayed digitally
on the EADI (Figure 12-11). Below 1000 feet radio altitude the DH is displayed as a magenta
coloured marker on the circular analogue radio altimeter scale (Figure 12-11). As the aircraft
descends from 1000 feet radio altitude the white circular scale segments are progressively erased in
an anti-clockwise direction, so that the remaining 100 foot segments indicate the height above
ground. At 50 feet above the selected decision height an aural chime alert sounds with increasing
frequency until decision height is reached. The circular scale and marker then both change colour to
amber and flash for several seconds. This alert is manually cancelled by pressing a reset button on the
control panel (Figure 12-10).
FIGURE 12-11
Typical EADI
Display
73. Airspeed error above (F) or below (S) a selected airspeed is indicated by a magenta pointer
and scale on the left hand side of the EADI. Glideslope deviation is similarly displayed on the right
hand side of the screen. Localiser deviation is indicated by a magenta pointer and scale at the bottom
of the display. ILS localiser and glideslope deviations are emphasised by the appropriate pointer and
scale changing colour to amber. Bank and slip are conventionally displayed on a computer-generated
roll scale and ball-in-tube symbol at the bottom of the screen.
74. Since data inputs from systems such as ILS and the radio altimeter are vital to both the
displayed information and the automatic landing sequence, failure of these data inputs must be
annunciated. In EFIS displays this annunciation frequently takes the form of yellow flags painted on
the display screens.
The EHSI Screen
75. The lower (EHSI) screen presents a colour display of flight progress in one of nine modes.
These are selected on the EHSI section of the EFIS control panel (EHSI Mode Selector Switch) and
are MAP, CTR MAP, PLAN, FULL ILS, FULL VOR, FULL NAV, EXPANDED VOR, EXPANDED
ILS and EXPANDED NAV.
Map Mode
76. This is the display normally used for en-route navigation and is illustrated at Figure 12-12. It
provides a moving Map display which is orientated to the aircrafts present track, with the aircraft
symbol positioned at bottom centre and a 60 expanded arc of the compass rose positioned across
the top of the screen. Ground features such as navaids, airports and waypoints are shown in their
relative locations to a common scale (when selected on using the appropriate button(s) on the control
panel (Figure 12-9). The scale of the Map picture is selected on the EHSI section of the control panel
(the Range selector), which typically offers ranges of 10, 20, 40, 80, 160 and 320 nm. The weather
radar picture, generated in the standard colours of green, amber and red (with magenta in some
cases), can be superimposed on the display in the EXP VOR, EXP ILS, EXP NAV, CTR MAP and
MAP modes, again by pressing the WXR button on the control panel.
77. Heading information is obtained from the aircraft's inertial reference system(s). When
operated between the latitudes of 73N and 65S the compass rose is referenced to magnetic north or
true north, depending upon operator preference. Above these latitudes the compass rose is referenced
to true north only. Note however that the compass rose lubber line shows aircraft track and that the
heading pointer is off centre in conditions other than of zero drift.
78. Wind speed is displayed digitally, with an analogue display of wind direction in the form of
an arrow pointing in the appropriate direction. The wind arrow is oriented to the Map display,
which is in turn oriented to the aircraft track such that the vertical axis of the display is the aircraft
instantaneous track as shown at Figure 12-12. The wind velocity shown at Figure 12-12 is therefore
in the order of 225(M)/50 kt.
79. Lateral and vertical deviation from the planned flight path is indicated by pointers and scales
aligned horizontally and vertically on the edges of the display. The selected range scale is overlaid
vertically on the Map display, originating from the aircraft symbol. Distance and time to the next
waypoint is displayed digitally.
80. A trend vector extending from the apex of the aircraft symbol shows the predicted lateral
position at the end of 30, 60 and 90 second intervals based upon bank angle, groundspeed and
lateral acceleration. A range to altitude arc intersects the planned track and range scale at the point
where a selected target altitude will be reached at present rate of climb or descent.
81. With the EHSI in the map mode the screen is continuously displaying area navigation
information. The picture is generated by the appropriate signal generator using data provided by the
inertial navigation/inertial reference system and by the flight management system. The position of the
aircraft as determined by the INS/IRS will be continuously monitored and updated by the FMS using
fixing data received from in-range VOR/DME stations which are automatically selected by the FMS.
The FMS selects stations to achieve optimum fix geometry, two DME range arcs at 90 to each other
being the ideal. Obviously the automatic update aspect of the area navigation function will cease
when the aircraft flies out of VOR/DME coverage. Manual update of the INS/IRS position is possible
but should not normally be necessary.
FIGURE 12-12
Map Mode Display
CTR MAP Mode
82. Displays the same data and symbols as the MAP mode, but the aeroplane symbol is placed in
the centre of the map area so that MAP information behind the aeroplane is displayed.
Plan Mode
83. Figure 12-13 shows the display generated when plan mode is selected. On the lower part of
the screen the active route is displayed, but now it is oriented to true north. Track and heading
information is on an expanded compass rose but now the lubber line shows heading with the track
mark off centre in conditions other than of zero drift. Again distance and time to the next waypoint
shown digitally. Wind speed and direction is not displayed in this mode and weather radar returns
cannot be superimposed. It is a useful display mode for checking route changes as they are selected at
the keyboard and before they are entered into the Flight Management System (FMS) computer.
FIGURE 12-13
Plan Mode Display
VOR and ILS Modes
84. These are illustrated at Figure 12-14 and Figure 12-15 respectively. They may be presented as
a full compass rose display with conventional heading and course deviation indications, or as an
expanded compass rose display upon which the weather radar picture may be superimposed on a
semi-map picture with the selected range scale displayed. In either case wind speed and direction
and system source (ILS or VOR) are annunciated.
85. In expanded VOR and ILS modes (and, indeed, in Map mode) a dotted line appears from the
apex of the aircraft symbol to the heading bug for a few seconds following the selection of a new set
heading. The aircraft's instantaneous (current) track is displayed as a solid line extending from the
apex of the aircraft symbol to the compass scale arc. Bearing of the selected radio navaid is shown by
a solid line extending from the centre bar of the lateral deviation scale to the compass arc.
FIGURE 12-14
VOR Mode
Display
FIGURE 12-15
ILS Mode Display
Expanded NAV Mode
86. Displays lateral and vertical navigation guidance information similar to a conventional HSI.
The FMC is the source of the navigation data. Weather Radar return data is displayed when the
WXR Switch is On.
Full NAV Mode
87. Displays same data as expanded navigation mode with the following exceptions:
Weather Radar displays are not available
A full compass rose is shown in place of the expanded compass rose.
Backup Data Inputs
88. In most systems the pilots can, independently of eachother, connect their respective EADI and
EHSI displays to alternate sources of input data. For example, should a symbol generator fail on the
left hand side, the captain can duplicate the information shown on the right hand screens. The same
can be done in the event of the failure of either left or right air data computers (ADC) or flight
management computers (FMC). In an aircraft equipped with three inertial reference systems (IRS),
number one IRS would normally supply the captains EFIS and number two IRS the first officers
EFIS. In the event that either of these IRS were to fail, number three IRS can be selected to replace
the failed system. These selections are made on a source selector switch panel.
EFIS Symbology
89. Examples and descriptions of EFIS symbols are given in the tables at Figure 12-16 to
Figure 12-25.
90. The following symbols may be displayed on each EHSI depending on EFIS Control Panel
selections. General colour presentation is as follows:
GREEN (G) Indicates active or selected mode and/or dynamic conditions
WHITE (W) Indicates present status situation and scales
MAGENTA (M)
(pink)
Indications command information, pointers, symbols, and
fly-to conditions, weather radar turbulence
CYAN (C) (blue) Indicates non-active and background information
RED (R) Indicates warning
YELLOW (Y) Indicates cautionary information, faults, flags
BLACK (B) Indicates blank areas, off condition
FIGURE 12-16
EFIS Symbology
FIGURE 12-17
EFIS Symbology
FIGURE 12-18
EFIS Symbology
FIGURE 12-19
EFIS Symbology
FIGURE 12-20
EFIS Symbology
FIGURE 12-21
EFIS Symbology
FIGURE 12-22
EFIS Symbology
FIGURE 12-23
EFIS Symbology
FIGURE 12-24
EFIS Symbology
FIGURE 12-25
EFIS Symbology
Weather Radar Displays and Annunciations
91. Figure 12-12 shows weather radar returns with the EHSI selected to MAP. Figure 12-14 and
Figure 12-15 show weather radar returns with the EHSI selected to expanded VOR and ILS modes.
92. The weather radar returns are colour coded red for the most intense returns, yellow for lesser
intensity and green for lowest intensity.
93. The radar has three (and possibly four) modes; test, weather (WX), (possibly) weather plus
turbulence (WX + T) and MAP.
94. The test mode checks the hardware and paints a predetermined pattern on the screen to
assure the operator that the various colours are being properly produced by the EFIS symbol
generators.
95. The weather mode symbology is as described in the table at Figure 12-25.
96. If incorporated, the weather plus turbulence mode introduces a fourth colour (magenta) onto
the weather paint in areas of suspected high turbulence, which the radar determines by identifying
the areas of greatest rate of change of target intensity. This is likely to coincide with the area of
greatest rate of change of vertical velocity of the air, and therefore of greatest turbulence.
97. The map mode employs a vertically broad beam to paint the land/sea surface ahead of the
aircraft.
98. When the system is operating normally the radar operating mode (WX, WX + T or MAP, but
not test, as this is self evident) is displayed in the top right corner of the HSI, together with the tilt
angle of the scanner. These are not shown at Figure 12-12, Figure 12-14 or Figure 12-15.
99. In the event that anything goes wrong with the weather radar, the pilot is informed by means
of a message which appears towards the bottom left hand corner of the HSI. These messages are
typically as follows, but will vary slightly from one system to another:
VOR/DME Area Navigation (RNAV)
100. The simplest type of B-RNAV system (used in general aviation) is based on azimuth and
distance information from a VOR/DME. It is also called the RHO-THETA system. With this system
the pilot effectively moves or off-sets the VOR/DME to any desired location if it is within reception
range. This phantom station is created by setting the distance (RHO) and the bearing (THETA) of
the waypoint from a convenient VOR/DME in the appropriate windows of the waypoint selector. A
series of these phantom stations or waypoints make up an RNAV route.
WXR FAIL Indicates weather radar has failed (no weather data
displayed).
WXR WEAK Indicates weather radar calibration fault.
WXR ATT Indicates loss of attitude input for antenna.
WXR STAB Indicates antenna stabilization is selected off.
WXR DSPY Indicates loss of Display Unit cooling or an overheat
condition of the HSI. Weather radar display is blanked.
101. Figure 12-26 illustrates how a VOR/DME RNAV is used to navigate from A to B on a direct
route. This route crosses the 180 radial 23 NM south of the ALPHA VOR/DME. Therefore, the
pilot sets waypoint 1 as 180/23 on the control panel. Waypoint 2 is 15 NM from BRAVO VOR/
DME on the 360 radial, or 360/15 on the panel. Waypoint 3 is 360/22. The direct route from A to B
is 191 NM, 24 NM less than the airways route
FIGURE 12-26
VOR/DME RNAV
Principle of
Operation
102. The pilot could also place waypoint 3 on the destination airport, allowing navigation from
waypoint 2 direct to B. The DME readout would give a constant indication of the remaining distance
to the destination. The pilot would specify waypoint 3 as 064/49 (based on the CHARLIE VOR/
DME). The RNAV computer carries out these vector solutions continuously and displays the
appropriate information on the aircrafts Horizontal Situation Indicator (HSI), Course Deviation
Indicator (CDI) and Radio Magnetic Indicator (RMI) such that the aircraft can be flown to any
waypoint along a direct track.
103. Simple B-RNAV equipments use the input from one VOR/DME at a time, whereas more
sophisticated B-RNAV systems use two or more VOR/DME stations for more accurate position
resolution. You will recall that modern Flight Management Systems (FMS) are programmed with the
location of each VOR/DME (and ILS/DME) and are capable of automatic selection of the most
suitable beacons for any planned route fed into the FMS computer programme.
Advantages
104. The main advantage of the VOR/DME (B-RNAV) system is that it enables the pilot to fly
direct to a given location, or a series of locations, using ground stations which are not situated at
those locations. Full use of the available airspace can therefore be made subject to the availability of
phantom way-points. Please note that phantom stations can only be defined within the range of the
VOR/DME stations adjacent to the RNAV route.
Errors
105. The use of a VOR in a B-RNAV solution outside of the designated operational coverage
(DOC) can lead to serious navigational errors. This is particularly to be noted when using more than
one VOR/DME in the B-RNAV configuration, when it is virtually impossible for the pilot to
positively identify which beacon is currently being used by the B-RNAV equipment, and therefore to
establish whether or not the information being produced is reliable.
106. Accuracy is, of course, no better than the accuracy of VOR ( 5) and DME ( nm plus
1.25% of slant range). Close to the DME ground transponder the error due to slant range will be
greatest, similarly any deflection of a VOR radial will have an adverse effect on the RNAV computed
position.
B-RNAV Control and Display Unit
FIGURE 12-27
Typical RNAV
control and display
unit
107. Figure 12-27 shows an example of a B-RNAV control and display unit (CDU). The controls
consist of a Mode Selector Switch, a Display Selector Switch and a Keyboard.
108. The Mode Selector determines in which of three modes the equipment operates the aircrafts
HSI steering commands.
VOR/LOC. Conventional navigation in which the ground station is the waypoint and bearing
to/from is a VOR radial.
RNAV. The waypoints are not at the ground station position. The computer generates range
and bearing from an offset VOR/DME. Within 100 nm range the HSI deviation indication is linear
with full-scale deflection at 5 nm left or right of track (i.e. 2nm/dot). Beyond 100 nm the deviation
indication is angular (degrees left or right of track).
APR (Approach). The mode of operation is the same as for RNAV, but with linear deviation up
to 25 nm range and full-scale deflection at 1.25 nm left or right of track. This mode will provide
enhanced steering command accuracy for approaches to a non-beaconed location.
The TEST function produces a specific display.
The Display Selector controls the numerical displays of the CDU.
SBY. Standby waypoint information in terms of station frequency, bearing and range from the
preceding waypoint, station elevation x 100 ft and course is displayed.
ACT. Active (in-use) waypoint information is displayed to the same parameters as SBY.
BRG/DST. Displays bearing and range to the in-use waypoint in RNAV and APR mode by
solving first the slant range triangle (hence the need for station elevation) and then the RNAV
triangle. In VOR/LOC mode bearing and range displayed is to the VOR/DME station.
KTS/TTS. Displays groundspeed (in BRG/KTS window) and time-to-station in minutes (in DST/
TTS window). In RNAV and APR the time is to waypoint; in VOR/LOC it is to VOR/DME ground
location.
The course display may be either inbound or outbound; either IN or OUT will be illuminated next to
the CRS window as appropriate.
Data may be entered into the computer by means of the keyboard or by prepared magnetic card, and
a card reader.
Mandatory Carriage of RNAV Equipment
109. What follows is a summary of the relevant parts of UK AIC 148/1997 (Yellow 280).
110. RNAV has been identified as the future navigation system in the ICAO European region.
This will in the future mean that routes (airways, upper ATS routes, advisory routes and arrival and
departure routes) will not necessarily be constrained to run between point source navigation aids
(principally VOR/DMEs). Straightening airways and other routes (by making it unecessary to fly
between one VOR/DME and the next) will result in considerable fuel savings for operators.
111. It should be noted that, currently, the primary source of the position data for B-RNAV is
VOR/DME. Alternatives, including GPS, have been accepted by the Joint Aviation Authorities (JAA)
as a source of B-RNAV position data.
112. Many aircraft operating within European airspace are required to carry suitable RNAV
equipment (basic or otherwise) with effect from 23
rd
April 1998. Note that the requirement to carry
VOR, DME and ADF equipments remains unchanged.
B-RNAV Implementation - ECAC Airspace
113. With effect from 23 April 1998, the carriage of B-RNAV equipment approved for RNP 5
operations will become mandatory on the entire ATS Route Network in the ECAC area including
designated feeder routes (SIDs and STARs) in/out of notified TMAs.
114. As of 23 April 1998, aircraft, other than State aircraft operating on the ATS Routes, above
the lowest applicable flight level as published by States, shall be equipped with, as a minimum,
RNAV equipment meeting RNP 5 in accordance with the requirements set out in ICAO Doc 7030
Regional Supplementary Procedures (EUR. RAC section 15).
Note: The lowest applicable flight level might vary throughout the 36 ECAC States, but none are
known to be mandating B-RNAV below FL 100, and many will accord with the UK.
115. As of 23 April 1998 no exemptions, other than for contingency situations, will be given,
regardless of whether such exemptions were offered in earlier AICs by some States.
116. Operators of aircraft fitted with RNAV equipment having a navigation accuracy meeting
RNP 5 shall insert the designator letter "R" in Item 10 of the Flight Plan.
117. Having the capability to operate on RNP 5 routes defined by VOR/DME does not imply that
the aircraft is suitably equipped to operate on B-RNAV routes in the ECAC area.
118. The Eurocontrol RNAV Standard Doc 003-93, Area Navigation Equipment Operational
Requirements and Functional Requirements (RNAV), defines the functional requirements for B-
RNAV equipment.
B-RNAV in UK Airspace
119. Within UK Airspace, for an as yet unspecified period of time but in accordance with the
decision of many of our European neighbours, B-RNAV will be implemented only above FL 95 (the
lowest FL at which carriage of B-RNAV equipment will be mandatory is FL 100).
120. Moreover, for an as yet unspecified period, mandatory B-RNAV procedures will not be
applied to any designated feeder routes (SIDs and STARs) in/out of UK TMAs.
121. These indeterminate times will be reviewed periodically in the light of the future ATS Route s
planning.
UK ATS Routes
122. Historically ATS Routes have been delineated by ground based navigation aids (today
predominately by VORs). From 23 April 1998 all ATS Routes in the UK will be defined by WGS 84
geographical points which may not be coincident with a VOR. This has the advantage that if a VOR
is moved or withdrawn, the alignment of the ATS Route can remain unchanged. No immediate
realignments of ATS Routes are envisaged due to the mandate of B-RNAV.
123. In the introduction to the ATS Route Catalogue published in the new UK AIP, a statement of
the Required Navigation Performance (RNP) will be given, together with an explanation as to how
this will be applied. Although in general UK ATS Routes will be available for non RNAV equipped
aircraft operating below FL 100, certain UK ATS Routes will be RNAV Routes at all flight levels. A
method of readily identifying such routes will be published. Where appropriate, notes relating to
individual ATS Routes will be amended.
124. Route designators are allocated according to Annex 11 to the Convention on International
Civil Aviation. The allocation of international route designators in ECAC States is arranged through
ICAO EUR (Paris) and co-ordinated by the Route Network Development Sub-Group (RNDSG) of
Eurocontrol. There are currently insufficient RNAV designators to retitle all RNAV routes and
arrangements are being co-ordinated through ICAO to resolve this shortfall.
125. For practical operational reasons, and on safety grounds, it is inappropriate to change all
designators at the same time. Therefore, the re-designation of routes will be introduced in phases.
As a consequence, in the medium term, a mixture of conventional and RNAV designators will be
used in the UK even though all ATS Routes will be RNAV above FL 95. Precedence for change will
be given to those ATS Routes whose alignment is changed and to those requiring international co-
ordination.
Certification and Approval Requirements
126. To be eligible for B-RNAV operations, on-board navigation equipment will be required to
provide en-route lateral track keeping accuracy of +/- 5 nm or better for 95% of the flight time (RNP
5).
127. The JAA has published TGL No 2, rev 1, giving certification and approval guidelines for B-
RNAV installation. This TGL is acceptable to the UK CAA and may be used as a certification basis.
128. For UK operators and UK registered aircraft the only approval required under the ANO is
that B-RNAV equipment and its installation in the aircraft have been approved in respect of any
aircraft or specified class or category of aircraft or in respect of a specified type or types of equipment
(ANO Article 43). No separate operational approvals are required.
Provision of Navigational Infrastructure
129. Provision of a navigation infrastructure, which will enable users to achieve the required
navigation accuracy, will remain the responsibility of States.
130. Until at least 2005, ECAC member States will continue to provide the VOR/DME
infrastructure necessary to enable operators to meet the required system use accuracy. Operators
should be aware that DME is expected to become the primary source of position information in the
ECAC area and the maintenance of VOR beyond 2005 may not be guaranteed (ICAO
Implementation Strategy of the Future Air Traffic Management Systems in the European Region
(FEATS), Part 2, paragraph 2.2.2 refers).
Responsibility of Operators
131. The navigation system accuracy achievable by an RNAV system is dependent upon both the
airspace infrastructure and the airborne equipment. It is the responsibility of the operator to ensure
that the required system accuracy can be achieved when planning to operate in designated B-RNAV
Airspace.
Note: Where position derived from GPS is the only input to the RNAV system it is incumbent upon
operators to confirm that the necessary coverage from GPS is provided for the intended flight (JAA
TGL No 2 rev 1 paragraph 5.2 refers).
NOTE:
(THIS IS THE END OF THE RADIO NAVIGATION SYLLABUS)
Doppler
Doppler Effect
Doppler Frequency Shift Calculations
Airborne Doppler Systems
Single-beam Systems
Two-beam Systems
Three-beam systems
Four-beam Janus System
Features of the Janus System
Beam Shape
Doppler Errors
Accuracy
Airborne Equipment
Other Doppler Applications
Doppler
13Doppler
1. The Doppler principle is used to establish the relative speed of a moving object by
measurement of a received radio frequency and the determination of the difference between the
transmitted and the received frequencies. Practical examples of its use are Moving Target Indication
(MTI) systems in surveillance radars, Doppler VOR and the measurement of an aircrafts drift and
groundspeed.
Doppler Effect
2. Doppler effect takes its name from the nineteenth century Austrian physicist Christian
Doppler, who predicted it in connection with light waves. It is based upon the principle that a
received frequency will only be the same as the transmitted frequency provided there is no relative
movement between receiver and transmitter. Let us consider a simple example.
3. Suppose you are at the seaside standing knee-deep in the sea. The waves are rolling in at the
rate of one every five seconds so you will be receiving a cold slap in the belly at that frequency
once every five seconds.
4. If you now walk forward into the sea the waves will strike you with increased frequency
because the relative velocity between you (the receiver) and the sea (the transmitter) is positive ie:
you are moving towards each other. The faster you move, the greater the frequency with which the
waves will strike you, although their rate of transmission (transmission frequency) hasnt changed.
Thus, it can be seen that the difference between transmitted and received frequencies is directly
proportional to the relative velocity between receiver and transmitter.
Doppler
5. If you were to walk backwards out of the sea, the frequency with which the waves struck you
would be less than once every five seconds ie: lower than the transmitted frequency, because
relative velocity is now negative.
6. Exactly the same principle applies to soundwaves (sonic frequencies), radio waves (radio
frequencies) and, for that matter, light waves (above radio frequency). If a train, sounding its
whistle, is moving towards an observer, the pitch of the whistle tone sounds high to the observer
because there is positive relative velocity between the two, so the received frequency is higher than
the transmitted frequency. As the train passes the observer the apparent pitch of the whistle tone
falls sharply, as the relative velocity becomes first zero and then negative.
7. The difference between the received frequency and the transmitted frequency is known as the
Doppler Shift, or beat frequency.
Doppler
FIGURE 13-1
The Doppler
Principle
8. At Figure 13-1 the principle is considered diagramatically. Transmitter A is moving in
relation to two stationary receivers, B and C. The distance between the wave fronts passing receiver
C is decreased, therefore since effective wavelength has decreased, apparent (received) frequency
must have been increased. Conversely, the received frequency at B will be lower than the transmitted
at A.
Doppler
Doppler Frequency Shift Calculations
9. The difference between the transmitted frequency and the received frequency is known as the
Doppler frequency shift and is directly proportional to the relative velocity between transmitter and
receiver. If the range between the transmitter and receiver is decreasing, the Doppler shift will be
positive (the frequency received will be higher than the frequency transmitted). Conversely if the
range between the transmitter and receiver is increasing, the Doppler shift will be negative.
10. The formula for calculating Doppler shift is a simple one. The formula states that:
Where
Ds = Doppler shift (Hz)
S = The relative speed (metres/second) between transmitter and receiver
TX
= The wavelength of the transmitted signal (metres)
Ds
S
TX
---------- =
Doppler
EXAMPLE 13-1
EXAMPLE
A stationary transmitter is producing a signal at frequency of 5 GHz. A receiver is
moving directly towards the transmitter at 600 km/hr. Determine the Doppler shift.
SOLUTION
=
=
=
=
=
Ds
=
=
S (metres / second)
600 km/hr 1000
60 60
-------------------------------------------
167 metres/second
tx
(metres) C
F
--- -
3
8
10
5
9
10
--------------
0.06 m (or 6 cm)
167 m/sec
0.06 m
------------------------
2783 Hz and the shift is positive
Doppler
EXAMPLE 13-2
EXAMPLE
A transmitter is moving straight towards a stationary receiver and is transmitting at a frequency
of 10 GHz. The measured Doppler shift at the receiver is +5 KHz. Determine the speed in knots
of the transmitter.
SOLUTION
= C
F
=
= 0.03 m (or 3 cm)
S =
=
(5 x 10
3
) x 0.03 m
=
= 150 x 1.95 kt
= 292 kt
Tx (metres)
3
8
10
10
9
10
-----------------
Ds Tx
150 m/sec
Doppler
Airborne Doppler Systems
11. In an airborne Doppler system the transmitted energy must be directed downward to strike
the ground beneath the aircraft as in Figure 13-2.
FIGURE 13-2
Beam Depression
in a Typical
Doppler System
12. The amount by which the beam is depressed is inevitably a compromise; a large angle ensures
adequate returned signal but a low scaling factor (ie doppler shift per knot very low), whereas a small
angle gives a better scaling factor but less returned signal. Values chosen practically vary between
60 and 70. (see Figure 13-2).
Doppler
Choice of Frequency
13. As the transmitted frequency is increased, the doppler shift for a particular groundspeed
increases. A rule of thumb is that the doppler shift is 34 Hz per 100 MHz of transmitted frequency
per 100 kts groundspeed, multiplied by the cosine of the depression angle for a single beam system as
in Figure 13-2. Two bands of frequencies are allocated for airborne doppler use, 8,750-8,850 MHz
and 13,250-13,400 MHz.
Beam Arrangements
FIGURE 13-3
Principle of
Operation of a
Single-Beam
Doppler System
Doppler
Single-beam Systems
14. The finite horizontal beam width of the emitted beam causes not one discreet doppler
frequency, but a whole spectrum to be observed at the receiver. With reference to Figure 13-3, the
centre of the beam AB is pointing along track and the doppler shift reduces towards the edges of the
beam (at points A and B the doppler shifts are equal).
15. The shift observed from beam CD, pointing off track by , varies throughout the beam width.
16. Hence the nature of the returned signal will change if the beam is swept in azimuth. The
mean doppler shift is maximum and the width of the frequency spectrum minimum if the beam is
pointing along the track. As the beam is turned off track the mean doppler shift decreases and the
spectrum broadens.
17. It is possible to utilise these phenomena in a simple single-beam doppler system. The beam
could be rotated until Ds was maximum, drift noted and groundspeed computed, the parameters of
the radar being known. This would be a crude and inaccurate system and is not used in practice, but
the property of the changing width of frequency spectrum can be utilised in a practical drift-sensor.
Doppler
Two-beam Systems
FIGURE 13-4
Fixed, Two-Beam
Doppler System
Doppler
FIGURE 13-5
Moving, Two-Beam
Doppler System
18. The doppler shifts observed in two beams can be combined to give an automatic derivation of
drift and groundspeed. The beams may be fixed to the aircraft axes as in Figure 13-4 or rotated in
azimuth as in Figure 13-5; the beams also could be fixed but have the same general layout as in
Figure 13-5.
19. The two-beam Doppler system, works well in hovercraft (Marconi and Ryan both produce
working systems). Here the two fixed beams are directed into the wake that exists behind the craft.
The beams are depressed by a shallow angle of about 45 to give a high scaling factor and make the
system accuracy comparatively unsusceptible to pitch changes.
Doppler
Three-beam systems
20. A third beam could be directed, say, vertically down to sense and eliminate errors due to
vertical motion, but such systems are not generally used. Many modern dopplers are in fact three-
beam systems, but take the form of a Janus four-beam system (see below) in which one beam, being
redundant is removed.
Four-beam Janus System
21. The four-beam system, known as the Janus system after the Roman god portrayed with two
faces looking in opposite directions, has beams looking both forward and backward. The aerial may
be rotatable in azimuth or fixed.
Doppler
FIGURE 13-6
Moving Janus
Beam Layout
Doppler
Moving Aerial
22. The general layout of a moving Janus system is shown in Figure 13-6. The frequency received
from beam A is mixed with that received from C. The frequency observed from A will be higher than
the transmitted frequency by Ds (A) and that received from C will be lower than the transmitted
frequency by the same amount. Hence the total doppler shift, Ds (A C), will be twice that
observed in either A or C separately. The aerial is initially rotated in azimuth until Ds (A-C) = Ds (B-
D); it is then aligned with track and the angle between the fore and aft axis of the aircraft and the
aerial will represent drift.
Doppler
FIGURE 13-7
Fixed 3-Beam
Janus Layout
Doppler
Fixed Aerial
23. Some lightweight doppler systems have a fixed Janus aerial employing only three beams, as
depicted in Figure 13-7. If the doppler shift is derived individually from each beam it is possible to
determine aircraft velocity along all three axes by the subsequent doppler mixing.
Fixed vs Moving Aerial
24. Similar information is available from moving four-beam and fixed three-beam systems, but
for a compact and comparatively reliable and robust system with an almost-instantaneous response
to aircraft flight path changes (essential for a helicopter doppler) the fixed aerial is far more suitable
than the moving type. A moving aerial may give better accuracy, however, as mentioned later.
Features of the Janus System
25. Almost all airborne dopplers use Janus aerials. The advantages of this system over a single-
ended system are discussed below.
Doppler Frequency Measurement
26. The doppler frequency shift from a Janus aerial is twice that from a single-ended system.
Hence scaling-factors (Hz per knot) can be made correspondingly larger, with an increase in possible
accuracy of measurement of doppler frequency and hence speed.
Doppler
Transmitter Instability
27. It can be proven that, within certain limits, the doppler shift as seen by a Janus array is
independent of transmitter frequency (ie: transmitter frequency stability is not so much of a problem
in this equipment).
Vertical Motion
28. Any vertical motion being experienced by an aircraft will affect both the forward and
rearward beams of a Janus array by the same amount and in the same sense. When the two
frequencies are subtracted from each other any component of doppler shift due to the vertical motion
of the aircraft is cancelled out.
Doppler
FIGURE 13-8
Effect of Pitch
Changes on a
Janus Array
Doppler
Pitch Changes
29. With reference to Figure 13-8 it can be shown that any pitch change causes a greater
depression of one beam, with an associated reduction of Ds, but reduces the depression of the other,
increasing Ds in that beam. This causes very little total error in measured groundspeed.
Beam Shape
30. The description of the doppler beams so far has assumed pencil beams depressed by in a
vertical plane and displaced by in a horizontal plane, both with respect to the aerial axis. In
practice the beams are produced by linear arrays, and are conical about the waveguide axis. The
semi-angle of the cone is defined as the depression angle, and usually denoted by .
Doppler
FIGURE 13-9
Practical Doppler
Beam Shape

Doppler
FIGURE 13-10
Pattern of
Isodops
produced by
Doppler
31. Naturally only parts of the conical beam are used, as shown in Figure 13-9, but at what ever
range and angle these beams strike that surface beneath the aircraft, the doppler shift will always be
proportional to cos . Where the cone cuts a plain surface beneath the aircraft, a hyperbola of equal
doppler shift, or isodop is formed, as shown in Figure 13-10. The beam width along the isodop will
not affect the doppler shift, and the aerial may be rolled with no affect on the doppler frequency; the
beams simply roll along the isodops. Hence very rarely are doppler aerials roll-stabilised, although
there is obviously a limit to the amount of roll with which a system can cope due to lifting of the
uppermost beam. It is not always correct to say that roll does not affect the doppler shift; if there is
drift and roll and/or pitch present the beams are rolled about the aircraft axis and not the aerial axis
and do not follow the isodops, causing a small error. This is discussed under Errors.
Doppler
Doppler Errors
32. Having mentioned the principles of doppler it is now possible to consider how errors may be
introduced into the final output. The main sources of error are discussed below.
Doppler
Sea or Terrain Bias
FIGURE 13-11
Response Curves
for Varying
Depression Angles
and Surfaces
Doppler
FIGURE 13-12
Received
Frequency
Spectrum - Land
vs Water
Doppler
33. It is normally assumed that the amplitude of the doppler frequency spectrum is symmetrical
about its central frequency. With reference to Figure 13-11 it can be seen that over land this
assumption is reasonable. The figure indicates that over land the radar cross section per unit area
will be virtually constant over a typical 4 depression beam-width centered between 60 and 70.
Over sea, however, the curves have a pronounced slope and even over a fairly rough sea (B4) a beam
depressed by, say, 67 would have quite different amplitudes returned from points 65 and 69. The
spectrum will now be unsymmetrical as indicated in Figure 13-12 and any form or tracker will track
a frequency lower than that tracked over land.
FIGURE 13-13
Sea Bias Error
Values
34. The sea bias error, values of which are shown in Figure 13-13, is proportional to the square
of the depression beam width. To minimise the error one must have either a very narrow depression
beam-width (eg Marconi AD 560, AD 570) or incorporate a Land/Sea switch that alters the effective
scaling factor to suit conditions (eg Decca 62M, 67M).
Depression
Beamwidth
% Error Under Read
Beaufort 2 Beaufort 4
2 0.26 0.18
3 0.56 0.41
4 1.00 0.72
5 1.58 1.13
6 2.30 1.63
Doppler
Sea Movement Error
35. Dopplers measure velocity relative to the terrain below the aircraft. If the sea beneath the
aircraft is moving, its motion must be considered when deriving position from the doppler
information. Sea movement takes two basic forms mentioned below:
Tidal Flow
36. Tidal flow is normally less than 2 kt. It may be corrected-for, with knowledge of local
situations, by applying a down-stream vector to the indicated doppler position. Tidal streams may
reach up to 10 kt in narrow channels but these conditions are unlikely to affect an aircraft for any
appreciable time.
Doppler
FIGURE 13-14
Typical Drift
Correction
Graphs
Doppler
Water Transport
37. Although wave motion basically involves vertical motion only, wind across the surface of
water causes eddies with motion downwind on the surface and upwind below the surface. The
doppler energy is reflected by the surface, and hence measurements are made relative to this moving
surface. Correction can be made by correcting the ground position with a downwind vector using
surface wind direction and one-fifth surface wind amplitude; maximum amplitude should represent a
6 kt correction (eg for 30 kts and above). Both groundspeed and drift are likely to be in error; an
example of a drift correction graph is shown in Figure 13-14. Some equipments have facilities for
setting in surface wind corrections and hence indicating corrected ground position.
Flight Path and Pitch Change Errors
38. Errors due to combinations of flight path and pitch changes have been covered previously. In
short, the errors are very small if a Janus aerial is used, hence many systems have aerials unstabilised
in pitch. Gyro stabilisation should completely eliminate errors, flight path stabilisation should
almost eliminate them; data stabilisation implies compensating for errors in the computer accepting
the raw doppler output.
Doppler
Roll Error
39. Roll normally has little effect on doppler accuracy. With a moving aerial the effect of roll is
to move the beams along the isodops, causing no error. A very small error in drift will result
however, if much drift is present; the isodops are symmetrical about aircraft track but the beams roll
about aircraft heading. This situation applies equally to fixed aerial systems. Roll can have a lot of
effect on the ability of a doppler to remain locked-on to returned signals; this is due to lifting of the
uppermost beams to produce large incidence angles. The most critical situation is naturally at high
level over a calm sea. Operational limitations are often stated as maximum roll angles Vs height. Eg
30 at 20,000 ft and 20 at 40,000 ft (Decca 62 M).
Drift Error
40. The presence of large drift angles will have no detrimental effect on the accuracy of a moving
aerial system within its limits.
Height Error
41. Height errors exist due to the fact that the doppler measures spacial velocity (if at height) and
not the velocity with which the ground passes at a point immediately beneath the aircraft.
42. The groundspeed and distance indicators will overread at height with respect to the rate at
which the surface is moving horizontally at a point vertically below the aircraft. The indicators do,
however, give correct spatial velocity. The error is small, about 0.2% at 40,000 ft, but may well be
larger than any other inaccuracies in a modern doppler. It should be compensated for on a long leg
at high level. Values for the error are given in Figure 13-15.
Doppler
FIGURE 13-15
Height Error
Correction Figures
Height-Hole Error
43. The discussion so far has centred around pulsed Doppler Systems however a CW system is the
most efficient possible as regards utilisation of transmitted power. This system requires separate
transmit and receive aerials, however, and in the past considerable difficulty has arisen from the
presence of unwanted cross-coupling between transmitter and receiver. Frequency modulation has
been used as solution to the unwanted cross-coupling that can occur in a pure CW system.
Theoretically duplex operation is possible with a single aerial, but practically this has not been
achieved.
Doppler
44. If the round-trip path-length travelled by an FMCW transmission is an integral number of
modulating wavelengths there will be no output when the received signal is mixed with a sample of
the transmitted signal. At these points, height-holes or altitude-gaps, the doppler will cease to
function.
45. The height-hole problem may be overcome in two ways :
(a) Wobbulation If the modulation wavelength is continuously changed an aircraft will
not remain in a condition of no signal for any appreciable time. The process of
continuously changing the modulating frequency (fm) is wobbulation. As an
example, the Marconi AD 2300 has an fm of 200 kHz wobbulated by 16% at 10
cycles per minute.
(b) Broadside Beamwidth If the broadside beam width of a doppler is made large, a
height-hole occurring in one part of the beam will tend to be masked by returns
coming from elsewhere in the beam at different slant ranges.
Other Errors
46. Variation in waveguide dimensions is a source of error not mentioned; current engineering
practice, however, gives errors in cos of a small fraction of 0.1%. Accurate aerial alignment in
azimuth is important if systematic errors are to be avoided. Alignment is normally better than 0.1.
Accuracy
47. Current Doppler equipments give accuracy figures in the order <0.1% in distance gone and
<0.2 in drift ; in other words, the along track error is much smaller than the across track error and
this will result in an elliptical shape of position errors.
Doppler
Airborne Equipment
48. Figure 13-16 and Figure 13-17 show a typical Doppler Aerial installation and flight deck
display as used on many older aircraft types. The associated control panel (not shown) is very simple
to operate and has 3 separate switches, the functions of which are described below:
(i) Power OFF/STBY/ON. Selecting the power to STBY allows the equipment
to warm up to normal operating temperature whilst on the ground, but does
not allow the TX to transmit until the power on selection is made, shortly
after the aircraft has passed V
R
.
(ii) 4 position slew switch. Two of the positions on this switch are used for
moving (inching) the drift to its calculated value at the point where the TX is
switched on ; the other two positions provide the same function in terms of
groundspeed. In other words the slew switch is used to inch the drift and
groundspeed values to approximately the correct values on take-off such that
the equipment can lock-on to the appropriate signal and hopefully thereafter
track both parameters automatically. In the event of insufficient signal being
received during flight, the slew switch can be used to set DR values of drift and
groundspeed on the display until such time as the signal is regained.
(iii) Land/Sea switch. The purpose of the Land/Sea switch is described in
paragraph 34.
49. The student should note that there are two flags that could appear on the display unit shown
in Figure 13-17; a yellow / black striped flag appears if the power supply to the equipment fails, and
a white flag with the letter M will appear whenever the received signal strength has fallen below a
pre-set level and the equipment has reverted to memory mode (i.e. frozen display values).
Doppler
FIGURE 13-16
Typical Aerial
Installation
Doppler
FIGURE 13-17
Typical Flight-Deck
Display
Other Doppler Applications
50. Ground radars make use of the Doppler principle to eliminate radar returns from fixed
objects such as hills, buildings, masts and so on. The process is known as moving target indication
(MTI). The principle is that returns from moving targets suffer a doppler shift whereas returns from
stationary targets do not.
51. Ground DF stations can also employ Doppler techniques in order to improve accuracy and
minimise siting errors.
Doppler
52. Doppler VORs are also less susceptible to siting errors. Doppler VOR was discussed in the
chapter on VOR.
Doppler
QUESTIONS:
QUESTION 1.
On a typical ATC PPI display, aircraft targets are shown as a blip on the screen. However, with a
more modern display this blip may be replaced with a single letter - what does the letter indicate:
QUESTION 2.
What frequency does the airborne SSR equipment transmit on:
QUESTION 3.
To facilitate its main function an SSR transmits a series of pulse pairs however, a third pulse is also
usually transmitted. What is the purpose of this third pulse:
QUESTION 4.
Excluding the SPI pulse, how many pulses go to make up the total air-to-ground SSR pulse profile:
QUESTION 5.
How long does the SPI pulse remain once the SSR IDENT button has been depressed:
QUESTION 6.
What does code A7007 signify when selected on an SSR:
Doppler
QUESTION 7.
What are the increments in height when using Mode C:
QUESTION 8.
What would the figures "18Z " mean if displayed in the height block on an air traffic controllers
radar screen:
QUESTION 9.
Name the two types of interference which can be experienced by Mode A/C SSR systems:
QUESTION 10.
What information does a Mode S "All Call " response contain:
QUESTION 11.
What information is reported automatically under the Basic Functionality of Mode S:
QUESTION 12.
What does the term "squitter" mean in relation to Mode S:
QUESTION 13.
Doppler operates on the principle that __________________ between a transmitter and receiver will
cause the received frequency to ____________ if the transmitter and receiver are moving
____________.
Doppler
QUESTION 14.
A stationary radio transmitter is transmitting a 5 GHz signal. A receiver is moving directly towards
the transmitter at 800 km/hr. The doppler shift measured at the receiver will be:
QUESTION 15.
What is a typical beam depression angle in a Doppler equipment:
QUESTION 16.
What is the advantage, in terms of groundspeed measurement, of a Janus aerial over a single beam
system:
QUESTION 17.
A flight over calm sea would probably produce an _____________ in calculated groundspeed:
QUESTION 18.
What is the usual method of compensating for sea bias error in a Doppler equipment:
QUESTION 19.
Name the two types of Sea Movement Error that may be experienced by a Doppler equipment:
QUESTION 20.
Why does a roll manoeuvre have little effect on the accuracy of a Doppler equipment fitted with a
Janus aerial:
Doppler
QUESTION 21.
Does Height Error in a Doppler system result in an overread or an underread in the groundspeed and
distance indicators:
QUESTION 22.
Name one of the two methods that are used to eliminate the height hole problem in an FMCW
Doppler equipment:
QUESTION 23.
What are the accuracy figures for distance gone and drift in a modern Doppler system?
QUESTION 24.
What is the purpose of the "slew" switch on a Doppler control panel:
QUESTION 25.
When will the "Memory Flag" be displayed on a Doppler drift and groundspeed display:
ANSWERS:
ANSWER 1.
The letter indicates which controller is assigned to that particular target at that time
ANSWER 2.
1090Mhz
Doppler
ANSWER 3.
The Sidelobe Suppression Control Pulse (SLS) is used to suppress replies to any sidelobe
interrogations of an SSR
ANSWER 4.
14 pulses - two frame pulses plus 12 selectable pulses
ANSWER 5.
20 seconds
ANSWER 6.
A7007 signifies that the aircraft is being operated under the Open Skies Treaty arrangements
ANSWER 7.
Mode C increments every 100 ft
ANSWER 8.
The aircraft is flying at 1800 ft relative to the QNH
ANSWER 9.
Fruiting and Garbling
ANSWER 10.
Aircraft Identity plus the capability of the onboard equipment
Doppler
ANSWER 11.
Aircraft Identity (callsign), transponder capability, altitude reporting (25 ft increments), flight status
(airborne or on the ground)
ANSWER 12.
Squittering is when an airborne SSR transmitter automatically transmits pre-formatted information
which is not in response to an interrogation
ANSWER 13.
relative motion decrease apart
Relative motion/decrease/apart (or, Relative motion/increase/towards each other)
ANSWER 14.

= = 0.06 m = 222 m/sec
= 3700 Hz
3.7 MHz
ANSWER 15.
Beam depression angles are usually between 60 and 70
D
s
S
TX
--------- - =
TX
3 10
8
5 10
9 8 ( )
------------------------ = S
800 1000
60 60
--------------------------- =
222
0.06
----------
Doppler
ANSWER 16.
We get twice the Doppler shift from a Janus system and can therefore evaluate groundspeed more
accurately
ANSWER 17.
A calm sea would result in a lower groundspeed being calculated and displayed since some of the
energy would be reflected in other directions rather than returning to the aerial
ANSWER 18.
A "Land/Sea" switch is used to compensate for sea bias error
ANSWER 19.
Tidal Flow and Water Transport error
ANSWER 20.
The effect of roll is to move the beams along the ISODOPS thereby producing no error
ANSWER 21.
Overread (approximately 0.2% at 40,000 ft)
ANSWER 22.
WOBBULATION (variation of the modulating frequency) or the use of a LARGE BROADSIDE
BEAMWIDTH
Doppler
ANSWER 23.
Distance gone < 0.1%
Drift < 0.2
ANSWER 24.
The "slew" switch is used to set DR values of drift and groundspeed if the reflections from the earths
surface are not strong enough to permit the equipment to "lock-on"
ANSWER 25.
If the returning signal strength falls below a preset level the equipment will revert to "memory" and
the drift and groundspeed displays will be frozen at the latest computed values.
Hyperbola
Accuracy in a Hyperbolic Lattice
Range in a Hyperbolic Lattice
14Hyperbolic Navigation System
Theory
1. Hyperbolic navigation systems cover wide areas and basically consist of a grid of position
lines superimposed upon a geographical area; position is established with reference to the grid lines.
2. We are all familiar with the numbered grid lattice superimposed upon an Ordnance Survey
map, by which position can be quantified in terms of Eastings and Northings. A hyperbolic grid is
basically the same, except that the grid reference lines are not all straight and they do not necessarily
intersect each other at right angles.
3. First, let us consider how hyperbolae are constructed geometrically and then see how this is
useful in determining geographical position using radio signals from fixed ground locations.
Hyperbola
4. A hyperbola is a line joining points of equal difference of distance between two fixed points.
5. To fully understand the above definition it is perhaps easiest to construct a hyperbolic lattice.
6. Refer to Figure 14-1 which shows two fixed points (A & B) 100 nm apart. The first
hyperbola is already constructed and is labelled 0 nm. This particular hyperbola is the right
bisector of the base line joining A and B. At any point along the right bisector the distance between
the point in question is the same to A as to B, or in other words, the difference of distance is zero.
FIGURE 14-1
Basic Geometry in
Hyperbolic
Navigation
Systems
7. Figure 14-2 shows the next hyperbola in the family. In this case any point along the dotted
hyperbola is 20 nm closer to A than to B, hence the designation +20 nm. Notice that, at the base
line, this hyperbola is 10 nm from the right bisector.
FIGURE 14-2
Construction of
Hyperbola
8. Figure 14-3 shows the mirror image of the previous hyperbola, but in this case all points
along the dotted hyperbola are 20 nm closer to B than to A, hence the designation -20 nm.
FIGURE 14-3
Mirror Image of a
Hyperbola
9. Figure 14-4 shows the complete family of hyperbola drawn at every 20 nm difference of
distance. Notice that the base line extensions (the base line extended beyond A and B) are themselves
hyperbola since any point along either base line extension is, in this case, 100 nm closer to one of the
two fixed points (A or B) than to the other.
FIGURE 14-4
Hyperbolic Lattice
Construction
Between Two
Stations A+B
10. Questions may be set involving a simple calculation concerning hyperbolic lattices. An
example follows:
Example 1
11. An aircraft is situated on a hyperbola constructed from two stations 120 nm apart. The
aircraft is 70 nm from station A and 90 nm from station B. How far is the hyperbola passing
through the aircraft from station A at the point where the hyperbola crosses the base line?
Solution
12. The situation is as depicted at Figure 14-5.
FIGURE 14-5
Solution to
Example 1
13. The right bisector is shown in Figure 14-5 since it makes the solution simple. The aircraft is
70 nm from station A and 90 nm from station B. The value of the hyperbola is therefore +20 nm. In
other words at any point along the hyperbola the distance to A is 20 nm less than the distance to B.
Remember that the distance along the base line from the right bisector to any hyperbola is always
half the value of the hyperbola in question. In this example the distance along the base line from the
right bisector to the + 20 nm hyperbola is therefore 10 nm and the distance from station A to the
hyperbola is 50 nm along the base line.
Accuracy in a Hyperbolic Lattice
14. Figure 14-6 shows a hyperbolic lattice in which it is assumed that the error in the final
position line may be as much as 10% of the distance between the individual hyperbola. Check the
diagram and satisfy yourself that the following statements are correct:
On any hyperbolic lattice:
(a) The system is most accurate along the base line.
(b) If you depart from the base line the area surrounding the right bisector gives
reasonable accuracy, and the error in distance for a given percentage error increases
with departure from the right bisector towards the base line extensions.
(c) The error increases with range from the base line.
(d) It is inadvisable to use the hyperbola adjacent to the base line extensions since a risk of
ambiguity of position exists, see Figure 14-7. Here the aircraft's position is
established using the 180 radial from VOR ABC and the + 90 nm hyperbola. It is
impossible to say whether the aircraft is in fact at position X or Y.
FIGURE 14-6
Accuracy within a
Hyperbolic Lattice
FIGURE 14-7
Area of Ambiguity
within a
Hyperbolic Lattice
Range in a Hyperbolic Lattice
15. The range of any hyperbolic navigation system will largely depend upon the frequency and
the power of the transmitted signal. Generally, the lower the frequency the greater the range.
Remember that, in order to double the range, it is necessary to quadruple the output power of the
transmitter. Hyperbolic navigation systems are inherently medium or long range systems (VOR/
DME is a much more user friendly and light weight option for line of sight radio navigation) and
therefore operate with high power transmitters in the low frequency band.
16. The inability of the aircraft receiver to distinguish between ground waves and skywaves may
limit the useful range of a hyperbolic system.
17. Another limiting factor concerning useful range is system geometry. This is a problem which
occurs when two hyperbolae which are being used to fix the aircraft position cross at an acute angle,
thereby degrading the accuracy of the fix to an unacceptable level.
Loran C
Additional Secondary Phase Factors (ASF)
Transmission Characteristics
Indexing (Cycle Matching)
Presentation of Information
Skywaves
Chain Geometry
Range
Accuracy
Sources of Error
Loran C
15Loran C
1. Loran is an acronym for Long Range Aid to Navigation. Loran C is a hyperbolic navigation
system but, unlike Decca, does not use the phase of signals to derive position lines. Instead, Loran C
uses a pulse transmission system and derives hyperbolic lines of position by measuring the time
interval between pulses. The principle of operation is therefore said to be a differential range by
pulse technique.
2. Loran C operates in the LF band using a carrier wave frequency of 100 KHz. At this
frequency surface attenuation is low and the surface wave diffracts at an optimum rate, giving usable
surface wave signals at ranges of up to 1000 nm.
3. The surface wave is the primary propagation path for Loran C. Skywaves can also be used,
but now the accuracy of the system is degraded.
4. Consider Figure 15-1 which shows the familiar arrangement of a master transmitter (M) and
a slave transmitter (S) of a hyperbolic system with baseline and baseline extensions.
Loran C
FIGURE 15-1
Loran C
Hyperbolic Lattice
Construction
5. The master transmits a pulse omnidirectionally and this pulse is received a short time later at
the slave station. It is the reception of this (master) pulse which triggers the slave to transmit a pulse
of its own, also omnidirectionally, but only after a fixed time delay. Let us call this delay D
microseconds (D sec).
6. Because the master and slave are a known distance apart, the propagation time of the original
(master) pulse from M to S is also known. Let us call this time T microseconds (T sec).
Loran C
7. Consider now an aircraft at the master transmitter (M). The pulse transmitted from M will
be received instantaneously at the aircraft. The pulse will however take T sec to travel to S, there
will be a further D sec before the slave transmits and the slave pulse will then take T sec to return
to the aircraft. Thus, at the aircraft which is at M, the time interval between the reception of the
master pulse and of the slave pulse will be (2T + D) sec. With a little thought it should be obvious
that an aircraft anywhere on the master baseline extension will also receive the M and S pulses
(2T + D) sec apart.
8. Consider now an aircraft at the slave transmitter (S). A pulse from the master transmitter will
be received, both by the aircraft and the slave, after T sec. The master pulse will of course trigger a
pulse from the slave (after the fixed time delay D) and this will be received instantaneously at the
aircraft. Thus, at the aircraft which is at S, the time interval between the reception of the master
pulse and of the slave pulse will be D sec. Again with a little thought it should be obvious that an
aircraft anywhere on the slave baseline extension will also receive the M and S pulses D sec apart.
9. For an aircraft anywhere other than at the master or slave stations, or on the baseline
extensions, the time interval between the M and S pulses will be somewhere between (2T + D) and D
sec. Appreciate that the fixed time delay (D) ensures that the master pulse will always be received
at the aircraft ahead of the slave pulse, regardless of the position of the aircraft within the chain.
Return to Figure 15-1. An aircraft at position P will receive the pulses at the same time interval as
any other aircraft positioned on the hyperbola passing through P. The hyperbola is therefore said to
be a line of constant time difference, and on a Loran C chart would be given a value which is the time
interval (measured in sec).
10. Clearly, in order to fix the aircraft's position, a second position line is required and thus a
second slave is necessary.
Loran C
11. Each chain of stations in Loran C consists of a minimum of a master and two slave stations.
Where geography permits, up to four slaves may be used. Slaves are designated W, X, Y and Z.
12. The timing of the slave transmission may be triggered by the reception of a pulse from the
master station, as previously described, or alternatively may be controlled by an atomic clock to
achieve the same end.
Additional Secondary Phase Factors (ASF)
13. Loran C receivers measure time delay differences in the signals they receive, compute
differences of distance, and hence determine the users position. The conversion from time to distance
requires knowledge of the signals velocities which differ from seawater values when propagating
over land. In addition to the signal delays experienced when propagating over smooth terrian and
across coastlines, extra delays are experienced where the path crosses elevated ground, especially
mountains.
14. Precise positioning requires the delays of land paths to be accurately mapped and the
resulting data, in the form of additional secondary factors (ASFs), to be stored in Loran receivers.
The ASF corrections are applied by the Loran receiver when calculating time delay values.
Transmission Characteristics
15. The master and slaves of each Loran C chain do not transmit single pulses, but rather pulse
trains consisting of 8 pulses each separated by an interval of 1000 sec. These pulse trains are
transmitted approximately ten times a second. The master pulse train is distinguished from the slave
pulse trains by means of a ninth pulse, which is transmitted 2000 sec after the eighth pulse. The
ninth pulse in the master pulse train is made to blink at set rates in the event that there is any
unserviceability within the ground stations comprising the chain in question.
Loran C
16. In a chain consisting of a master and more than one slave, the delays (D) which are allocated
at each slave are so arranged such that the pulse trains will always arrive at the aircraft in a pre-
determined order, regardless of where the aircraft is located within the area of coverage offered by
that chain. Thus, since the master station pulse train is easily identified by the ninth pulse, the pulse
trains from the slave stations are identified by the order in which they arrive at the aircraft.
17. The reason that pulse trains, rather than individual pulses, are used in Loran C is so that the
pulse trains can be summed by the airborne Loran receiver. Summing enables the receiver to operate
with much lower signal to noise ratios and therefore increases the effective range of the system.
18. Mutual interference between chains is avoided because each chain is allocated a specific pulse
train repetition period (remember that we said previously that the pulse trains were transmitted
approximately ten times each second). With Loran, the pulse train repetition period is termed the
group repetition interval (GRI) and each chain has a unique GRI.
Indexing (Cycle Matching)
19. The overall accuracy of a Loran C system depends, among other things, on the airborne
receiver's ability to measure accurately the time interval between each master pulse and the
associated slave pulse. In order for the airborne receiver to establish accurately this time interval a
common reference point within each pulse must be used. This is achieved by means of a process
termed indexing or cycle matching.
20. Each pulse within a pulse train (whether it be a master or a slave pulse train) has a pulse
width of between 180 and 270 sec and therefore contains at least 18 complete cycles of carrier
wave as shown at Figure 15-2.
Loran C
FIGURE 15-2
Indexing/Cycle
Matching in Loran
C
21. Note that the pulse does not in fact have a square shaped envelope (which would be ideal) but
starts with a small amplitude, builds to a peak at about the eighth cycle and then diminishes. It
would be advantageous to use the eighth cycle as the reference point within the pulse, however this is
not possible since, under certain circumstances, the surface wave pulse may by the eighth cycle be
distorted by the initial cycles of the same pulse which has arrived via a skywave propagation path.
As usual it is necessary to compromise, and it is in fact the start of the third cycle which is used as the
index point within the pulse.
22. Each cycle within the Loran pulses represents a time duration of 10 sec. Providing the
correct cycles of the Master and slave signals are used for time difference measurements, the accuracy
of those measurements should therefore be within 10 sec.
23. If you are to have any hope of understanding how a Loran C receiver works it is important
that you do not confuse the cycles of electromagnetic energy which comprise each pulse with the
pulses which themselves comprise the pulse trains.
Loran C
Presentation of Information
24. The control and display units (CDUs) of early Loran C receivers included a cathode ray tube
on which the pulses (as shown at Figure 15-2) were displayed. The task of the operator was to
overlay the slave pulse on the master pulse such that the start of the third cycle of both pulses were
precisely aligned. In fact the two pulses were generated on successive timebases, and therefore the
time interval between the generation of the first and the second timebase was precisely equal to the
time interval between the index points of the pulses, providing that these were accurately aligned.
This time interval was read from a LED display and the process then repeated for at least one other
master/slave pairing within the same chain. The two (ideally three) time intervals were then plotted
on the Loran chart (remember that the hyperbolae on a Loran chart are lines joining points of equal
time interval and that the hyperbolae are labelled with this time interval). The latitude and longitude
of the fix was then noted and the fix position transferred to a more suitable plotting chart.
25. With modern receivers the cycle matching and time interval determination is done
automatically and therefore the cathode ray tube is no longer evident. The basic display of position
is as a latitude and longitude, however the receiver is normally interfaced with a navigation computer
containing pre-stored routes and waypoints. Now the navigational data available to the operator
will include distance and time to the next waypoint, and so on. The outputs from such a sytem will
be very similar to those available from an Inertial Navigation System.
26. The modern Loran C receiver is designed to operate at low signal to noise ratios. In the event
that an irregularity or malfunction occurs within a chain, the stations within that chain will transmit
warning signals which will typically be displayed as blinking displays on the CDU.
Loran C
Skywaves
27. Because the power output of Loran C transmitters is high, skywaves are present by day as
well as by night. Although the first part of the first pulse is sky wave free (because the sky wave takes
longer to arrive) the remaining pulses may suffer from sky wave interference. Skywaves are removed
to some extent by varying the phase of individual pulses so that additional (skywave) pulses which
are received out of sequence will be out of phase and can therefore be eliminated.
28. At extreme ranges the surface wave pulse is very weak and eventually becomes unusable. The
system may still be able to produce an output of position by establishing time differences between
skywave pulses rather than surface wave pulses. The resulting output is much less accurate and an
automatic system would warn the operator accordingly.
Chain Geometry
29. Transmitter siting is largely dependent on geography. Maximum baseline length is about
1000 nm. Coverage is widely available with chains located along the coastal areas of the North
Atlantic, in the North Pacific and on the Hawaiian Islands, in the Mediterranean and in the Middle
East.
Range
30. Using surface wave propagation the range of this system is about 1000 nm. Skywave
matching can be achieved to about 2000 nm. These ranges are from the master transmitter which is
normally at the centre of a chain.
Loran C
Accuracy
31. As in any hyperbolic system, accuracy depends on the geometry of the chain. Quoted
accuracy is 0.25 nm or better (on 95% of occasions) in areas of good cover (using surface waves)
reducing to about 1 nm at 1000 nm range from the master. At longer ranges, using skywaves,
accuracy is poor but 10 nm at 1500 - 2000 nm range may be achieved.
Sources of Error
32. The following errors are considered to be the major causes of inaccuracy when modern Loran
C receivers are used to establish an aircraft's position. With the older airborne receivers operator
error was a common, both because of misidentification of the third cycle during indexing and also
because of inaccuracies in the transposition of time difference on to the chart.
Static Interference
33. Static will degrade the system since it transmits at 100 KHz. Remember that the lower the
frequency the more that static becomes a problem.
System Geometry
34. There are few areas within the coverage of individual chains where the hyperbolae cross at
optimum angles, that is to say at 90 when two position lines are considered and at 60 when three
position lines are used.
Basic Principles
Space Segment
User Segment
Control Segment
Accuracy
Sources of Error
Receiver Capability
All in View Receivers
Integrity Monitoring
Enhancement of GPS Information
Integrated Navigation Systems Using GPS
Future Applications of GPS
Applications of GPS - Area Navigation (RNAV) Approach
Procedures
16Satellite Navigation Systems
1. Two Satellite Assisted Navigation (SATNAV) systems are currently operating. The Navstar
Global Positioning System (GPS) is a constellation of 24 satellites operated by the US Department of
Defence (DoD) but available for civil use. The former Soviet Union (now Commonwealth of
Independent States - CIS) also operates a similar system, called GLONASS (the global orbiting
navigation satellite system). In common with most other developments in modern technology
acronyms are used freely and these systems may also be referred to as GNSS (global navigation
satellite systems).
2. A brief comparison of the main parameters of the GPS and GLONASS navigation systems is
shown in Figure 16-1:
FIGURE 16-1
GNSS Parameters
3. One of the most important differences between GPS and GLONASS is that the latter does not
have any facility for degrading accuracy for unauthorised users. (see later)
Basic Principles
4. The basic principle used in GNSS is that of determining range from the timed travel of radio
energy. With very accurate timing the range of the receiver (the aircraft) from the transmitter (the
satellite) can be established with minimal error.
5. In order to fix the aircraft position, ranges from two satellites must be established. Range
from a third satellite will confirm the accuracy of the fix and from a fourth satellite will enable both
vertical and horizontal position to be established (see Figure 16-2).
GPS GLONASS
No of Satellites 24 24
No of Orbits 6 3
Inclination of Orbits to Equator 55 60
Duration of Orbit approx. 12 hours approx. 11 hours
Satellite Altitude 20200 km 18840 to 19940 km
Signals L1 1575.42 MHz
L2 1227.6 MHz
L1 approx. 1600 MHz
L2 approx. 1250 MHz
Codes L1 P+C/A codes
L2 P code
L1 P+C/A codes
L2 P code
6. The aircraft's receiver assesses signal strength together with the relative positions of the
satellites when electing which of the available satellites (those that are above the horizon) to use in
the navigation solution. Precise timing is obtained by using an atomic clock to control the satellite's
transmissions whilst an electronic clock in the aircraft receiver controls receiver timing. Part of the
satellite's transmission includes details of its own position on its orbital path around the Earth, and
the time of the transmission.
7. The four basic information elements provided by GPS are:
(a) Latitude
(b) Longitude
(c) Height
(d) Time
FIGURE 16-2
GNSS Principle of
Operation
8. For the remainder of this chapter it is the GPS navigation system that is discussed, except
where stated otherwise. There are 3 GPS segments :
(a) Space segment
(b) Control segment
(c) User segment
Space Segment
9. The constellation of satellites in GPS consists of 24 operational satellites. The satellites are
placed in six circular orbital planes (3 or 4 per plane) all of which are inclined to the equator at 55,
as illustrated at Figure 16-3. The satellites orbit at an altitude of approximately 10,898 nm (20,200
km) taking 12 hours to complete each orbit. The constellation is arranged so that at least 4 satellites
are within (line of sight) range of a receiver anywhere on Earth at any time. GLONASS operates in a
similar way with slightly different parameters.
FIGURE 16-3
GPS Satellite
Constellation
10. Two levels of navigation accuracy are provided by GPS : the Precise Positioning Service (PPS)
and the Standard Positioning Service (SPS). PPS is a highly accurate positioning, velocity, and timing
facility which is made available only to authorised users, whereas SPS is a less accurate service
available to all GPS users.
11. The main GPS satellite transmission frequencies are 1575.42 MHz (known as L1) and 1227.6
MHz (known as L2). Under the old radar frequency bands nomenclature these are L band
frequencies within the UHF band. Both frequencies are derived from the satellite's atomic clock
frequency of 10.23 MHz.
12. The L1 frequency is available for civil use for the provision of navigation fixing. The L2
frequency is used exclusively for military navigation and can be only be accessed by means of special
user codes. The benefit of the L2, P code signal (described later) is that it allows users to correct for
ionospheric propagation delays. Some receivers are able to measure the delay between the signal in
the L1 frequency and the L2 frequency without access to the P code. There are plans to add, in future
satellites, another frequency for civil users so they can easily correct for ionospheric delays.
Precise Positioning Service (PPS)
13. The PPS is primarily intended for military users and the authorisation for its use is decided by
the US DoD. A selective availability (SA) feature can be activated to reduce the GPS accuracy to
unauthorised users by introducing controlled errors into the signals. The level of degradation can be
varied and is accomplished by intentionally dithering the satellite clocks and ephemeris information
(see later).
14. An anti-spoofing (A-S) feature is also introduced at random times without warning to
invalidate any copying of PPS signals by unauthorised individuals. The technique alters the P code
crytographically into a code denoted as Y code. Encryption keys and techniques are provided to PPS
users which allow them to remove the effects of the SA and A-S features. PPS receivers can use either
the P(Y) or the C/A code (see later) or both. Maximum accuracy is obtained using the P(Y) code on
both L1 and L2. The difference in propagation delay between the two frequencies is used to calculate
ionospheric corrections. P(Y) capable receivers commonly use the C/A code initially to acquire GPS
satellites and determine the approximate P(Y) code phase although some P(Y) receivers are able to
acquire the P(Y) code directly by using the precise clock.
Standard Positioning Service (SPS)
15. The SPS is primarily intended for civilian use and is specified to provide a 30 metre
horizontal positioning accuracy to any GPS user in peacetime. The accuracy specification would be
reduced to 100 metres in the event that the selective availability feature is activated. Typically a
SPS receiver uses only the C/A code and an ionospheric model to calculate corrections, which is a less
accurate technique than measuring dual frequency propagation delays. The accuracy specification
also includes any ionospheric modelling error.
(2)
Transmissions Characteristics and Timing
16. The principle of obtaining range position lines is relatively simple and is of course the
principle upon which DME operates. However, with DME the position of the source of the range arc
is known, and the start of the transmission timing is known because it originates at the aircraft. In a
SATNAV system the aircraft equipment does not transmit and so some other method is necessary to
establish the time of travel of the satellite's transmission. In addition, with SATNAV, the origin of the
information is continually moving, since the satellites are all orbiting the Earth . Digital processing
techniques are clearly necessary to co-ordinate and analyse the large quantities of data which is
needed to resolve these problems.
17. Time is computed in Space Vehicle (SV) time, GPS time and UTC. SV time is the time
maintained by each satellite. Each SV contains four atomic clocks (2 cesium and 2 rubidium) which
control the satellites transmissions to a timing accuracy of better than (1 nano-
second). SV clocks are monitored by the master control ground station (MCS) and are occasionally
reset to maintain time to within 1 millisec of GPS time. SV clock correction information is passed
from the MCS, via satellite to the user, to correct for any residual SV timing error.
18. Since the aircraft equipment also needs to know the start time of the transmission it requires
its own clock. An electronic clock is provided in the aircraft receiver/processor and this is less
accurate than the atomic clock which is used in the satellite, however this problem is overcome in the
fixing process. It would not be feasible to incorporate an atomic clock into the aircraft equipment on
a cost basis alone. SV time is passed to the GPS receiver, as part of the GPS signals, and it is then
converted to GPS time.
1
1 000 000 000 , , ,
--------------------------------------- sec
19. GPS Time is measured in weeks and seconds from 24:00:00, January 5, 1980 and is steered to
within one microsecond of UTC. GPS Time has no leap seconds and is ahead of UTC by several
seconds (currently approximately 13 seconds). Time in Universal Coordinated Time (UTC) is
computed from GPS Time using the UTC correction parameters sent as part of the navigation
message.
20. Each GPS satellite generates a unique coded digital transmission. The codes transmitted on
L1 are known as the C/A (coarse/acquisition) code, and the P (precision) code. The C/A code is
repeated continuously, a sequence being completed every millisecond. This period is called the epoch
and is used in civilian GPS receivers. The pattern of the digital bits that make up the C/A code is so
large (1023 bits) that it appears to be random. Hence it is referred to as a pseudo-random code and
requires a bandwidth (spectrum spread) of 1 MHz.
21. The P code element is even longer and the part of the code sequence allocated to each satellite
is re-initiated every 7 days. This code provides more precise navigation accuracy but access to it is
controlled by the US DoD and, as with the navigation facilities provided by the L2 frequency, is not
generally available for civil use.
22. In addition to the fixing transmissions each satellite also transmits a data bit stream at 50 bits
per second. This navigation message provides information on the satellite's orbital position and
other status and correction factors. Each message takes 30 seconds to complete.
23. The precise format of the navigation message is illustrated at Figure 16-4.
FIGURE 16-4
Navigation
Message Format
User Segment
24. The GPS user segment can perform two basic measurements of the GPS signals. The first
method compares the C/A or P code that it is receiving with a locally generated copy in order to
compute the transmission delay between the satellite and the receiver. This measurement is converted
to range and by using four or more satellites it is possible to determine the position of the user once
the position of the GPS satellites has been obtained using the ephemerides of the navigation message.
25. The GPS receiver produces an internal digital code which is identical to the C/A code
transmitted by each satellite. The timing of the satellite transmission and the GPS receiver codes
would in an ideal case be perfectly synchronised. Thus the GPS receiver would recognise which part
of the pseudo-random code it had just received and would then compare it with the same part of the
internally produced reference code. The time difference between the two points, at a speed of 3 x
10
8
m/sec, gives the distance that the signal has travelled. This distance is the range of the aircraft
from the satellite. Figure 16-5 illustrates this process diagrammatically.
FIGURE 16-5
Measurement of
range using a
binary sequence
26. The GPS receiver in the aircraft has a clock which is not as precise as the satellite clock and
therefore its interval code is not likely to be perfectly synchronised with the satellite C/A code. As a
result of this de-synchronisation, which is known as clock bias, the range calculation will be in error,
and is therefore referred to as a pseudo-range (PR).
27. The pseudo-range is corrected to give true range by applying a correction for the clock bias.
The range error due to timing inaccuracy alone is 0.3 metres for each nano-second error.
28. The second and more precise method of ranging is to obtain the difference in phase angle
between the received carrier signal and a receiver-generated signal at the same frequency. This
measurement is known as the carrier phase observable and it can reach millimetre precision.
However, it lacks the accuracy of the pseudo-range because once the tracking is started, the phase
can only be identified with an ambiguity of an unknown number of times the carrier wavelength
(about 19 cm for L1).
Signal Acquisition
29. The satellite signal level near the Earth is less than the background noise (hence the GSP
aerials should be positioned as near to the receiver as possible to avoid long cable runs) and
correlation techniques are used by the GPS receiver to obtain the navigation signals. A typical
satellite tracking sequence begins with the receiver determining which satellites are visible for it to
track. Satellite visibility is based on the user-entered estimates of present position, time and date and
stored satellite almanac information. If no stored data exists or if only very poor estimates of
position and time are available the receiver must search the sky in an attempt to locate randomly and
lock on to any satellite in view; under such circumstances it may take up to 15 minutes for the GPS
receiver to obtain the first position fix. If the receiver can estimate satellite availability it will target a
satellite to track. Once one satellite has been acquired and tracked the receiver can decode the
navigation message and read almanac information about all of the other satellites in the
constellation.
30. When a new GPS receiver is first switched on, it must download the almanac and ephemeris
data before it can determine position. This usually takes about 12.5 minutes.
Signal Tracking
31. The receiver has a carrier tracking loop which is used to track the carrier frequency and a
code tracking loop which tracks the C/A and P code signals. The two tracking loops work together in
order to acquire and track the satellite signals. The receivers carrier tracking loop generates a carrier
frequency which differs from the received carrier signal due to Doppler shift. This Doppler shift is
proportional to the relative velocity along the line of sight between the satellite and the receiver.
Position Fixing
32. Fixing is achieved using the range principle as illustrated at Figure 16-6. Having first
established the satellites position and velocity the GPS receiver starts to acquire a navigation
solution, after which the GPS enters the navigation mode. In this mode several pseudo range
measurements (typically seven) are taken from all the satellites within view, and this process is
repeated once every second. Since the airborne GPS receivers clock will usually be in error, the
pseudo range measurements will all be too short or too long by the same amount. With pseudo
ranges from four satellites, there are four simultaneous equations to solve the common error, thus
removing clock bias and producing a very accurate three-dimensional fix. Figure 16-7 shows a three-
satellite fix for clarity.
FIGURE 16-6
Position Fixing in
GPS
FIGURE 16-7
Correction of
User clock bias in
GPS
33. Initially, conversion of pseudo-range measurements is carried out to find the users position in
terms of an Earth Centred/Earth Fixed (ECEF) co-ordinate system. In the ECEF system any position
can be defined in terms of 3 axes (X,Y,Z), which originate at the centre of the spherical Earth, as
shown at Figure 16-8.
FIGURE 16-8
Earth Centred/
Earth Fixed Co-
ordinate System
(ECEF)
34. In Figure 16-9, 4 satellites are being monitored by a user. The satellite positions (X
1
Y
1
Z
1
,
X
2
Y
2
Z
2
, X
3
Y
3
Z
3
, X
4
Y
4
Z
4
) are given in the satellite message and it is, therefore, a relatively simple
calculation, using the 4 pseudo-ranges, to determine the position of the user receiver (X
5
Y
5
Z
5
) in the
same ECEF co-ordinates. The alogorithm used in this calculation has, in fact, four unknowns and
therefore not only is it possible to determine the users X,Y,Z co-ordinates but clock bias can also be
calculated. (See Paragraph 32).
FIGURE 16-9
Determination of
User Position in
ECEF Co-
ordinates
35. Using transformation equations, the user receiver ECEF co-ordinates are converted to
geodetic co-ordinates of position and altitude over a reference ellipsoid (see Figure 16-10).
An input of pressure altitude, if applicable, is also used to compare continuously with the GPS
vertical position calculations.
FIGURE 16-10
Conversion of
ECEF Co-
ordinates to
Geodetic Co-
ordinates
h , , ( )
GPS Geodetic Datum
36. Throughout the evolution of GPS there has been a need for a rationalisation of the datum
used as the basis of navigation using the system. That is to say that local datums exist which use
different ellipsoids that approximate the shape of the Earth over a selected area, but which are not
valid on a global scale. Conversion between datums is possible, however inherent inaccuracies
present in National (local) datums can result in large residual errors.
37. The absolute datum which has now been adopted by ICAO, the United kingdom and
Eurocontrol is WGS-84 which stands for the World Geodetic System 1984. This is the single
geodetic reference system for civil aviation effective 1 January 1998.
Control Segment
38. The GPS control segment tracks and monitors the signal from the GPS space segment.
Stations located around the world monitor the performance of the satellites (e.g. orbits and clock
behaviour), and a master control station in Colorado Springs sends up corrections for transmission
to the users, at least once per day, if errors are detected.
Accuracy
39. The position accuracy of the C/A code signal is potentially better than 30 metres.
Sources of Error
40. The resolution of clock error (or clock bias) has already been described. Other sources of
error are now considered.
Satellite Geometry Error
41. The general term used to describe this error in GPS is GDOP (geometric dilution of precision).
This error occurs when two satellites are close together and the angle of cut between range circles is
shallow. Having orbital planes at 55 (GPS) and 60 (GLONASS) to the equator helps to reduce this
problem. Errors of between 30 and 70 metres can nevertheless result when the problem occurs. In
some GPS receivers it is possible to select alternative satellites in order to improve GDOP, however it
should be noted that fixing continuity will be interrupted for a short period during the changeover.
GDOP can be further sub-divided as shown in Figure 16-11.
FIGURE 16-11
Types of Dilution
of Precision in GPS
Satellite Ephemeris Error
42. The orbit parameters of the satellite are referred to as ephemeris. Errors in satellite position
directly induce fixing errors. The master control ground station (MCS) monitors and controls the
satellite's orbital position to ensure that range errors resulting from ephemeris inaccuracies remain
within .5 metres.
Satellite Clock Error
43. Transmission timing and range measurement is dependent on the satellite clock. Clock errors
are corrected by the MCS. This range error resulting from clock inaccuracies should not exceed .5
metres.
Ionospheric Error
44. This error is also known as atmospheric propagation error. The signals passing down
through the ionosphere are slowed by the small amount of refraction that occurs. The error will vary
with time of day, year and elevation of the satellite but should not be more than 4 metres.
Multipath Error
45. Multipath is caused by reflected signals from surfaces near the receiver that can either
interfere with, or be mistaken for the signal that follows the straight line path from the satellite.
Multipath is difficult to detect and sometimes hard to avoid, however, the effects can be mitigated to
a certain extent by special antenna design and/or enhanced receiver software. Any range error
resulting from multipath propogation should not exceed .5 metres.
Orbital Perturbations
46. It was stated that GPS satellites are positioned in circular orbits around the Earth;
unfortunately, in reality, each satellite is subject to several major influences which distort that orbit.
The major problem is caused by the earths equatorial bulge, however solar wind, the gravitational
pull of sun/moon/planets, and other influences all effect the GPS system. Corrections for GPS orbital
perturbations are defined and broadcast at least once per day, via the satellites to the user, along with
clock correction data.
Instrument/Receiver Error
47. Errors can arise in the GPS receiver due to electrical noise as well as in time measurement and
range/position computation. Range errors of 1 metre are possible due to such causes.
Receiver Capability
48. The speed of operation and the accuracy of the aircraft SATNAV receiver will naturally
depend on the complexity, and therefore the cost and the weight, of the equipment which is installed.
There are basically three types of receiver which may be used.
Sequential Tracking Receivers
49. A sequential receiver tracks the necessary satellites by using one or two channels. The set will
track one satellite at a time and combine all four pseudorange measurements once they have been
made. These receivers are amongst the cheapest available but cannot operate under high dynamic
situations and have the slowest time to first fix.
Multi -Channel Receivers
50. A continuous tracking receiver must have at least four channels in order to track four
satellites simultaneously. GPS receivers are available with up to 12 channels, but due to their greater
complexity multiple channel sets involve proportionally higher costs. Four and five channel sets offer
suitable performance and versatility, tracking 4 satellites simultaneously; a five-channel receiver uses
the fifth channel to read the navigation message of the next satellite to be used when the receiver
changes the satellite selections. The fifth channel is also used in conjunction with each of the other
four for dual frequency measurements. A multi channel receiver is the best for high dynamic vehicles
such as aircraft.
Multiplex Receivers
51. A multiplex receiver switches at a fast rate (typically 50 Hz) between the satellites being
tracked, continuously collecting sampled data to maintain two to eight signal processing alogorithms
in software. The navigation message data is read continuously from all the satellites.
All in View Receivers
52. GPS receivers traditionally choose the four satellites of those available which give the best
geometry to perform a position fix. However, in situations where one or more of the satellites are
temporarily obscured from the antennas view, the receiver will have to acquire additional satellite
signals to generate a solution. The accuracy will therefore degraded until the new satellite is acquired.
In order to overcome this problem a receiver can be designed to use all available satellites in view,
typically six or seven, to generate the solution. If one or two satellites are then lost from view there
will be little or no loss of accuracy. The receiver will need a channel for each satellite or will have to
use multiplex techniques.
Integrity Monitoring
Receiver Autonomous Integrity Monitoring (RAIM)
53. This function enables the aircraft GPS receiver to monitor the integrity of incoming satellite
signals, to identify the satellite responsible for an erroneous signal, and to remove that satellite from
the navigation solution.
54. We know that the aircraft receiver uses the signals from four satellites with a suitable
geometry to establish the aircraft's horizontal and vertical position. There will however be more
than four satellites above the horizon, and it is the signals from these spare satellites which are used
to achieve the RAIM function.
55. The situation is as follows:
(a) A fifth satellite signal enables the receiver to establish that one of the four signals
being used to determine the aircraft's position (horizontally and vertically) is
erroneous.
(b) A sixth satellite signal enables the receiver to identify the satellite which is giving the
erroneous signal and to remove it from the navigation solution. This is called Fault
Detection and Exclusion (FDE).
(c) In some airborne systems the GPS receiver uses barometric altitude as an
augmentation to RAIM. In other words the output from the pressure altimeter or the
mode C of the SSR is compared with the altitude determined by the GPS receiver. In
this case, providing that the geometry of the satellites is satisfactory, the number of
satellites required to perform the full RAIM function is reduced from six to five.
(d) It is worth noting that Integrity messages need not necessarily be generated by a user
receiver, they may also be transmitted from an earth station or communication
satellites.
56. In airborne equipment where a GPS receiver provides data to an integrated navigation system
(a flight management system or a multi-sensor navigation system), either the GPS receiver must be
providing RAIM or the multi-sensor navigation system must be providing a level of integrity which is
equivalent to that given by RAIM, before the GPS can be used as the primary navigation reference
for flight under IFR.
57. In airborne equipment comprising a stand alone GPS receiver, the RAIM must be functioning
before the GPS can be used as the primary navigation reference for flight under IFR.
58. Not all GPS receivers are RAIM equipped. For those receivers that are RAIM equipped, it is
not always the case that six satellites are available with an appropriate geometry and each with a
sufficient elevation above the horizon. The RAIM function may therefore be interrupted.
59. The limitations discussed above make GPS suitable for use only as a supplemental air
navigation system for certain phases of flight. The use of GPS in any form for any type or any part of
a precision approach is not permitted by the UK CAA.
Aircraft Autonomous Integrity Monitoring (AAIM)
60. AAIM is an integrated system where individual navigation systems cross check each other
through the navigation computer. The Inertial Navigation System derived position can be compared
to the GPS position and to positions derived from other navaids. A barometric or radio altitude can
be used to cross-check the GPS height output in a three-dimensional fix.
QUESTIONS:
QUESTION 1.
Within a particular hyperbolic lattice between a Master and a Slave station, where does the area of
ambiguity lie:
QUESTION 2.
Loran C operates at a frequency of:
QUESTION 3.
Additional Secondary Phase Factors are Loran C corrections which compensate for:
QUESTION 4.
The signal from a Loran Master station is identifiable from those from the slave stations because:
QUESTION 5.
Cycle matching/indexing in Loran is:
QUESTION 6.
Loran position fixing accuracy is quoted as:
QUESTION 7.
The biggest advantage of the GLONASS satellite system over GPS, for commercial aviation, is that:
QUESTION 8.
The GLONASS satellites have an orbital altitude of:
QUESTION 9.
What are the 4 basic information elements provided by GPS:
QUESTION 10.
As a civilian user of the GPS system it is possible to make use of the _______________ service.
QUESTION 11.
How is SV time produced in the GPS system:
QUESTION 12.
The GPS Navigation message comprises a total of ______ subframes.
QUESTION 13.
When a user is near the earth, how does the received satellite signal level in GPS compare in relation
to the background noise.
QUESTION 14.
Why do the GPS P code signals change at random intervals to become Y code signals:
QUESTION 15.
Is GPS time the same as UTC:
QUESTION 16.
How long does it take for a brand new GPS receiver to download almanac and ephemeris data from
a satellite following initial switch-on:
QUESTION 17.
How many satellite signals does a GPS receiver need to receive in order to correct for User Clock
Bias:
QUESTION 18.
Which Geodetic Reference System has been adopted to convert GPS position information into
latitude and longitude:
QUESTION 19.
What are the three GPS segments:
QUESTION 20.
Which of the two GPS signals, L1 or L2, provides both P code and C/A code information:
ANSWERS:
ANSWER 1.
The area of ambiguity is in the area immediately surrounding the baseline extension
ANSWER 2.
Loran C operates at 100 Khz
ANSWER 3.
Additional Secondary Phase Factors are Loran corrections that compensate for variations in radio
wave velocity, due to the type of surface over which the wave is travelling
ANSWER 4.
The Master station transmits a total of nine pulses (the slave stations transmit eight pulses); the ninth
pulse is double-spaced from the previous eight
ANSWER 5.
Cycle matching is the process by which the equipment identifies the third cycle of each pulse, before
measuring the time difference between the two
ANSWER 6.
Groundwave 1 nm at 1000 nm range, skywave 10 nm at 1500-2000 nm range.
ANSWER 7.
The GLONASS system does not have an accuracy degredation facility
ANSWER 8.
The GLONASS satellites orbit the earth at an altitude of approximately 19000 km
ANSWER 9.
The 4 basic information elements provided by GPS are latitude, longitude, height and time
ANSWER 10.
A civilian user can only make use of the Standard Positioning Service (SPS)
ANSWER 11.
Each satellite has 4 atomic clocks which control satellite transmissions to an accuracy better than 1
nano-second
ANSWER 12.
The GPS Navigation message comprises 5 subframes
ANSWER 13.
The signal level is less than the background noise and requires correlation techniques in order to
obtain the navigation data
ANSWER 14.
The Y code is produced at random, using cryptographic techniques, to provide an anti-spoofing
facility which invalidates any copying of the PPS signal by unauthorised persons.
ANSWER 15.
No, GPS time is measured in weeks and seconds from 24:00:00 on 5 January 1980
ANSWER 16.
It takes 12.5 minutes to download almanac and ephemeris data from a satellite to a new GPS receiver
ANSWER 17.
A GPS receiver needs 4 satellite signals in order to correct for User Clock Bias
ANSWER 18.
GPS receivers use the WGS 84 Geodetic Reference System to calculate latitude and longitude
ANSWER 19.
The three GPS segments are the Space segment, the Control segment and the User segment
ANSWER 20.
The L1 signal contains both P code and C/A code information
Enhancement of GPS Information
61. Apart from errors due to GDOP the only significant error in GPS is Ionospheric error.
Consideration has been given to using GPS for precision approach purposes but with the basic
system accuracy this concept is untenable. However, ways around the problem are being researched
for application on a more localised basis, in order to achieve accuracy figures within 1 to 3 metres.
This sort of figure compares favourably with the ILS Cat 1 vertical accuracy requirement of 4 metres
at the threshold. Aspects such as the time taken to detect and alert the pilot to system accuracy
degradation are also being addressed.
Differential GPS
62. The first method of GPS enhancement is what is termed Differential GPS. The principle of
this technique is that a ground station's GPS derived position can be compared to its exact, known
position. The difference between the two must be due to the GPS fixing error (principally
ionospheric error). A correction (data correction message), termed the differential correction to GPS
position is passed via a data link such as ACARS (aircraft communications addressing and reporting
system) to all suitably equipped aircraft which are within range. The aircraft's GPS position output
is thus corrected to give the highest accuracy possible. Figure 16-12 is a simple illustration of the
mechanics of Differential GPS.
FIGURE 16-12
Differential GPS -
Principle of
Operation

63. There are two main types of Differential GPS in use : Local Area Differential GPS (LADGPS)
and Wide Area Differential GPS (WADGPS). LADGPS works in the manner described in Paragraph
62 with a reference station in the vicinity of say, an aerodrome, providing communication direct to
the relevant aircraft. WADGPS uses ground reference stations spaced hundreds of miles apart feeding
a master control station which sends correction data via geostationary communication satellites ;
with this latter system there are a number of ground reference stations possibly stretching across an
entire continent.
64. Note that aircraft using corrected satellite information from a Differential Ground Station
will have satellite integrity information automatically passed to them if necessary.
Wide Area Augmentation System (WAAS)
65. Basic GPS fails to meet the accuracy, integrity and availability required by an airborne user.
The WAAS was developed as a way of improving all 3 aspects of the basic system.
66. The WAAS network that has been developed in the USA comprises approximately 35 ground
reference stations that cover a very large service area (the entire USA plus parts of Canada and
Mexico).
67. WAAS consists of the following components :
Wide-Area Reference Stations
Wide-Area Master Stations
Ground Earth Stations
Geostationary Satellites
68. Signals from GPS satellites are received by the wide area ground reference stations (WRSs).
Each of these precisely surveyed reference stations receive GPS signals and determine if any errors
exist. These WRSs are linked to form the WAAS network. Each WRS in the network relays the data
to the wide area master station (WMS) where correction information is computed. The WMS
calculates correction alogorithms and assesses the integrity of the system. A correction message is
prepared and uplinked to a Geostationary Communication Satellite via a ground uplink system
(GUS). The message is then broadcast on the same frequency as GPS (L1, 1575.42MHz) to receivers
on board aircraft which are flying within the broadcast coverage area of the WAAS. The
communications satellites also act as additional navigation satellites for the aircraft, thus, providing
additional navigation signals for position determination.
69. The WAAS will ;
(a) improve basic GPS accuracy to approximately 7 meters vertically and horizontally.
(b) improve system availability through use of the geostationary communication satellites
carrying the necessary equipment to generate GPS like navigation signals.
(c) provide important integrity information about the entire GPS constellation.
Figure 16-13 illustrates the main features of a WAAS.
70. The USA WAAS network was expected to be released for initial operations during 1999
however, approval for full operational capability is not now expected before 2002. A fully
operational WAAS network will provide users with accurate position information sufficient for
Category 1 precision approaches.
FIGURE 16-13
Wide Area
Augmentation
System
Local Area Augmentation System (LAAS)
71. A second type of augmentation to the GPS signal is the Local Area Augmentation System
designed for CAT II and III precision approaches. The LAAS is intended to complement WAAS and
hence supply users with seamless satellite based navigation for all phases of flight. In practical terms,
this means that locations where the WAAS is unable to meet existing navigation and landing
requirements (such as availability), the LAAS will be used to fulfill those requirements. In addition,
the LAAS will meet the more stringent Category II/III requirements that exist at selected aerodromes.
LAAS will also provide the user with a navigation signal that can give an all weather ground
navigation capability enabling the potential use of LAAS as part of a surface navigation system and
input to surface surveillance / traffic management systems.
72. The LAAS consists of the following :
(a) Local-Area Reference Stations
(b) Local-Area Central Processor Station
(c) Local-Area Data Transmitter
(d) Local-Area Pseudolites (if needed - see later)
73. Similar to the WAAS concept (which incorporates the use of communications satellites to
broadcast a correction message), the LAAS will broadcast its correction message via very high
frequency (VHF) radio datalink from a ground-based transmitter.
74. The LAAS ground reference stations will be installed at precise locations at an airport. The
ground reference stations receive and collect GPS positioning data. The GPS data are then sent to the
central processing station, which compares the calculated positions with the known precise locations
to determine the errors of the GPS. The GPS corrections are then transmitted to aircraft in the
vicinity of the airport.
75. LAAS will provide the extremely high accuracy, availability, and integrity necessary for
Category II/III precision approaches. It is fully expected that the full configuration will pinpoint the
aircrafts position to within one meter or less. Figure 16-14 shows the key elements of a LAAS.
FIGURE 16-14
Local Area
Augmentation
System
Pseudolites
76. The various GPS enhancements that have been mentioned so far all rely on Satellite based
transmitters for the production of GPS signals. In contrast it is also possible to use ground based
transmitters that broadcast GPS-like signals to supplement those generated by the satellites. These
additional, ground-based transmitters were originally called pseudo-satellites which became
shortened to pseudolites.
77. Compact in size, the ground-based low-power transmitters each fit entirely on a circuit board
the size of a credit card. Capable of running on a 9-volt battery for over 12 hours, the inexpensive
devices transmit just a few microwatts of power, emulating a GPS satellite. The beacons are typically
situated in pairs on either side of the approach path to the runway. Power of the broadcast signals
from the pseudolites is set low, measurable only inside a bubble emanating from the transmitter.
78. The additional ranging signal from a pseudolite can be extremely useful. Each additional
pseudolite signal allows the user to perform basic navigation, fault detection, and fault isolation
using one less satellite signal than would otherwise be required. Also, significant improvements in
vertical position accuracy becomes possible, especially for applications in which pseudolites may be
placed below a vehicle to improve geometry (for example, for an aircraft on an approach).
79. To allow a stand-alone GPS receiver to use pseudolites as an extra code-based ranging source,
a pseudolite signals timing accuracy must be comparable with that of the satellite signals.
Incorporating a pseudolite with an inexpensive clock into a code-based differential GPS (DGPS)
system provides a practical solution to the timing problem. The reference receiver synchronously
measures the pseudolite code-phase and transmits pseudorange correction information
(incorporating the pseudolite clock error) to the pseudolite users. This procedure is basically identical
to satellite-based DGPS and fits readily into an existing differential system.
80. One of the first applications to use pseudolites was the Integrity Beacon Landing System
(IBLS), shown in Figure 16-15. This positioning system comprises a ground reference system and a
vehicle navigation system. The IBLS ground system includes a carrier-phase DGPS (CDGPS)
reference receiver, a datalink from the reference station to the aircraft, and a pair of integrity beacon
pseudolites underneath the aircrafts final approach path to the runway. The pseudolites transmit
overlapping, hemispherical signal bubbles that the aircraft flies through just before landing. The
IBLS aircraft system includes a CDGPS user receiver and a computer to process the IBLS
alogorithms. The user receiver has two antennas: one facing up to collect satellite signals and one
facing down to collect pseudolite signals.
FIGURE 16-15
Integrity Beacon
Landing System
using Pseudolites
81. As the aircraft leaves the bubbles, its computer solves the alogorithms to check the integrity of
the system. If the check exceeds a certain threshold, an error has occurred and the approach is
aborted; this is the fundamental integrity monitor in IBLS. One can set this threshold so that the
probability of an undetected navigation failure satisfies almost any given integrity requirement. The
end result is a highly robust, maximum performance navigation system.
82. In a recent flight trial 110 autopilot landings of a Boeing 737 were completed using such a
system. The integrity beacons provided consistent accuracies in the order of a few centimeters during
each of the automatic landings.
European Geostationary Navigation Overlay System
(EGNOS)
83. The European Space Agency, the European Commission and the European Organisation for
the Safety of Air Navigation (Eurocontrol) are jointly developing EGNOS, Europes augmentation
system for satellite navigation. This ECU 150 million project will provide civil GPS or GLONASS
users with improved accuracy, integrity and availability.
84. Two transponders are being flown by two Inmarsat-III satellites, located at longitudes 64 East
(Indian Ocean Region - IOR) and 15.5 West (Atlantic Ocean Region - East - AOR - E). Together they
will cover not only the whole of Europe but Africa, South America and most of Asia. The IOR
satellite was launched on 3 April 1996, the AOR-E satellite was launched in August 1996.
85. In its final set-up, EGNOS will provide Ranging, Integrity and Wide Area Differential
Services.
The Ranging Service will broadcast GPS-like navigation signals to improve overall satellite
navigation service availability. For instantaneous determination of his position, a user has to
receive signals from four satellites. Neither GPS nor GLONASS can provide this at all times
and all locations worldwide. EGNOS will help to fill this gap.
The Integrity Service will broadcast range error estimates for each GPS, GLONASS or
EGNOS navigation signal. Without this EGNOS capability, information on abnormal perfor-
mance or failure of GPS and GLONASS would take 15 minutes or longer to reach the user.
The Integrity Service will enable users to decide whether a navigation satellite signal is out of
tolerance before any critical situation arises.
The Wide Area Differential Service will broadcast correction signals to improve the precision
of satellite navigation. The Wide Area Differential Service will establish a position fixing
accuracy of 5 - 10 metres.
86. The Ranging Service started in 1997. The other services are being introduced gradually
between 1998 and 2003.
87. EGNOS itself will be composed of :
The space segment : two INMARSAT III transponders, later to be extended to meet the
extreme safety requirements for certain aircraft precision approaches to airports.
The earth segment : Ranging and Integrity Monitors distributed over the service area will be
connected to Master Control Centres, where the EGNOS signals will be generated. At least
three such centres are needed to meet civil aviation safety requirements. The France Telecoms
earth station at Aussaguel and that of Deutsche Telekom at Raisting will be used as primary
access stations, respectively for the INMARSAT III, AOR-E and IOR navigation transpon-
ders.
The user segment : EGNOS standard receivers.
Integrated Navigation Systems Using GPS
88. Integrated navigation systems are available which combine the outputs from a number of
individual navigation equipments in order to provide an ultimate solution by statistically analysing
all of the relevant data. Such systems are termed Multisensor Systems, two examples of which are
discussed below :
Combined GPS/GLONASS Receivers
89. The development of combined GPS/GLONASS receivers provides an absolute positioning
accuracy which is comparable with that produced by the GPS L1 C/A code (without S/A mode). The
potential accuracy figures for a combined GPS/GLONASS receiver are illustrated at Figure 16-16.
FIGURE 16-16
Combined GPS/
GLONASS
Performance
Characteristics
90. In summary, the use of GLONASS satellite signals in addition to GPS provides very
significant advantages :
twice the number of satellite signal observations
reduction in the Geometrical Dilution of Precision factor
no possibility of precision degrading in GLONASS (unlike GPS Selective Availability mode)
unaffected by Anti-Spoofing measures which reduce the performance of GPS
GPS
receiver,
L1
frequency,
C/A code
(SPS),
without S/A
mode
GPS
receiver, L1
frequency,
C/A code
(SPS), with
S/A mode
GPS
receiver, L1
frequency,
C/A code
(SPS) in
differential
mode
GLONASS
receiver
(absolute
positioning)
Combined
GPS/
GLONASS
receiver
(absolute
positioning)
Horizontal positioning
accuracy
15-20 m 100 m 1-3 m 15-20 m 15-20 m
Vertical positioning
accuracy
50 m 150 m 1-3 m 50 m 50 m
Velocity vector component
accuracy
2-3 cm/s 1 m/s 2-3 cm/s 2-3 cm/s 2-3 cm/s
GPS and INS Integration
91. Integrated navigation systems are available which can combine the outputs of an Inertial
Reference System (IRS) with GPS. The position and velocity elements provided by the IRS are
continually checked against GPS inputs and if GPS signals are unobtainable or unreliable, modified
IRS data is used instead until such time as the GPS signals are regained. Such systems could, in
addition to providing the normal navigation facilities, also produce vertical navigation (V NAV)
outputs providing at least 4 satellites are available.
92. Another way of looking at the benefits of the above system is as follows;
(a) The short term accuracy of an IRS is extremely good, however in the long term the
position error degrades with time.
(b) The long term accuracy/stability of GPS is good however there may be short periods
where satellite signals are not available. By combining the two systems we benefit
from both the short term accuracy of the IRS and the long term accuracy of GPS, thus
giving the optimum solution.
Future Applications of GPS
Enhanced Ground Proximity Warning System (EGPWS)
93. The current generation of GPWS equipments suffer from two main problems :
(a) Short warning time to potential impact with terrain
(b) Minimal advice generated as to the best method of avoiding the hazard.
The development of EGPWS is an attempt to overcome these problems.
94. EGPWS operation depends upon a worldwide terrain database which is held in the EGPWS
computer memory. The system uses data provided by GPS in order to display surrounding terrain
below, at or above the aircrafts altitude. In brief, the system sounds an audible warning if the
aircrafts projected flight path takes it too close to terrain.
95. With a normal GPWS equipment pilots have no visual display to confirm terrain details,
merely the alert and warning aural message/lights (typically 30 seconds warning) which identify that
a hazard exists. The EGPWS system displays the surrounding terrain up to 320 miles away, from its
database, and provides up to a 60 second warning of a potential impact.
96. The visual display can present terrain details on the aircrafts weather radar display or EFIS
screen in one of three colours, depending on proximity. Green terrain is below the aircraft, yellow is
above, and red is well above. Screen resolution also gets denser as the height of the terrain increases.
If the system issues an alert, the terrain that poses a threat is shown as a solid block of yellow or red.
Automatic Dependent Surveillance Broadcast (ADS-B)
97. ADS-B is technology that allows pilots in the cockpit and air traffic controllers on the ground
to monitor aircraft traffic with much more precision than has previously been possible.
98. Each ADS-B equipped aircraft broadcasts its GPS position via a digital data link along with
other data, including airspeed, altitude and whether the aircraft is turning, climbing or descending.
This provides anyone with ADS-B equipment with a much more accurate depiction of air traffic than
radar can provide. Since the equipment is small and light, it can be made a standard part of the
equipment onboard an aircraft, allowing pilots to see an accurate depiction of real-time air traffic in
the same manner as the controllers. ADS-B works at all altitudes and on the ground therefore it can
be used to monitor traffic on the taxiways and runways of an airport. It is effective in remote areas or
in mountainous terrain where there is no radar coverage, or where radar coverage is limited. One of
the biggest advantages of ADS-B is the fact that it provides data to pilots and ground controllers, so
that for the first time, they can both view the same information.
99. Once an aircraft has generated an ADS-B transmission other aircraft and ground stations
within about 100 miles receive the data link broadcasts and display the information in user friendly
format on a computer screen. Pilots in the cockpit see the traffic on a Cockpit Display of Traffic
Information (CDTI). ADS-B data can be seen by controllers on the ground on their regular ATC
display along with other radar targets.
100. A version of ADS-B is currently in operation in Europe and a similar system will be
operational in the United States in 1999. By late 1999, in the second phase of ADS-B
implementation, software will be developed to provide additional functionality. This software, called
Conflict-Detection and Resolution will provide visual and audible cues to pilots when it determines
that there is the possibility that another aircraft is on a collision course or will pass too closely. The
system will be capable of making this assessment at greater distances than are possible with current
TCAS equipment.
101. Since ADS-B uses relatively simple digital technology, it can be scaled down for use in smaller,
general aviation aircraft. ADS-B provides an opportunity for small single engine or twin engine
aircraft to have cockpit displays similar to the ones in commercial airliners. Accessibility to smaller
aircraft therefore gives ADS-B the potential to dramatically improve aviation safety.
Applications of GPS - Area Navigation (RNAV)
Approach Procedures
102. The following paragraphs, which are extracted from ICAO Doc 8168-OPS/611 Vol 1, give
the guidelines for using basic GPS for RNAV approaches.
Pre-Flight Procedures
103. All GPS IFR operations should be conducted in accordance with the aircraft operating
manual. Prior to an IFR flight using GPS, the operator should ensure that the GPS equipment and the
installation are approved and certified for the intended IFR operation. The equipment should be
operated in accordance with the provisions of the applicable aircraft operating manual. All pilots/
operators must be thoroughly familiar with the GPS equipment installed in the aircraft and its
limitations.
104. The pilot/operator should follow the specific start-up and self-test procedures for the GPS
receiver as outlined in the aircraft operating manual. Basic GPS receivers are capable of non-
precision approach operations only.
105. Prior to any GPS IFR operation, a review of all the NOTAMs appropriate to the satellite
constellation should be undertaken.
106. The pilot must select the appropriate airport(s), runway/approach procedure and initial
approach fix on the aircrafts GPS receiver to determine RAIM availability for that approach. Air
traffic services personnel may not provide any information about the operational integrity of the
system. This is especially important when the aircraft has been cleared for the approach.
Procedures should be established in the event that GPS navigation failures are predicted or occur. In
these situations, the operator may rely on other instrument procedures.
107. Aircraft which are navigating by GPS are considered to be RNAV-equipped aircraft, and the
appropriate equipment suffix should be included in the flight plan. If the GPS avionics becomes
inoperative, the pilot should immediately advise ATC and amend the equipment suffix for
subsequent flight plans.
GPS Approach Procedures
108. GPS receivers must include integrity monitoring routines and be capable of turn anticipation.
109. The airborne navigation database must contain all way-points for the published non-
precision approaches to be flown and for the current AIRAC cycle. To ensure the correctness of the
GPS database display, pilots should check the data displayed as reasonable for the GPS approach
after loading the procedure into the active flight plan and prior to flying the procedure. Some GPS
receivers provide a moving map display which aids the pilot in conducting this reasonableness check.
110. The approach cannot be flown unless that instrument approach is retrievable from the
avionics database.
111. The GPS avionics must store all way-points depicted in the approach to be flown and present
them in the same sequence as the published non-precision instrument approach procedure chart.
112. Approaches must be flown in accordance with the aircraft operating manual and the
procedure depicted on an appropriate instrument approach chart.
113. Operators must be intimately familiar with their States GPS implementation procedures.
Some States require an IFR alternate airport to have an approved instrument approach procedure,
other than GPS or LORAN-C, which is anticipated to be operational at the estimated arrival time.
The aircraft should have the appropriate avionics installed and operational to receive the navigation
aids. The operator is responsible for checking NOTAMs to determine the operational status of the
alternate airport navigational aids.
114. Procedures should be established in the event that GPS failures occur. In these situations, the
operator may rely on other instrument procedures.
115. Some GNSS receivers may provide altitude information. However, the pilot must comply
with the published minimum altitudes using the barometric altimeter.
NOTE:
Now read Chapter 12
FIGURE 209

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