M a r i n e a n d o f f s h o r e t e c h n o l o g y

436 The Leading Edge April 2013

SPECIAL SECTION: M a r i n e a n d o f f s h o r e t e c h n o l o g y
Full tensor CSEM and MT for subsalt structural imaging in the Red
Sea: Implications for seismic and electromagnetic integration
T
he mapping of complex salt, subsalt sediments, and
basement structures in the Red Sea was addressed through
the integration of coincident high-resolution wide-azimuth
(WAZ) 3D seismic data, full tensor gravity gradiometry
(FTG), and MT/CSEM techniques. Te data acquisition was
designed to enable advanced multi-geophysical integration
schemes to image the subsalt geologic structures. Multi-
oset, multicomponent electromagnetic measurements
were recorded for both MT and CSEM with overlapping
frequency bands. Te analysis of the data and the preliminary
3D inversion results indicate that the two methods provide
coherent information for the evaporitic overburden and the
subsalt sediment sections. In addition, the MT data also show
sensitivity to the deep basement structures. Te obtained
resistivity distributions strongly correlate with imaged seismic
events from the 3D migrated seismic volumes and with the
lateral- and vertical-velocity variations in the salt and presalt
sections. Tese data suggest that the acquired electromagnetic
data set can support the interval velocity-depth model
building in areas of low seismic sensitivity such as the intrasalt
and subsalt sections.
Introduction
Te base of salt represents a seal for potential hydrocarbon
traps in the Red Sea, with subsalt tertiary clastic reservoirs
deposited on top of deep basement structures. Salt in the
Red Sea is far from being pure mobilized halite such as in
the Gulf of Mexico. Te evaporites are interbedded with
clastic deposits as shown by drilling results on the Egyp-
tian side (SPE Subsalt Workshop, 2012), and it is referred
to as the layered evaporitic sequence (LES) in this paper.
Te LES typically starts at shallow depths below the water
bottom and is heavily deformed by extensional tectonics in-
ducing relocation and plastic deformation of the evaporitic
sequence. Te described geologic setting suggests the veloc-
ity elds within the deformed LES sequence and in the pre-
salt section can be fairly complex and laterally varying. As
in other salt-related geology, seismic imaging is aected by
various problems related to wave propagation, such as energy
DANIELE COLOMBO, GARY MCNEICE, ERNESTO SANDOVAL CURIEL, and ADAM FOX, Geophysics Technology, EXPEC Advanced Research Center, Saudi
Aramco
penetration, multiples, and scattering, which degrade the
quality of the subsalt reected signals. Te high-velocity and
laterally varying overburden also introduces uncertainties in
the velocity estimation needed for accurate depth imaging.
For these reasons, seismic velocity model building in salt ge-
ology environments is typically supported by geologic inter-
pretation, and by other complementary geophysical methods
such as gravity and electromagnetics.
Electromagnetic (EM) techniques, especially in the form
of magnetotellurics (MT), have played a role in recent years
in the geophysical exploration in areas of complex geology.
Extensive applications of MT technologies have been record-
ed for sub-basalt, subsalt, and thrust belt exploration (Xiao
and Unsworth, 2006; de Lugao et al., 2008). Tese geologic
scenarios are all characterized by high-velocity/high-resistiv-
ity overburden with deeper targets of lower-velocity/lower
resistivity nature. Te application of MT is straightforward
in these cases as the natural and time-variant magnetic eld
(source of the MT signal) is preserved through resistive bod-
ies (the decay of the magnetic-eld amplitude is inversely pro-
portional to the square root of the resistivity), thus providing
information of the deep conductive sections. Seismic waves,
as discussed, typically encounter problems when propagat-
ing through shallow high-velocity rocks because of the large
impedance contrasts and wave-scattering eects. MT and
seismic techniques therefore play a complementary role in
the exploration of geologic settings characterized by complex
overburden. Teir reciprocal integration has been shown to
be valuable for improving velocity model building for seismic
imaging (Christie et al., 2010; Colombo et al., 2012) or, as a
minimum, to validate interpretative hypotheses.
Controlled-source EM (CSEM) is typically used in an
exploration context for detecting variations in uid composi-
tion as a direct hydrocarbon identication method. Te use
of CSEM for imaging of structures is less common and only
a few applications have been performed to date. Controlled-
source audio magnetotelluric (CSAMT, the land equivalent
of marine CSEM), on the other hand, has been widely em-
ployed in the industry and academia over the last 30 years
Figure 1. Multiparameter 3D model developed for the Red Sea (N direction indicated by the red arrow).
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April 2013 The Leading Edge 437
M a r i n e a n d o f f s h o r e t e c h n o l o g y
the sea-bottom sediments, the LES (salt), the sub-LES clastic
sequence (subsalt), and the basement (Figure 1). Te top and
bottom LES surfaces were obtained from the interpretation
of a grid of depth-migrated 2D seismic lines followed by in-
terpolation into a 3D volume.
Te top of the basement surface was obtained from the
seismic interpretation supported by aeromagnetic and aero-
gravity data interpreted through forward modeling and/or
inversion. Sediment layering above the LES was modeled
conformably with the top LES surface, while the presalt clas-
tic sequence was modeled conformably with the estimated
basement topography. Te bulk resistivity parameters for
each layer were derived from the combined analysis and up-
scaling of available well logs (10 wells distributed along the
Red Sea coast). Te interval velocity was derived mainly from
depth-imaging velocity analysis. Density distributions were
obtained from the imaging velocities converted using Gard-
ners relation for the sedimentary section, and the evaporites
density distributions were based on existing literature and
other geologic considerations. Te resulting model is a realis-
tic representation of the 3D distribution of velocity, density
and resistivity for a specic section of the Red Sea subject to
the control of the seismic interpretation. Te model was used
for a number of modeling exercises during the planning of
the subsequent multi-geophysics acquisition, and for testing
and validating various geophysical techniques including mul-
tiparameter joint inversion.
Te 3D resistivity model was used to design the MT and
CSEM acquisition by means of 3D nite-dierence model-
ing and inversion. Anisotropy of 1.5 (i.e., Rv/Rh) was in-
troduced for the CSEM modeling study and station spacing
varying between 2.5 and 3 km on a regular mesh was tested.
Te MT modeling used frequencies from 0.001 to 1 Hz,
which represent a realistic range for the water depth involved
(4001500 m), and the geomagnetic latitude of the Red Sea
(~40N). Te range of frequencies for the CSEM acquisition
was determined through sensitivity studies, where for each
frequency the eects of removing
the presalt sedimentary section were
modeled in terms of amplitude and
phase changes observed in the in-
line Ex component. MT and CSEM
modeling results both suggested sen-
sitivity to the presalt sedimentary sec-
tion, with MT providing a broad fre-
quency response from about 0.05 Hz
to about 0.003 Hz. CSEM frequen-
cies of 0.1, 0.3 and 0.5 Hz showed
the largest response in the Ex (inline)
eld component for source-receiver
osets greater than 6 km. Figure 2
shows the MT responses calculated
at the locations displayed on the salt
thickness map. Te conductive presalt
sediments are well represented in the
MT responses as well as the response
from the basement.
for imaging deep structures. Te basic principle behind the
CSAMT technique is that for specic transmission frequen-
cies and at sucient distances from the source, the EM elds
can be approximated by plane waves (far eld) and can be in-
terpreted with the same techniques developed for their natural
eld equivalent MT (Zonge and Hughes, 1991; Unsworth et
al., 2000). Te marine environment provides the ideal condi-
tions for obtaining dense CSEM measurements with a broad
range of osets and azimuths with limited additional eort
when already acquiring MT data. Te CSEM measurements,
in this case, play a dual role of dening, with high resolution,
the shallow structures with the near-oset/higher-frequency
data and exploring the deep section (by overlapping with the
MT frequencies) with the longer-oset/low-frequency data.
Te combination of CSEM and MT measurements therefore
provides the means for exploring complex overburden and
deep structures with scalable resolution and high data redun-
dancy. Te multiscale and comprehensive reconstruction of
properties in the complex shallow overburden opens the road
to the integration of seismic and electromagnetic techniques
for improved velocity model building.
In the following sections, we describe how these concepts
were applied to Saudi Aramcos Red Sea subsalt exploration
problem using a combination of broadband MT and wide-
azimuth/long-oset CSEM measurements, the goal being a
complete EM reconstruction of the geology from mudline
to basement. We also explore the potential of combined
EM technologies for addressing problems of seismic velocity
model building and consequent seismic imaging in the con-
text of subsalt exploration.
Presurvey modeling studies
A multidisciplinary team including interpreters, depth im-
agers, and EM and potential eld experts closely collabo-
rated to dene a 3D multiparameter geophysical model for
the Red Sea based on oshore 2D seismic, wells, and other
geological data. Four main geological units were considered:
Figure 2. Salt thickness map from the 3D Red Sea synthetic model with the grid of MT stations
at 2.5-km spacing (a); MT TE and TM responses (0N rotation) in the frequency range 0.0011
Hz from selected soundings (b). Te red arrows show the response of the presalt sediments on the
apparent resistivity and phase curves. Te prole (blue line) on the base map indicates the location
of the 2D inversion tests crossing a section of the salt with thickness exceeding 6 km.
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438 The Leading Edge April 2013
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Inversion tests were carried out along the prole shown in
Figure 2, which crosses the thickest section of the LES complex
with maximum thickness of the salt exceeding 6 km. 2D MT
inversion was performed using both transverse electric (TE) and
transverse magnetic (TM) polarization modes obtained with
0.0N rotation of the impedance data in the frequency range of
0.001-1 Hz. Te 2.5D CSEM inversion of the inline Ex com-
ponent (assuming an acquisition direction along the prole) was
performed for frequencies of 0.1, 0.3, 0.5 and 0.7 Hz, and using
osets from 1 to 20 km. For both inversions, the top LES surface
is xed as it is assumed to have been derived from the seismic
interpretation. Results are shown in Figure 3 where the MT
and CSEM (Rh) inversion results are compared (a fuller dis-
cussion on Rh versus Rv sensitivity will follow).
Inversion results indicate that both the MT and
the CSEM data can resolve the base of the LES
sequence (i.e., top of the presalt sediments) with
CSEM obtaining the highest resolution. Te MT
data set is the only data that resolve the geometry
of the basement. Te above results suggest that the
combination of broadband MT and long-oset/
low-frequency CSEM would be able to help in deep
subsalt exploration in the Red Sea.
MT/CSEM data set
MT and CSEM acquisition was carried out in the
summer of 2011 for three survey blocks using the
parameters detailed in Table 1. Te area occupied
by the combined MT and CSEM acquisition co-
incides with the full fold area of the wide azimuth
(WAZ) seismic acquisition and of the full tensor gravity
gradiometry (FTG) acquisition. As a result, the volume of
each WAZ block is equally sampled by three dense and high-
resolution geophysical data sets, which provides a unique op-
portunity for multi-geophysics data integration. At the time
of the data acquisition, the survey was reported to be the
worlds largest combined marine EM (MT+CSEM) project
ever undertaken.
EM receivers were deployed on the sea oor in a stag-
gered grid with a 3-km nominal oset between stations. Each
block was acquired by performing multiple deployments of
the receiver patches to allow acquisition of osets of more
than 30 km in the inline direction, and 12 km in the cross-
line direction perpendicular to the source (i.e., four azimuthal
Figure 3. Inversion results for the synthetic MT (a) and CSEM (b) data sets along the prole shown in Figure 2. Both inversions resolve the
base of salt, while only MT resolves the basement (black lines are used to indicate from top to bottom: top LES, base of salt and top of basement
surfaces).
Item Specication
Blocks 3
Surface Average of 2000 km
2
per block
Number of stations 650
Spacing 3 km (staggered grid)
Sea-bottom recording time Up to 20 days of continuous recording
Inline oset (max) 25 km
Crossline oset (max) 12 km (four azimuthal lines)
Measured components Ex, Ey, Bx, By
CSEM transmitted frequency 0.2 Hz
CSEM harmonics 0.4, 0.6, 0.8, 1.4, 2.0 Hz
Table 1. Acquisition parameters for the combined MT/CSEM survey in the Red Sea.
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440 The Leading Edge April 2013
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receiver lines actively recording on each side
of the source lines). Large broadside (i.e.,
crossline) osets enabled the acquisition of
electromagnetic elds more sensitive to the
horizontal resistivity components than that
provided by the inline data. Tis enables a
better discrimination of electrical anisotro-
py (Newman et al., 2010) and enhances the
sensitivity to the conductive subsalt section.
Te recorded MT and CSEM data were
of good to exceptional quality and achieved
usable osets in CSEM exceeding 20 km (Table 2 and Figure
4). A preliminary look at the recorded CSEM data suggests
that features such as submarine canyons and mountains in-
troduce noticeable distortions in the recorded elds. Tis ob-
servation underlies the need for an appropriate representation
of the sea-bottom topography during the data interpretation/
inversion phases. Te rst four frequencies (0.2, 0.4, 0.6, and
0.8) had good signal-to-noise at osets of 25 km or more,
while the higher harmonics (1.4 and 2.0 Hz) show a variable
behavior, but in many cases also achieving reliable measure-
ments exceeding 20 km of oset. Te MVO plots in Figure
4 also show a remarkable level of signal for the Ey and Hx
components that should be absent for 1D and 2D geology
symmetric to the source orientation. Tis behavior reects
the 3D nature of the subsurface.
MT time series were processed using robust remote refer-
ence methods (Larsen et al., 1996). For each deployment, the
EM receivers remained on the sea oor for a total average
time of about 12 days and up to 20 days in a few cases, where
both CSEM and natural magnetotelluric signals were record-
ed (Figure 5). Tis extended deployment period allowed for
the processing of long time-series windows for the estimation
of the magnetotelluric impedance tensor components. Typi-
cally, the whole available data set was utilized for the process-
ing including the periods where the transmitter was active.
Up to four decades of usable MT impedance estimates were
Figure 4. Normalized magnitude versus oset (MVO) plots at one receiver: fundamental transmission frequency and recorded harmonics for
the inline Ex component (a); the four components of the recorded signalEx, Ey, Hx, and Hy (b). Te cusp observed in the curves at 14,000 m
oset is caused by a deep sea-bottom canyon.
Frequency (Hz) Electric data (km) Magnetic data (km)
0.2 Up to 25 km Up to 25 km
0.4 Up to 25 km Up to 25 km
0.6 Up to 25 km Up to 25 km
0.8 Up to 4 to 25 km Up to 4 to 25 km
1.4 Up to 2 to 20 km Up to 2 to 20 km
2.0 Up to 2 to 16 km Up to 2 to 16 km
Table 2. Approximate oset ranges where data were of satisfactory quality for standard
processed data.
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April 2013 The Leading Edge 441
M a r i n e a n d o f f s h o r e t e c h n o l o g y
obtained for most of the soundings (Figure 6). Te obtained
MT data show remarkable similarity with the soundings
modeled with the 3D synthetic model (Figure 2), conrming
the reliability of the Red Sea multiparameter model.
Te combined CSEM and MT data sets provide a high
degree of redundancy in terms of the range of acquired fre-
quencies with the high-resolution CSEM data set covering
the higher-frequency spectrum of the EM signal and MT ex-
tending the low-frequency content by three decades. CSEM
and MT data overlap for approximately one decade of the
EM spectrum: from 0.2 to 2.0 Hz. In this frequency range,
and at a sucient distance from the source, the CSEM signal
can be approximated by plane waves (i.e., far eld) behaving
similarly to the natural MT signal.
We calculate the CSEM impedance tensor component
Zxy (Ex and Hy signal components) at various osets along
one acquisition line and analyze their behavior at dierent
frequencies by plotting the derived apparent resistivity and
phase curves (Figure 7). Te transi-
tion from the near-eld to the far-
eld behavior is marked by stable
estimates of the apparent resistivity
and phase (i.e., at response). For the
CSEM acquired frequencies of 0.4 to
2.0 Hz, the transition occurs between
1.5 and 2.5 km of oset with the
higher frequencies reaching the far-
eld conditions earlier than the lower
frequencies. Te lowest acquired fre-
quency (0.2 Hz), however, struggles
to reach a stable impedance esti-
mate, suggesting that the far-eld
(i.e., plane wave) conditions would
require larger osets. Te large osets
acquired for the inline and broadside
directions in the Red Sea survey en-
able the estimation of the horizontal
electromagnetic impedance tensor
components (Zxy and Zyx), for both
CSEM and MT data, for the over-
lapping frequency band of the two
data sets. Because of the overlapping
frequencies and the similar propaga-
tion behavior in the far eld, the MT
and CSEM data will be sensitive, to
a large degree, to the same geological
features.
EM data analysis
In the following sections, we analyze
the acquired EM data and derive
preliminary interpretations on the
geologic signicance of the observed
patterns. For brevity, we focus our
analysis on only one of the three
blocks that were acquired. A visu-
al examination of the data quality
Figure 5. Spectrogram of a sea-bottom EM receiver showing the signal variation over a period
of 20 days. Notice the diurnal variations of the MT signal, the variations of solar activity over
the recording period, and the spectral lines at 0.2 Hz and higher harmonics from the horizontal
electric dipole (HED) transmitter.
Figure 6. MT soundings processed with robust reference methods and using extra-long time series
(i.e., typically more than 12 days of continuous recording of MT and CSEM signals). Nearly four
complete decades of usable MT impedance data are recovered.
throughout the survey area is achieved by calculating pseu-
dosections for the MT data set, where the frequency-de-
pendent apparent resistivity and phase for each polarization
mode (i.e., transverse magnetic = TM and transverse electric
= TE) are represented in attribute cubes. Given the diusive
nature of the EM signal, the apparent resistivity and phase
attributes should show consistent smooth variations in the
space and frequency dimensions. Likewise, CSEM pseudo-
sections, or attribute maps, are typically obtained for each
frequency, oset and component by representing normalized
amplitude and phase values plotted at the midpoint between
source and receiver. Visual inspection of the attribute maps
is used for data QC purposes and for deriving preliminary
qualitative interpretations of the geology before undergoing
a rigorous 3D inversion process. Figure 8 shows the compar-
ison between the horizontal slices of the MT apparent resis-
tivity attribute at 0.1 Hz (invariant mode) compared to the
CSEM normalized amplitude of the inline Ex component
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442 The Leading Edge April 2013
M a r i n e a n d o f f s h o r e t e c h n o l o g y
for an oset of 2.0 km and the broadside Ey component at
4.0 km oset at a frequency of 0.2 Hz. Both the MT and the
CSEM methods show sensitivity to the same geology for a
comparable frequency content of the signal. It should be not-
ed that the MT data at this frequency display a 1D behavior
(Figure 6) so that the TM and TE polarizations models are
equal and their average (invariant mode) is a good represen-
tation of the impedance behavior at this frequency. For sim-
ilar reasons, the inline Ex and the broadside Ey components
show sensitivity to the same geology and match the MT
response. Te dense spatial sampling of the CSEM source
provides a detailed map of the lithologic variations, as can be
seen in Figure 8.
Te high sensitivity to the geology and the wide overlap
in responses of the MT and CSEM data provide the means
for reconstructing the whole 3D geoelectric structure in these
Red Sea survey areas starting from the internal variations in
the salt overburden, through the targeted subsalt sedimentary
section, to the basement. Tese properties can then be used
to rene the seismic velocity estimates, especially in areas that
lack coherent seismic reectivity, such as in the salt overbur-
den or the deeper subsalt section. In the next paragraphs we
explore the aspects of seismic-electromagnetic integration for
velocity model building through single-domain inversions of
the MT and CSEM data.
3D EM inversion
MT and CSEM inversions were carried out starting from
structural seismic constraints as derived from the 3D prestack
depth migration (PSDM) of the WAZ data. Te coincidence
of the MT/CSEM acquisition with the full-fold area of the
WAZ enabled the denition of the top LES surface by means
of seismic interpretation in the depth domain. Te top LES
represents the shallowest interface creating a major contrast
in seismic velocity and resistivity and, for this reason, any
prior information related to its geometry is of great relevance
in performing 3D EM inversions. Te starting model for
both the MT and CSEM data inversions was a so-called salt
ood model, meaning that the resistivity below the top LES
interface was set to a constant resistivity value representing
the resistivity of salt. An average water resistivity of 0.176
ohm.m (as measured during the acquisition) was used, while
a resistivity of 0.5 ohm.m was assigned to the sediments from
the sea bottom to the top LES. Te resistivity of the half
space below the top LES was selected by trial and error to
generate the smallest initial mist in the inverted data. All
the cells in the inversion model were allowed to vary during
the inversion except for the resistivity of the sea water.
Te 3D MT inversion is based on a nite-dierence for-
ward modeling algorithm for EM eld simulation (Alum-
baugh et al., 1996) using a nonlinear conjugate gradient
(NLCG) for minimization of the data mist functional
(Newman and Alumbaugh, 2000). To optimize computa-
tional eciency, the method uses separate grids for the mod-
el parameter description and for the computational meshes
used in the forward modeling. Te computational meshes
are optimized in size for each inverted MT frequency. Key to
this approach is a proper material averaging scheme to map
the conductivity parameters of the geological model to the
computational grids used for the eld solution in the forward
problem (Commer and Newman, 2008). Te MT inversion
used 218 receivers with 13 frequencies spanning from 0.001
Figure 7. Apparent resistivity (a) and phase (b) calculations for inline measurements (Ex and Hy) at increasing osets and for representative
recorded frequencies. Te transition from the near-eld to the far-eld behavior (i.e., plane waves) of the EM elds is marked by stable estimates
of apparent resistivity and phase versus oset.
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to 1 Hz. Te inversion model was parameterized with ap-
proximately 7.7 million cells, which measure 200 200 m
(x-y) in the core area with depth intervals of 40 m for the
rst km of the model and then gradually increasing up to
250 m at the depth of 10,000 m. Forward calculation mesh-
es were optimized for each inverted frequency, obtaining 13
computational meshes (i.e., one per frequency) consisting of
a minimum of 0.7 million cells to a maximum of 2 million
cells for the lowest/highest frequencies used. Te initial salt
ood model built using the interpreted top LES was set to a
resistivity of 50 ohm.m. Te 3D MT inversion was complet-
ed in 155 iterations, achieving a nal rms mist of 2.37. A
snapshot of the 3D MT inversion result is shown in Figure
9 where the inverted resistivity cube is sliced in two vertical
cross sections and corendered with the 3D PSDM seismic
section migrated to 8 km depth. Localized modications of
the interpreted boundary between sea-oor sediments and
the top of the LES were introduced by the MT inversion,
indicating that the sharp shallow interface used for depth
imaging might require additional renement. Te resistivi-
ty of the LES was also modied by the MT inversion with
areas of high-resistivity values associated to more halite con-
centrations. A deep conductor was introduced consistently
throughout the model below the LES sequence. Te transi-
tion between the resistive overburden and the deep conduc-
tive package coincides with a clear reection visible on the
migrated seismic volume. Tis can be associated, in rst anal-
ysis, to the major lithological variation between the LES and
the sedimentary section underneath. Te conductive package
is further bounded at depth by some poorly resolved high-re-
sistive feature that is interpreted to represent the geoelectric
expression of the basement.
Te CSEM inversion methodology is based on a 3D
regular mesh model representation of the conductivity
structure where a nite dierence time-domain approach
(Maa, 2007) is used to solve the Maxwells equations in the
reciprocal receiver-source domain. Te L2-norm data mist is
inverted by using a quasi-Newton inversion algorithm based
on the BFGS method (Byrd et al., 1995). Te fundamental
transmission frequency plus two harmonics (i.e., 0.2, 0.4 and
0.6 Hz) were used in the 3D CSEM inversion for all four
measured eld components (i.e., Ex, Ey, Hx, Hy). Inline data
up to 20 km oset and data relative to four broadside lines
(i.e., maximum broadside oset available) were also selected
for the inversion. As per the 3D MT inversion, a salt ood
model from the interpreted top LES was used as the starting
model and the initial salt resistivity was set to 100 ohm.m.
Te model was parameterized using a regular mesh of 300
300 96 m in the x, y, z model dimensions respectively, for a
total of 9.5 million cells used in the inversion. Te CSEM in-
version was performed for both the horizontal resistivity (Rh)
and for the vertical resistivity (Rv) assuming vertical trans-
verse isotropy (VTI) for the conductivity structure, with the
two components uncoupled during the inversion. Te initial
model used for the inversion was assumed to be isotropic (Rh
= Rv). Te 3D CSEM inversion was completed in 135 itera-
tions, achieving a nal rms mist of 3.94.
Figure 10 shows the results of the 3D CSEM inversion
compared to the MT inversion along the cross section A-A,
superimposed on the depth-migrated seismic. Te 3D MT
and CSEM Rh inversions show consistent structures, and
both show sensitivity to a conductor located below the base of
the salt. Te base of the resistive layer is consistent with a clear
seismic reector imaged via PSDM. Te MT inversion addi-
tionally shows the presence of a poorly resolved deep resistor,
which is interpreted to be the expression of the basement.
Te obtained results are in line with the conclusions from
the presurvey modeling study, which indicated sensitivity for
both MT and CSEM to the conductive subsalt sediments
and only MT sensitivity to the basement structures. Te
MT and CSEM (Rh) inversion results also show consistency
with the velocity eld used for the 3D PSDM, which was
derived independently from the EM data interpretation. Te
CSEM Rv inversion results show little or no sensitivity to
Figure 8. Snapshot of the data distribution (MT and CSEM): MT apparent resistivity invariant mode at 0.1 Hz (a); inline Ex normalized
amplitude at 2.0 km oset (b) and broadside Ey component at 4.0 km oset (c) at 0.2 Hz. Te reference seismic depth slice is arbitrarily taken at
2000 m depth; the NW-SE lines represent the CSEM acquisition lines.
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April 2013 The Leading Edge 445
M a r i n e a n d o f f s h o r e t e c h n o l o g y
the conductive subsalt sediments, indicating that the verti-
cal current ow is obstructed by the thick resistive salt. Te
layered nature of the LES introduces large anisotropy in the
geoelectric structure with Rv much bigger than Rh (notice
the dierent color scales used in Figure 10 for the CSEM Rh
and Rv inversion results). Te rst-order anisotropy in the
LES is likely generated by the layered sequences of evaporites
and clastic sediments (shales and/or sands) rather than by in-
trinsic rock properties. Evidence of such layered composition
for the evaporite sequence was found in wells drilled on the
African side of the Red Sea in Egypt by Hess (SPE Subsalt
Workshop, 2012). Additional aspects related to the CSEM
Rv inversion are the introduction of vertically shaped con-
ductors that typically do not appear in both the MT and the
CSEM Rh inversions. Te interpretation of these features is
discussed in the next section.
Considerations for seismic-EM integration
Te primary objective for multi-geophysics acquisition in
the Red Sea was the fusion of dierent geophysical meth-
ods to de-risk the subsalt exploration. A typical workow for
achieving this task consists of interpretation-driven forward
modeling performed to conrm interpretative hypothesis.
Tis standard approach has limitations and does not fully ex-
ploit the information available in multi- geophysics data sets.
A more ambitious objective sought in the Red Sea was the
analytical and quantitative integration of dierent geophysi-
cal methods (i.e., seismic, gravity and EM in our case) to
improve the overburden velocity estimates for seismic depth
imaging. Approaches such as simultaneous joint inversion
(Colombo and De Stefano, 2007; Tartaras et al., 2011) of
multi-geophysics data address this problem and can become
a practical method for velocity model building when struc-
tural or petrophysical relations can be established among
the dierent geophysical parameters. It is therefore impera-
tive to assess the quality, the resolution and the correlation
of information from various geophysical methods before em-
barking in any multi-geophysics joint inversion study. With
this in mind we analyze the potential of the acquired data set
Figure 10. Comparison of 3D MT inversion (a), 3D CSEM
inversions Rh (b) and Rv (c) and the interval depth-velocity model
from PSDM (d) along prole A-A. Te background seismic section is
depth-migrated to 8 km.
Figure 9. 3D MT inversion results. Te seismic volume is depth-migrated to 8 km.
for achieving eective seismic and EM integration for veloc-
ity model building.
Multi-geophysical integration, whether performed with
an interpretative and interactive workow or by means of
more sophisticated and analytical joint inversion schemes,
requires the parameters (in this case velocity and resistivity)
to be correlated. Based on what has been observed to date for
the Red Sea, we can conclude that the horizontal resistivity
(Rh) variations describe the main geologic units, as would
be expected from the interval velocity eld. Te resistivity
and velocity parameter distributions, as derived from inde-
pendent data sets and by dierent inversion methodologies,
display a coherent spatial correlation or in other words a
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446 The Leading Edge April 2013
M a r i n e a n d o f f s h o r e t e c h n o l o g y
common structure. Tis property, translated into the minimi-
zation of the cross gradient function of the model parameter
distributions, can be exploited in a joint inversion scheme for
inferring velocity from resistivity.
Two important challenges exist in velocity model build-
ing for subsalt exploration of the Red Sea; these consist of the
denition of the top LES interface (typically done by means
of geologic interpretation), and of the denition of the in-
ternal lateral and vertical velocity variations within, and at
the base of, the evaporitic overburden. Te top LES interface
represents a shallow major discontinuity for both the velocity
and the resistivity parameters and accurate recovery of the
velocity distribution around this shallow transition has pro-
found eects on the imaging capabilities at depth. A bright
reection is typically used to distinguish the top LES interface,
and the geologic interpretation of this interface is used for build-
ing the velocity models for PSDM (i.e., salt ooding). In many
areas of the 3D surveys, especially where layered minibasins are
present, the boundary is dicult to identify, as it is not marked
by a bright reection. In such conditions, the cross analysis of the
resistivity variations from the MT inversion, and from the high-
er-resolution CSEM inversion, can lead to a better description of
the velocity distribution across the top LES interface.
Estimation of how velocity var-
ies in the evaporitic overburden is
challenging when using seismic data
alone due to the general lack of coher-
ent intrasalt reections, and because
of low signal/noise subsalt reected
events. In such cases, the migrated
image gathers are dicult to analyze
for residual curvature, making the ve-
locity estimation process problemat-
ic. Figure 11 shows a horizontal slice
cut through the resistivity and seis-
mic interval velocity cubes at 2000 m
depth (i.e., within the LES), with the
seismic depth image corendered with
the resistivity and velocity parameter
distributions. As observed in the cross
sections of Figure 10, the resistivity
distribution from MT inversion and
the Rh distribution from CSEM in-
version are strongly correlated to each
other, indicating sensitivity to similar
geologic features. Te correlation of
the reconstructed resistivity patterns,
with the independently derived in-
terval velocity eld from PSDM,
also shows strong similarities. Tis
evidence supports the concept of seis-
mic-electromagnetic integration for
the denition of migration velocities
in the evaporitic overburden.
Te analysis of the reconstructed
vertical resistivity (Rv) distribution
presents some interpretation chal-
lenges. As observed in the vertical cross sections, the distri-
bution of Rv is dierent and uncorrelated to the other three
parameter distributions shown in Figure 11. We can observe,
however, the presence of conductors that bound and de-
lineate the areas of higher resistivity and higher velocity in
the seismic slice. Tese lateral variations can be interpreted
as lithologic changes within the evaporitic complex, such
as the transition between evaporitic sequences interbedded
with clastic sediments and predominantly halite bodies. Te
conductive halo surrounding the high-resistivity features in
the CSEM (Rv) inversion could be explained by a combina-
tion of phenomena related to possible salt dissolution, which
decreases the overall bulk resistivity of the rock formations
around the halite bodies, or by the structural setup of the
layered evaporites (believed to be highly anisotropic) when
they subvertically onlap onto the massive halite bodies. Te
layered evaporite complex displays VTI anisotropic behav-
ior with Rv>>Rh (l
zz
>>l
xx
, l
yy
) when horizontally stratied.
For this reason, the horizontally layered evaporites typically
appear as conductors on the MT and CSEM (Rh) inver-
sions, in response to the propagation of horizontal currents
and as resistors to the propagation of vertical currents in the
CSEM (Rv) inversion. When subvertically stratied, the LES
Figure 11. Comparison between PSDM seismic at 2000 m (below sea level) with: 3D MT
inversion (a), 3D CSEM inversion (b, d) and the interval velocity model used for PSDM (c); NW-SE
lines represent the CSEM acquisition directions and points indicate the location of EM receivers.
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448 The Leading Edge April 2013
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anisotropy becomes HTI (horizontal transverse isotropy)
with Rh>>Rv (l
xx
, or l
yy
>>l
zz
). Tis would explain the ap-
pearance of the vertical conductors bounding the halite bod-
ies in the CSEM (Rv) inversions. Te above considerations
would lead to the conclusion that more complex electrical
anisotropy models such as tilted transverse isotropy (TTI) in-
volving the o-diagonal components of the conductivity ten-
sor should be invoked to explain the propagation of CSEM
elds in structured and anisotropic geology.
Conclusions and path forward
Wide-azimuth seismic, FTG, MT, and CSEM data were ac-
quired over three exploration blocks in the Red Sea. Te dif-
ferent types of geophysical data are colocated and acquired
using high-resolution acquisition parameters to provide a
unique opportunity for the application of multi-geophysical
data integration techniques targeting primarily the improved
interval velocity-depth model building for 3D PSDM. Te
electromagnetic data set, in particular, shows a high degree
of correlation with the predominant geological features and
with the independently derived PSDM interval velocity-
depth model.
Both the MT and CSEM data sets show sensitivity via 3D
inversion to the targeted subsalt section, and to the internal
lithologic variations within the evaporitic complex. Strong
anisotropy is observed in the layered evaporite sequence,
which can be used as an additional attribute to discriminate
lateral lithologic variations through the analysis of the Rv
distribution. Additionally, the MT data show sensitivity and
correlation to the deep basement features predicted by the
geologic models. Te overlap in frequency of the MT and
CSEM data sets, and the similarity of propagation mode for
long-oset CSEM signals, suggest that the combination of
the CSEM and MT inversions (or their simultaneous joint
inversion) would be ideal to obtain a complete 3D geoelectric
model for the top LES sequence, the subsalt sedimentary sec-
tion and the deep basement structure.
Te initial 3D-inversion results, and the analysis carried
out in the multi-geophysical domains, suggest that an eec-
tive integration of the dierent data sets can be used to help
build the interval velocity model in the depth domain. Evi-
dence suggests that a proper integration of CSEM and MT
data with 3D seismic has the potential to help rene the
velocity distribution at the boundary between the sea-oor
sediments and the top LES, the lateral velocity changes in the
evaporitic complex related to lithologic variations (pure halite
concentrations versus other evaporitic sequences interbedded
with sediments), and the denition of the deep subsalt sedi-
mentary section. Given the observed commonality of struc-
ture between resistivity and velocity distributions, an eective
integration of the multi-geophysical data sets can be achieved
through the use of simultaneous joint inversion schemes,
where the minimization of the cross-gradient functional is
used to impose structural constraints. Te lack of wells and of
petrophysical information on velocity and resistivity for the
Red Sea suggests that weak cross-domain constraints, such
as the cross-gradients incorporated in a multiparameter joint
inversion procedure, would be the most suitable approach to
integrate into the velocity estimations through the use of elec-
tromagnetic data.
We believe that the data set acquired in the Red Sea is only
starting to show the potential of multi-geophysical data inte-
gration for subsalt exploration applications. Te high qual-
ity and dense spatial sampling of the coincident geophysical
methods (WAZ seismic, MT, CSEM and FTG) make the ac-
quired data sets an ideal test case to study and develop quan-
titative integration schemes such as 3D joint inversion. Te
complexity of the geologic setting also provides the opportu-
nity for analysis of electrical anisotropy on CSEM measure-
ments. Te large overlap of CSEM and MT measurements,
in terms of frequency content and the commonality of prop-
agation modes at large osets, will enable the development
of robust joint CSEM and MT interpretation schemes for
exploration in complex and structured geologic areas.
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Acknowledgments: Te work presented in
this article was made possible only with the
valued contribution of many individuals in
Saudi Aramco and through the collabora-
tion with service providers. We thank Saudi
Aramcos Exploration and EXPEC ARC
management for allowing the publication
of the results of this study. We also thank
our colleagues Emad Muzaiyen and Daniel
Franken for their contribution in building
the 3D Red Sea multiparameter synthetic
model, and Valmore Celis Franco for work
on the PSDM migration velocities. Among
the external collaborators, we thank are
Michael Commer and Greg Newman
(Lawrence Berkeley National Laborato-
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Ceci (WesternGeco).
Corresponding author: daniele.colombo@
aramco.com
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