Thermal expansion is the tendency of matter to change in volume in response to a change in temperature. When a substance is heated, its particles begin moving more and thus usually maintain a greater average separation. The degree of expansion divided by the change in temperature is called the material's coefficient of thermal expansion and generally varies with temperature.
Thermal expansion is the tendency of matter to change in volume in response to a change in temperature. When a substance is heated, its particles begin moving more and thus usually maintain a greater average separation. The degree of expansion divided by the change in temperature is called the material's coefficient of thermal expansion and generally varies with temperature.
Thermal expansion is the tendency of matter to change in volume in response to a change in temperature. When a substance is heated, its particles begin moving more and thus usually maintain a greater average separation. The degree of expansion divided by the change in temperature is called the material's coefficient of thermal expansion and generally varies with temperature.
Thermal expansion is the tendency of matter to change in volume in
response to a change in temperature.
[1]
When a substance is heated, its particles begin moving more and thus usually maintain a greater average separation. Materials which contract with increasing temperature are unusual; this effect is limited in size, and only occurs within limited temperature ranges (see examples below). The degree of expansion divided by the change in temperature is called the material's coefficient of thermal expansion and generally varies with temperature. Linear expansion To a first approximation, the change in length measurements of an object ("linear dimension" as opposed to, e.g., volumetric dimension) due to thermal expansion is related to temperature change by a "linear expansion coefficient". It is the fractional change in length per degree of temperature change. Assuming negligible effect of pressure, we may write: Volume expansion For a solid, we can ignore the effects of pressure on the material, and the volumetric thermal expansion coefficient can be written: [5]
where is the volume of the material, and is the rate of change of that volume with temperature. This means that the volume of a material changes by some fixed fractional amount. For example, a steel block with a volume of 1 cubic meter might expand to 1.002 cubic meters when the temperature is raised by 50 C. This is an expansion of 0.2%. If we had a block of steel with a volume of 2 cubic meters, then under the same conditions, it would expand to 2.004 cubic meters, again an expansion of 0.2%. The volumetric expansion coefficient would be 0.2% for 50 K, or 0.004% K 1 . If we already know the expansion coefficient, then we can calculate the change in volume
where is the fractional change in volume (e.g., 0.002) and is the change in temperature (50C). They are equal at -40 (minus 40 degrees). ...because if we convert the readings of Celsius and Fahrenheit, we will have: Celsius to Fahrenheit (-40C x 9/5) +32 = -72 + 32 = -40F Fahrenheit to Celsius (-40F - 32) x 5/9 = (-72 )x 5/9 = -40C Algebraically (for the numerical value T) The formula for some identical temperature T would beT(F) = T(C) and T = (9/5 T + 32) yields 4/5 T = -32 and T = -40 (see related question) Zoo: The Parts and Function of the Urinary System Our body is like a machine . Machine needs oil or gasoline to work. Our body needs food in order to carry out its activities. Once the food has reached the body systems, they are quickly used for energy. In the process, wastes materials are produced which need to be removed from the body. The solid waste material comes out through the anus, while the fluid material is eliminated through the urinary system. The Urinary System and Its Major Parts 1. Kidneys- the kidneys are two brownish, bean shaped organs about the size of a fist, they weigh about 5 ounces. They are located in the upper right and left back part of the abdominal cavity. Each kidney contains about 1,200,000 microscopic filters called nephrons. Nephrons are smaller than the smaller dots. The main function or the kidneys are to maintain the water balance and to eliminate waste materials from the blood. 2. Ureters the left and the right ureters are long muscular tubes. They are about 12 inches long with a diameter 2 to 3 millimeters. The ureters connect pelvis of each kidney to urinary bladder. They carry urine from each kidney to the urinary bladder. 3. The Urinary Bladder the urinary bladder is a muscular sac that holds urine. It is located in front the pelvis and behind the pubis. As the bladder fills walls stretch signaling the desire to urinate. 4. The Urethra- the urethra is a muscular tube which carries urine from the bladder to the outside part of the body. In the female, it is a one inch long from the bladder to the cleft of the labia. In the male, it is several inches long from the prostate gland to the penis. When one is about to urinate, a value in the urethra relaxes to allow the urine to flow out. The Urinary System Cleans the Blood Waste Products During normal activity of the body, waste product are formed. The chief waste of the body are carbon dioxide, water, urea and salts. Carbon dioxide is eliminated through the lungs while water, urea and salts are eliminated through the urine. Urea is a product resulting from the breakdown of protein foods and of protoplasm. It is excreted mainly but the kidneys. Urinary Systems Mechanism 1. Glomerulus each nephron is composed of a glomerulus. The glomerulus is surrounded by hollow capsule known as Bowmans Capsule. The capillaries in the glomerulus filters the waste materials of the blood except protein and the cells. 2. Filtered Fluid the filtered fluid enters the bowmans capsule, where it flow down through its twisted tubes. The walls of the tubes absorb back in to the blood the needed water and blood chemicals. 3. Pathway of Unwanted Chemicals Unwanted chemicals are discharged. The unwanted chemicals are the waste products. They come out in the form of urine. The urine passes into the ureter and on to the urinary bladder. And the urethra which releases it to the outside of the body. Urine gives valuable clues to the body. Sugar in the urine is an indication of diabetes. Albumen may signify that the kidneys are not functioning properly. Pituitary Gland The pituitary gland is sometimes called the "master gland" because of its great influence on the other body organs. Its function is complex and important for overall well-being. It produces hormones that act directly on the body and that stimulate other endocrine glands to produce their own hormones. The anterior pituitary (the front part of the pituitary) produces several types of hormones: Prolactin: stimulates milk production from a woman's breasts after childbirth. In pregnant and breastfeeding women, prolactin helps prevent ovulation (the release of eggs from the ovaries). Growth hormone (GH): GH stimulates growth in childhood and is important for maintaining a healthy body composition. In adults it is also important for maintaining muscle mass and bone mass. GH also affects fat distribution in the body. Adrenocorticotropin (ACTH): ACTH stimulates production of cortisol by the adrenal glands. Cortisol, a so-called "stress hormone," is vital to survival. It helps maintain blood pressure and blood glucose levels, among other effects. Thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH): TSH stimulates the thyroid gland to make thyroid hormones, which, in turn, control (regulate) the body's metabolism, energy, growth and development, and nervous system activity. Luteinizing hormone (LH): LH regulates testosterone in men and estrogen in women. Follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH): FSH stimulates the ovaries to release eggs (ovulate) in women. LH and FSH work together to allow normal function of the ovaries or testes, including sperm production. The posterior pituitary (back part of the pituitary) produces two hormones: Oxytocin: Oxytocin causes milk to be released in nursing mothers and contractions during childbirth. Antidiuretic hormone (ADH): ADH, also called vasopressin, regulates water balance. If ADH is not secreted in the right amount, this can lead to too much or too little sodium (salt) and water in the bloodstream. Read about pituitary disorders.
Hypothalamus The hypothalamus is part of the brain that lies just above the pituitary gland. It releases hormones that start and stop the release of pituitary hormones. The hypothalamus controls hormone production in the pituitary gland through several "releasing" hormones. These include: growth hormone-releasing hormone, or GHRH (controls GH release) thyrotropin-releasing hormone, or TRH (controls TSH release) corticoptropin-releasing hormone, or CRH (controls ACTH release) Another hormone made by the hypothalamus is gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH). It tells the pituitary gland to make luteinizing hormone (LH) and follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH), which are important for normal puberty and reproduction. Thymus The thymus is a gland needed early in life for normal immune function. It is very large just after a child is born and weighs the most when a child reaches puberty. Then its tissue is replaced by fat. The thymus gland secretes hormones called humoral factors. These hormones help to develop the immune system, which is important in fighting bacteria and viruses. Pineal Gland Scientists are still learning how the pineal gland works. It makes at least one hormone: melatonin. Melatonin may stop the action of the hormones that produce gonadotropin, which causes the ovaries and testes to develop and function. It also influences when people get sleepy at night. Testes The testes (testicles) produce the hormone testosterone. During puberty, testosterone helps to bring about the physical changes that turn a boy into an adult male, such as growth of the penis and testes, growth of facial and pubic hair, deepening of the voice, increase in muscle mass and strength, and increase in height. Throughout adult life, testosterone helps maintain sex drive, sperm production, male hair patterns, muscle mass, and bone mass. Ovaries The two most important hormones produced by the ovaries are estrogen and progesterone. These hormones are responsible for breast development, ovulation, and menstrual periods, as well as maintaining a pregnancy. The ovaries also produce inhibin, a protein that inhibits the release of FSH from the pituitary and helps control egg development. Thyroid The thyroid is a small gland in front of the neck. Thyroid hormones control your metabolism, which is the body's ability to break down food and store it as energy and the ability to break down food and use or store it as energy. The thyroid produces two hormones, T3 (called tri-iodothyronine) and T4 (called thyroxine). Adrenal Glands Each adrenal gland is actually two endocrine organs. The outer portion is called the adrenal cortex. The inner portion is called the adrenal medulla. The adrenal cortex produces glucocorticoids (such as cortisol) that help the body control blood sugar, increase the burning of protein and fat, and respond to stressors like fever, major illness, and injury. It also makes mineralcorticoids (such as aldosterone) which control blood pressure by acting on the kidneys to help them hold onto enough salt and water. The adrenal cortex also produces some androgens (hormones that act like testosterone), and contribute to pubic and underarm hair and adult body odor in both men and women. The adrenal medulla produces epinephrine (adrenaline), which increases the heart rate, opens airways to improve oxygen intake, and increases blood flow to muscles, usually when a person is scared, excited, or under stress. Norepinephrine also is made by the adrenal medulla, but this hormone is more related to maintaining normal activities as opposed to emergency reactions. Parathyroid Located behind the thyroid gland are four tiny parathyroid glands. These glands make hormones that help control calcium and phosphorous levels in the body. The parathyroid glands are necessary for proper bone development. They also maintain normal blood calcium levels, which is important for normal heart, muscle, and nerve function. When blood calcium levels are low, the parathyroid glands make parathyroid hormone which takes calcium from bones so that it will be available in the blood for important body functions. Pancreas The pancreas is a large gland behind your stomach that helps the body to maintain healthy blood sugar (glucose) levels. The pancreas secretes insulin, a hormone that helps glucose move from the blood into the cells where it is used for energy. The pancreas also secretes glucagon when the blood sugar is low. Glucagon tells the liver to release glucose that is stored in the liver into the bloodstream. Family planning allows individuals and couples to anticipate and attain their desired number of children and the spacing and timing of their births. It is achieved through use of contraceptive methods and the treatment of involuntary infertility. A womans ability to space and limit her pregnancies has a direct impact on her health and well-being as well as on the outcome of each pregnancy.
Nuclear Family The nuclear family is the traditional type of family structure. This family type consists of two parents and children. Single Parent Family The single parent family consists of one parent raising one or more children on his own. Often, a single parent family is a mother with her children, although there are single fathers as well. Extended Family The extended family structure consists of two or more adults who are related, either by blood or marriage, living in the same home. This family includes many relatives living together and working toward common goals, such as raising the children and keeping up with the household duties. Childless Family While most people think of family as including children, there are couples who either cannot or choose not to have children. The childless family is sometimes the "forgotten family," as it does not meet the traditional standards set by society. Stepfamily Over half of all marriages end in divorce, and many of these individuals choose to get remarried. This creates the stepfamily, which involves two separate families merging into one new unit. It consists of a new husband and wife and their children from previous marriages or relationships. Stepfamilies are about as common as the nuclear family, Grandparent Family Many grandparents today are raising their grandchildren for a variety of reasons. One in twelve children is raised by his grandparents, and the parents are not present in the child's life