Gust Electric Power

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Power and Electric Energy

Power and Electric Energy
Voltage(Work) * Current(Charge) =Power(Work)
Charge Time Time
Power(Watts) =Potential(Volts) * Current(Amperes) =EI
Energy Calculation
What is the energy required to operate a 3000 W
heater for 20 minutes?
Energy =Power * Time
E =3000 W * 1200 s
E =3,600,000 J
2
Resistance
The relative difficulty with which current can be
transmitted in a material is defined as the
electrical resistance of the material.
Two quantities of voltage and current can be
related through the physical parameter,
resistance. The voltage supplies the potential
force in an electrical system. Flow of charge or
current is the desired result.
Ohms Law
I =E / R
Where I =current in amperes, A
E =potential in volts, V
R =resistance in ohms, ohm
R =(L / A)
Where R =resistance, ohm
L =length
A =cross-sectional area
=resistivity
Gustafson, FundamentalsinElectricityfor Agriculture, 1988
3
Resistance of a Conductor
R
t
=R
i
(1 + T) ohm
Where R
t
=resistance at specified temperature,
ohm
R
i
=resistance at reference temperature, ohm
=temperature coefficient of resistance, 1/
o
C
T =difference temperature between specified and
reference,
o
C
Direct and Alternating Current
Electrical systems are generally classed into
two categories by the form of the current.
Direct current (dc) is characterized by current
flow in only one direction at all times. Batteries,
thermocouples, solar cells, and rotating dc
generators are all examples of sources for
direct current systems.
Alternating current (ac) is characterized by
alternating flow in two directions.
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Direct and Alternating Current cont
An alternating current system is one in which
the direction of flow changes periodically.
e =E
m
sin
Where e =instantaneous voltage
E
m
=maximum voltage
=angle
Amplitude of Sine Waves
One of the most frequently measured characteristics of
the sine wave is its amplitude.
Peak voltage is the maximum amplitude of either the
positive or negative part of the cycle.
The effective or rms (root mean square) of a sine wave
is the value equivalent to the constant dc magnitude
that would provide the same amount of power.
For example, many conventional residential wiring
systems operate at 120 V effective or rms. This means
that a light bulb would glow at the same brightness on
120 V rms AC or connected to 120 V DC source.
Amplitude of Sine Waves cont
E
rms
=E
Peak
/ 2
0.5
I
rms
=I
Peak
/ 2
0.5
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Phase Relations and Power in AC
Circuits
When a sine wave voltage is imposed on a load, a sine
wave current will result. For the case of a resistive
load, the voltage and the current waves are in-phase
with each other. The term in-phase means the
current and the voltages go through zero and through
their peak values at the same time.
Power Curve
True or effective power as shown in the diagram is
the product of the rms voltage or current.
Power Curve cont
When a circuit contains elements with other than
pure resistance (capacitance or inductance), a phase
shift will occur between the voltage and current
waves. That is, the waves will no longer cross zero
or reach peaks at the same time. The amount of shift
measured in degrees is called the phase-shift angle
or the phase shift. This phase shift will affect the
shape of the power curve.
Ex: motor circuit
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Power in AC Circuit
Power can be calculated by P =EI cos
Where E =voltage (RMS), V
I =current (RMS), A
=phase-shift angle
Note that when the phase-shift angle is zero as in a purely
resistive circuit or a dc circuit, we return to the form
Power =Voltage * Current =EI (lights, electric heaters, etc)
Apparent Power
Apparent power is always greater than true power when
the voltage and current are not in-phase.
Apparent Power =E*I (VA)
The ratio of true power to apparent power for a circuit is
defined as the power factor. The power factor is also
equal to the cosine of the phase-shift angle. Power factor
can vary from a value of one, (in-phase, =0, cos 0 =
1), to a value of zero, (90 out of phase, cos 90 =0).
Power Factor =cos = true power = watts
apparent power volts*amperes
Power Factor
An electrical system can be loaded to operate
with a power factor of 1.0. The system will
distribute energy at a maximum efficiency
when the power factor equals one. However,
this is not always economical or feasible in real
systems. Power generators are concerned with
power factor since it effects their line losses
and capacities.
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120/240 V Single-Phase Service
System
By far the most common service system for
farms and residences in North America is the
120/240 V three-wire single phase system. The
system originates at a step-down transformer
from the local distribution system.
The distribution system at a higher voltage
feeds the primary of the transformer and the
secondary side is the origin of the service drop
to the user.
Transformer for Origin of 120/240 V
System
System cont
If a voltmeter is placed between the neutral
and either hot wire, a voltage of 120 V will be
measured. If the voltmeter is placed across the
two hot conductors, a voltage of 240 V is
obtained. The 240 V potential difference arises
from the addition of two 120 V ac sources
which are 180 electrical degrees out of phase
with each other.
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Voltage Waveforms for 120/240 V
Service
Voltage for 120/240 V Service in
Phasor Form
System cont
Consideration must be given as to how loads
are connected to this system and how they
effect current level in each conductor.
120 V loads may be connected between either
Hot conductor (commonly called legs) and the
neutral. Loads at 240 V are connected
between the two Hot conductors. Note the
neutral wire is not connected to the 240 V
loads. Therefore, the 240 V loads can not
place current on the neutral wire.
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120/240 V Load Connections
System cont
Loads requiring 120 V potential will be
connected between the neutral and one of the
hot conductors. In this case, current may be
carried in the neutral wire.
The amount of current flowing in the neutral
can be minimized by balancing the loads; that
is, by having equal 120 V loads connected to
each of the hot wires.
System cont
Particularly in livestock facilities, it is desirable
to minimize the neutral current as much as
possible by the balancing of loads and use of
240 V rather than 120 V equipment. Ground
currents can stress animals.
As a general rule, the neutral will carry only the
net difference or imbalance in current between
the 120 V loads on the two legs.
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Three-Phase Systems
Where large quantities of electrical power are
being transmitted or used three-phase ac
power is generally used. Such currents are
generated by an alternator having three
identical armature coils spaced 120 degrees
from each other. Since each coil has two
connections, it at first appears that 6 lines are
needed to transfer currents to the loads.
Three-Phase Systems cont
It is possible to connect one end of each coil to
another coil at the alternator and then transmit
the current over 3 lines, one for each phase.
Two basic considerations, called wyeand
delta,are used.
Three-Phase Delta
For the delta configuration, the ends of each winding are joined to
the ends of the other 2 windings to get the characteristic triangle,
or delta configuration.
In this figure, the loads on the system are assumed to be
balanced. That is, all the loads are of the same magnitude.
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Three-Phase Delta cont
For the three-phase system the terminology of phase
voltage, line-to-line, or phase-to-phase voltages, and
phase and line currents are widely used.
The voltage across one winding or a single load is
called the phase voltage.
The voltage between two of the conductors between
the source and the load is termed the line-to-line
voltage, phase-to-phase voltage, or simple line voltage.
For the three-phase (3) delta, the phase voltage and
line-to-line voltage are the same.
The current through any winding or load segment is
called the phase current.
The current through one of the conductors from the
source to the load is termed the line current.
In a delta configuration, a line current is the vector sum
of two phase currents. Because of the 120
o
difference
between each of the phase current, the vector sum of
any two, the line current, is equal to 3
0.5
(1.732) times
the phase current.
To obtain single phase from a
delta system, connections are
made across one of the three
phases.
A single-phase 240 V system
can be obtained by connecting
across one phase of the three-
phase delta, as shown across
phase B.
If a single phase 120/240 V
system is needed, a neutral wire
is connected to a center tap as
shown in phase C.
In practically all installations, the
neutral wire would be grounded.
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Three-Phase Wye
A common application of the wye system is
known as the 3-phase, 4-wire system. Is has a
grounded neutral connected to the common
junction of the three transformers.
In the 4-wire system, single-phase power can
be obtained by connecting between the neutral
and any one of the phase conductors.
Three-Phase, Four-Wire System
Three-Phase Wye cont
If, for example, the three-phase voltage is 208
V, a single phase at 120 V could be obtained
by connecting phase to neutral. Thus by using
4 wires, we can have a 3-phase system at 208
V for motors, water heaters, and similar large
loads and a single-phase system at 120 V for
lighting and small appliances.
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Three-Phase Power
The total power output
for a three-phase
system is a constant
value.
The total instantaneous
power, which is the sum
of the three curves, is a
constant over time.
Total true power output
for the three-phase
system is expressed by: Gustafson, FundamentalsinElectricityfor Agriculture, 1988
Power in a Three-Phase System
Building Service Entrances
Building service equipment are those components of
the system needed to carry the current from the feeder
conductors to the branch circuits serving the loads
within the building.
The function of the service entrance is to supply power
to each of the branch circuits within the building from
the service conductors. In doing so it must:
Supply a main switch or disconnect means
Supply overcurrent protection for branch circuits
Supply terminals for attachment of branch circuit conductors
including equipment grounding conductors
Supply a point of connection to earth or ground the system.
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Single-Phase Service Entrance
Electrical Grounding
The term grounding, in electrical terminology,
means connected either directly or indirectly to
earth. The purpose of grounding is for safety.
Grounding can be divided into two sections;
system grounding, which is grounding of
current-carrying portions of the system and
equipment grounding, which is grounding of
equipment not intended to be at a voltage
potential difference from the earth.
System Grounding
The principle reason for system grounding is to limit
the voltage between any conductor and the earth to a
minimum value for the system being used.
A ground can be a grounding electrode or any
conductive material connected directly or indirectly to
the earth. For example, metal pipes (water, gas, drain)
in a building are connected to other pipes, which in turn
are buried in the ground.
Voltage to ground will be the voltage between any
point in the electrical system and any object that is
grounded.
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System Grounding cont
The typical 120/240 V
single-phase system has
the neutral wire
grounded.
If we measure from any
grounded object to either
hot conductor, the voltage
will be 120 V. Thus the
voltage to ground is the
minimum possible for a
120/240 V system, and
the voltage from any
ungrounded conductor to
ground is the same.
Having a minimum voltage and the same voltage to
ground for all ungrounded conductors are requirements
of the National Electric Code for safety.
System grounding provides a measure of safety (a) for
equipment or persons if an unintentional contact
between a hot conductor and earth is made by limiting
the voltage to a minimum value or (b) if a fault outside
the building should arise.
Good system grounding is dependent on establishing
low resistance paths to earth at each system grounding
point.
The NEC (250-81) states that if available on the premises,
at each building or structure, each of the following items
could be bonded together to form the grounding electrode
system:
Metal underground water pipe with at least 10 ft (3 m) in the earth
Metal frame of the building where effectively grounded
Concrete-encased electrode and electrode encased in at least 2
in (51 mm) of concrete, located within or near the bottom of a
concrete foundation
Ground ring encircling the building at least 2.5 ft (76 cm) below
the surface.
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If none of the electrodes specified above are
available, one or more fabricated electrodes are
required (NEC 250-83). The most common
electrodes are a rod or pipe electrode. These rods
are to be not less than 8 ft (2.44 m) in length. If a
single electrode does not have a resistance to
ground of 25 ohms or less, one additional
electrode must be added.
Equipment Grounding
The NEC requires that all metal likely to become energized
by an electrical short be grounded to the same ground as
the system ground.
To meet this requirement, equipment grounding supplies a
low-resistance path from all of the metal objects to the
system ground at the service entrance.
In many instances, an extra conductor (green or
uninsulated) will be used, or in others metal conduit may
create the low resistance path.
Equipment grounding is necessary to prevent electric shock
to persons or animals coming in contact with metallic
objects, which due to some fault, have come in contact with
a hot conductor.
Equipment Grounding cont
To illustrate the potential problem, if a fault develops in the
motor windings such that the hot conductor comes in
contact with the ungrounded frame, a 120 V potential exists
between the motor frame and earth.
17
This type of hazard can be avoided by equipment
grounding the frame. If the hot conductor were to come
in contact with the frame, a short circuit would exist,
and the overcurrent protection for the circuit would then
blowor open the circuit due to the high current flow.
Gustafson, Fund. inElectricityfor Agriculture, 1988
In the circuit the neutral conductor is grounded at the service
entrance as is required by the NEC. The NEC also requires
that the neutral conductor not be grounded at any other point
beyond the service entrance. This is to assure that all load
current returns via the insulated neutral conductor.
If the equipment grounding system is not properly installed and
maintained, it is possible that the overall resistance of the grounding
path will increase to the point where insufficient fault current will flow.
Two problems include: obvious shock hazard and, if the conduit is
making poor contact, there may be some arcing at the bad contact,
which could ignite a fire. Even if arcing does not occur, danger may
exist from heating.
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Use of grounding
electrodes at remote
equipment can not
substitute for
equipment grounding. If
a fault occurs to a piece
of equipment which is
not equipment
grounded, the fault
current through the
grounding electrode will
not be sufficient to
open the overcurrent
protection and a hazard
remains.
Polarity and Switching
In most wiring systems, conventions have been
established for the color of the covering for each
conductor in the system.
In a single-phase system, a white wire is always used
as the neutral, black or red are used as the hot
conductors, and green or bare wires as the grounding
conductors.
Devices such as switches and outlets are also
polarized by the use of brass colored terminals for hot
contacts, silver-colored terminals for neutral contacts,
and green terminals for grounding contacts.
Polarity and Switching
If a circuit is correctly polarized, all switches will be
placed in the hot (red or black) conductors.
When a switch is improperly placed in a neutral
conductor a voltage exists between the electrical
equipment and the ground even when the switch is
open.
If for example, the device is a light bulb socket, the
screw shell would be a potential of 120 V. This could
make changing the light bulb hazardous if the shell is
touched.
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Polarity and Switching cont
It should be apparent why the grounded neutral
is never to be interrupted by a fuse, circuit
breaker, switch, or other device unless both the
hot and neutral are switched together.
Under no condition should switches or over
current protection be placed in a grounding
conductor.
Overcurrent Protection
Any electrical system needs safeguards to assure that
safe levels of current for conductors and equipment are
not exceeded. Two basic classes of devices are used
for this purpose, fuses and circuit breakers.
Both are installed in series with the hot conductors and
are designed to open the circuit if a specified current
level is exceeded.
Fuses are overcurrent devices of which a portion is
destroyed when interrupting the circuit. They are made
with low melting point links which are calibrated to melt
when a specific current is reached.
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Overcurrent Protection cont
A standard fuse will carry a 10% overload for a
few minutes, a 20% overload for less than a
minute, and a 100% overload for only a fraction
of a second.
Often in circuits for control of motors, fuses
which will allow a temporary overcurrent during
motor starting are needed. Time-delay fuses
are designed for this need.
Plug-Type Time-Delay Fuse
Time-Delay Fuse
A time-delay fuse can open in either of two ways.
During a continuous overload, a solder connection at
one end of the link will melt, and the spring will pull the
link away, breaking the circuit.
During a short circuit with a large current, the link itself
will melt almost instantaneously.
An overload created by a motor start will not be large
enough to melt the link or of long enough duration to
melt the solder connection.
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Time-Delay Fuse cont
The most common fuses for residential wiring are the screw or
plug type fuse. They have ratings up to 30A and are used with
voltages up to 125 V.
When the circuit exceeds 30 A, it is necessary to use a cartridge-
type fuse and fuse holder.
Circuit Breaker
A circuit breaker is a device designed to open a circuit
automatically at a predetermined overload current
without damage to itself. Most circuit breakers have a
bimetallic strip connected with the contacts.
Current passes through the bimetallic strip causing it to
heat up. Since the two metal expand at different rates,
it also bends. If the current level is too high, the bend
will be large enough so that the contact points will
open.
After the element has cooled, the circuit breaker can be
reset.
Circuit Breaker cont
22
Ground Fault Circuit Interrupters
In a complete electrical circuit there must be at least
two wires; one to carry the current to the load and one
to return the current to the outlet or source.
If the insulation of the wiring or load is faulty or breaks
down, all or a portion of the current may follow an
alternate path through the grounding system or earth
back to the source. This is called ground fault.
A ground fault current may not be large enough to
cause a fuse or circuit breaker to trip, but still be fatal to
a person.
This table shows the current levels for human response
including levels at which a person can no longer let go of
a device and at which fibrillation occurs. These currents
are much lower than those required to activate
overcurrent protection.
23
Protection
Three ways exist to attempt to protect persons from
ground faults.
One method is to use double-insulated tools which
insulate the operator from the tool.
The second is the use of three-wire (grounded) cords
which extend the equipment grounding to the tool.
However, all too often the third or grounded wire is not
used, thereby rendering the ground wire useless.
The third method is to use a device known as a ground
fault interrupter.
Ground Fault Interrupter
A ground fault interrupter measures the current in the two
load conductors. Whenever the difference exceeds a
specified value (like 5 mA) the device opens the circuit.
Ground Fault Interrupter cont
Ground faults can occur almost anywhere but are most
serious in wet or damp areas. With this in mind, the
NEC requires GFIs in all circuits in new wiring
supplying receptacles in the bathroom and garages of
dwellings. They also require them on all outdoor
receptacles accessible from the ground level or
associated with swimming pools.
Fuses and circuit breakers protect the system from
excessively large currents while GFIs protect persons
from small leakage currents.

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Power and Electric Energy

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