Biology 2401 - Anatomy and Physiology I

Exam 1 notes - Introduction, Cell and Tissue tructure

Two major principles in study of animals bodies: (humans, like other living organisms
are product of evolutionary / adaptive
process):
Structure is related to function what a part does is affected by what it does!
anatomy " study of structure, physiology " study of function #!$
%iving bodies maintain homeostasis! &omeostasis " internal conditions of body
within narrow limits! 'aintained by physiological mechanisms!
#!(
receptor ) control center ) effector (muscle, gland, etc!)
stimulus (stress, change in conditions) ) response (action of body)
feedback " response of body to stimulus!
negative feedback " response is opposite to changing condition, reverses change!
positive feedback " response is same as changing condition, increases change!
*long term+ homeostasis cells respond to stimulus over a time period (e,!
muscle atrophy or hypertrophy)
-&ow can disease be defined in terms of homeostasis.
-/hich type feedback (negative or positive) is most important in maintaining
homeostasis.
%evels of organi0ation in living organisms: #!1
ecosystem 2t what level is homeostasis maintained.
community
population /hat are emergent properties. give some
individual organism e,amples!
organ system
organ
tissue
cell
cell organelle
molecule /hat is a very important emergent
atom property at the cell level.
-
-
#
Cells Ch! "
3ell theory all living organisms made of cells
cells are the basic unit of life (how does this relate to emergent
properties.)
cells come from living cells (no spontaneous generation under conditions on
earth today)
3ells small ( ( um #4 nm) ! /hy. /hat feature determines that active cells can not be
very large.
Surface area / volume ratio decreases as the cell becomes larger (less surface area
compared to its volume)!
3ells have common structures, become different by e,aggeration of some part!
3ommon cell structures and their function: 1!$, Table 1!#
cell membrane regulates what enters and leaves the cell
cytoplasm (cytosol) li5uid medium in cell, many molecules dissolved and move
in cytoplasm
nucleus houses and protects chromosomes
endoplasmic reticulum internal membrane that partitions cytoplasm
6olgi apparatus membrane layers that packages secretions
lysosomes membrane sacs that contain digestive en0ymes
ribosomes assemble proteins
cytoskeleton filaments and tubules that provide support and produce movement
mitochondria provide most of energy for cell by *burning+ fuel
'ovement across cell membrane: 1!1 , Table 1!$
permeability " ability of materials to pass through
passive movement no cell energy re5uired
diffusion
osmosis
filtration
facilitated diffusion
active movement cell must e,pend energy to make this happen
active transport (ion pumps)
vesicular transport endocytosis (pinocytosis, phagocytosis,
receptormediated endocytosis)
e,ocytosis
Tissues Ch! #
tissue " group of speciali0ed cells and cell products that perform speciali0ed function
intracellular " inside cell
intercellular (interstitial) " outside of cell, between cells
e,tracellular " outside cell, anywhere in body
cell connections attach cells gap junctions, tight junctions, anchoring junctions
four major, or primary, tissue types: epithelial, connective, muscle and neural! (!#
I! E$ithelial tissues: surface covering tissue, many places in the body7 glandular (!$
protection from abrasion, drying, chemicals, bacteria
producing speciali0ed secretions
controlling absorption and e,cretion of certain materials
sensory cells located in some epithelial tissues
lack blood vessels (avascular), and many lack nerves
cells close together with little intercellular space
cells can divide to produce new cells (stem cells)
many have speciali0ed cell e,tensions (cilia, microvilli)
attached to deeper layers by basement membrane
3lassification based on shape of surface cells (s5uamous, cuboidal, columnar) and the
number of layers of cells (simple or stratified)
Types of epithelial tissues in the body: (know these types, their features and where they
are
located)
simple s5uamous
simple cuboidal
simple columnar
pseudostratified columnar
stratified s5uamous (keratini0ed and unkeratini0ed)
stratified cuboidal
transitional
-/hat does *selectively permeable+ mean. /hat is a concentration gradient.
-6lands are formed from epithelial cells! 8istinguish between endocrine and e,ocrine
glands!
1
'embranes " surface covering of cavities, usually secrete fluid (!9
mucous membrane line cavities that open to the e,terior of body7 secrete mucus
to prevent drying, protect surface
serous membrane line cavities that are sealed and cover organ within the cavity7
secrete watery slick lubricant to prevent friction, have visceral and
parietal layers
synovial membrane line joint capsules, secrete slick fluid to prevent friction
II! Connecti%e tissues: deeper tissues of body that: (!1
support and protect body and attach body structures (bone, cartilage, fibrous)
transport material throughout body (blood)
store energy (adipose)
defend body from foreign invaders (white blood cells)
cells in tissue not tightly connected, much intercellular space
intercellular space filled with ground substance (fluid) and protein fibers " matri,
ground substance composed of fluid, gel, crystalline
protein fibers are collagen, elastic, reticular
typical cells are fibroblast (*fiber makers+)
well vasculari0ed and innervated (has blood vessels and nerves)
cells can reproduce
Types of connective tissues: (know the important features and the location of these)
connective tissues proper (may contain fibroblast, adipocytes and mast cells)
loose connective tissue watery ground substance7 scattered randomly
arranged fibers7 anchors with fle,ibility
adipose tissue loose connective with more adipocytes7 insulates and
cushions, stores energy in the form of fat
dense connective tissue (fibrous tissue) intercellular space mostly filled
with collagen fibers, little ground substance
irregular dense con! fibers arranged in several directions7 dermis
of skin
regular dense con! fibers arranged in one direction, parallel7
tendons and
ligaments
reticular connective tissue three dimensional framework of reticular
fibers that forms *skeleton+ of many
organs
9
supporting connective tissues (denser tissues with gel or crystalline ground
substance)
cartilage ground substance firm gel7 speciali0ed type fibrocyte called
chondrocytes7 avascular and noninnervated
hyaline cartilage *glassy+7 few collagen fibers7 covers bones in
joints, rings in trachea, connects ribs
elastic cartilage contains elastic fibers, fle,ible and retains shape7
e,ternal ear, nose
fibrocartilage many collagen fibers7 very tough, good support7
intervertebral disks in spine, between bones of pelvis, pads
in
some joints
bone calcium salts (crystalline) with callagen fibers7 speciali0ed
fibrocytes called osteocytes7 rigid support
fluid connective tissues (watery ground substance, less fiber structure)
blood contains red blood cells, white blood cells, platelets in a very fluid
matri, called plasma7 transports materials throughout body
III! &uscle tissue: (more on these in muscular system) (!(
very speciali0ed to produce movement, maintain posture7
muscle cells contain large number of contractile proteins7
can not reproduce
three types of muscle skeletal, cardiac and smooth
I'! (eural tissue: (more on these in nervous system) (!:
very speciali0ed to communicate, detect stimuli7
composed of neurons (communicating cells that can not reproduce) and neuroglia
(supporting cells)
(
)in and the Integumentary ystem Ch *
Skin (cutaneous membrane) is principle organ, plus accessory organs (hairs, glands,
nails)
form integumentary system
;unctions: protection from abrasion, drying, radiation, infection
regulation of body temperature (-8escribe two ways)
houses some sensory organs
energy storage
e,cretion
synthesis of some important biomolecules
Skin composed of two layers and underlying layer that attaches to deeper body: :!$
#! epidermis top layer that is e,posed at surface
formed of stratified s5uamous epithelium
important cell types are keratinocytes (keratin producing cells) and
melanocytes (melanin producing cells)
distinct layers develop as cells divide and are pushed to the surface7
as cells push to the surface they produce keratin, die and flatten!
This forms dead tough protective layer at surface
layers are called strata: stratum basale (bottom actively dividing
layer produces new cells), stratum spinosum, stratum granulosum
(producing keratin), stratum lucidum (only in thick skin
where callus is formed), stratum corneum (dead flat cells filled
with keratin)
melanocytes in stratum basale produce melanin, a pigment the
absorbs ultraviolet radiation
pressure at surface and damage to cells stimulate growth of keratinocytes
<= radiation stimulates melanocyte production of melanin
- 8escribe the growth pattern of the epidermis and e,plain why this pattern is important
in maintaining homeostasis!
- 8escribe two ways that the epidermis protects the body!
- /hat specific type tissue forms the epidermis.
$! dermis composed mostly of irregular dense connective tissue
provides mechanical strength of skin to prevent puncture and tearing
composed of fibroblasts which produce much collagen and some elastic fibers
good blood supply and nerves
ridges of dermis (dermal papillae) form irregular surface with epidermis7 this
increases surface for nutrient and waste e,change, sensory
structures
- /hat specific tissue forms the dermis.
- /hat are dermal papillae and how do they help maintain the epidermis.
- /hat type fibers predominate in the dermis and how does the arrangement of these
fibers give strength to the dermis.
:
1! subcutaneous composed of lose connective tissue with some adipose tissue
anchors skin to deeper layers but allows some movement
some collagen with much fluidfilled space7 larger blood vessels and nerves run
through spaces
adipose cells also located in spaces7 insulate to retain body heat, store energy,
form and cushion body surface
- 8escribe two ways that the integumentary system maintains body temperature!
:!1
2ccessory structures (organs) in skin have various functions, all form from embryonic
stratum basale that is located in dermis or
subcutaneous
#! nails speciali0ed keratinocytes that produce dense keratin
strengthen and protect tips of fingers and toes
nail plate grows from groove over nail bed
$! hairs from speciali0ed keratinocytes at base of hair follicle (hair root)
melanocytes produce melanin in varying amounts, color hair
shape of follicle determines shape of hair (straight, wavy, curly)
structures associated with hair follicles:
arrector pili muscle a small smooth muscle that pulls hair up to
*fluff+ fur, causes goose bump
sebaceous gland produces oil to lubricate and protect skin
apocrine sweat gland (in certain areas) to produce body scent
root hair ple,us hair movement stimulates for very sensitive
1! glands all skin glands are e,ocrine glands! /hat does this mean.
sebaceous glands produce oily substance (sebum) into hair follicle
to lubricate, waterproof skin and kill bacteria
eccrine sweat glands (sudoriferous glands) empty onto skin surface7
produce thin watery fluid to cool body
apocrine sweat glands produce viscous fluid that vapori0es to produce
body scent7 into hair follicles of a,illary, pubic and areola7
active at puberty
mammary glands produce milk in females to nourish young
ceruminous glands produce earwa, in e,ternal ear canal to clean debris
from canal
- /hat is the origin, in the embryo, of the cells that develop into the accessory organs.
- %ist five types of glands in the skin and give their primary function!
- %ist four structures associated with hair follicles and give the function of each!
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