Immune system

The immune system is a system of biological structures and processes within an organism that
protects against disease. To function properly, an immune system must detect a wide variety of
agents, known as pathogens, from viruses to parasitic worms, and distinguish them from the
organism's own healthy tissue. In many species, the immune system can be classified into
subsystems, such as the innate immune system versus the adaptive immune system, or humoral
immunity versus cell-mediated immunity.
Pathogens can rapidly evolve and adapt, and thereby avoid detection and neutraliation by the
immune system! however, multiple defense mechanisms have also evolved to recognie and
neutralie pathogens. "ven simple unicellular organisms such as bacteria possess a rudimentary
immune system, in the form of enymes that protect against bacteriophage infections. #ther
basic immune mechanisms evolved in ancient eukaryotes and remain in their modern
descendants, such as plants and insects. These mechanisms include phagocytosis, antimicrobial
peptides called defensins, and the complement system. $awed vertebrates, including humans,
have even more sophisticated defense mechanisms,%&' including the ability to adapt over time to
recognie specific pathogens more efficiently. (daptive )or ac*uired+
immunity createsimmunological memory after an initial response to a specific pathogen, leading
to an enhanced response to subse*uent encounters with that same pathogen. This process of
ac*uired immunity is the basis of vaccination.
,isorders of the immune system can result in autoimmune diseases, inflammatory
diseases and cancer.%-'%.' Immunodeficiency occurs when the immune system is less active than
normal, resulting in recurring and life-threatening infections. In humans, immunodeficiency can
either be the result of a genetic disease such as severe combined immunodeficiency, ac*uired
conditions such as /I01(I,2, or the use of immunosuppressive medication. In
contrast, autoimmunity results from a hyperactive immune system attacking normal tissues as if
they were foreign organisms. 3ommon autoimmune diseases include /ashimoto's
thyroiditis, rheumatoid arthritis, diabetes mellitus type &, and systemic lupus
erythematosus. Immunology covers the study of all aspects of the immune system.
Adaptive immune system
The adaptive immune system evolved in early vertebrates and allows for a stronger immune
response as well as immunological memory, where each pathogen is "remembered" by a
signature antigen.[50 The adaptive immune response is antigen!specific and re"uires the
recognition of specific "non!self" antigens during a process called antigen presentation. Antigen
specificity allows for the generation of responses that are tailored to specific pathogens or
pathogen!infected cells. The ability to mount these tailored responses is maintained in the body
by "memory cells". #hould a pathogen infect the body more than once, these specific memory
cells are used to "uic$ly eliminate it.%uman gastrointestinal tract
&rom 'i$ipedia, the free encyclopedia
"Alimentary canal" redirects here. &or animal alimentary canal in general, see (ut )anatomy*+.
%uman gastrointestinal tract ),igestive #ystem*
#tomach colon rectum diagram
-atin Tractus digestorius )mouth to anus*,
canalis alimentarius )esophagus tolarge
Intestine*,
canalis gastrointestinales )stomach tolarge
Intestine*
#ystem ,igestive system
The human gastrointestinal tract )(I tract* is an organ system responsible for consuming and
digesting foodstuffs, absorbing nutrients, and e.pelling waste.
The tract is commonly defined as the stomach+ and intestine+, and is divided into the upper and
lower gastrointestinal tracts.[/ %owever, by the broadest definition, the (I tract includes all
structures between the mouth+ and the anus+.[0 1n the other hand, the digestive system+ is a
broader term that includes other structures, including the digestive organs+ and their
accessories+.[2 The tract may also be divided into foregut+, midgut+, and hindgut+, reflecting
the embryological+ origin of each segment.
The whole digestive tract is about nine metres long.[3
The (I tract releases hormones+ to help regulate the digestive process. These hormones,
including gastrin+, secretin+, cholecysto$inin+, and ghrelin+, are mediated through either
intracrine+ or autocrine+ mechanisms, indicating that the cells releasing these hormones are
conserved structures throughout evolution+.[5