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The word “emergence” is new to neither the philosophical nor the scientic literature
(see, e.g., [1, 42, 43]). In the last two decades it has appeared in numerous publications
concerning scientic research on complex systems ([8, 9, 10, 30, 33, 34, 38, 40, 41], to
mention a few).1 The importance of the understanding of emergent phenomena in so-
cial as well as scientic disciplines has led to attempts to conceptualize, formally dene,
and categorize emergence. This section will quickly review previous discussions.
Cariani distinguishes three types of emergent phenomena [14]:
1 A nice (though older) review of the literature with the informal as well as more formal approaches to emergence can be found in
the work of Cariani [14].
2 In our work (if not stated otherwise), we understand the terms “micro-state” or “micro-specication” as descriptions of the
system elements at some level (mostly the agent level), that is, its static properties and behavior along with the interaction of its
elements, and by “macro-state” the structure or behavior that is observable at the higher level (mostly the multiagent level) of
observation and that is the result of the micro-specication.
°
c 2003 Massachusetts Institute of Technology Articial Life 9: 41–65 (2003)
A. KubÓk Toward a Formalization of Emergence
P 2 Obs 2 .S 2 /; but P2 2 1
= Obs .Si1 / for all i1 :
In other words, P is a property that is observable at one level but not at a lower level
of description. Baas distinguishes two types of emergent phenomena:
Baas does not dene any of the above-mentioned terms that have only symbolic coun-
terparts (structure, interaction, observational mechanism). These are to be interpreted
by the researcher or the observer of the system. Here the emergence of some property
in the multiagent system is apparent only if it is not observable at the lower level of
observation. This opens the possibility for any multiagent phenomenon to be emer-
gent only because one or more agents are present beyond those at the lower (agent)
level of description [29]. There can be other interesting properties that change only
quantitatively (e.g., time savings [36]) and that cannot be explained by producing new
structure in the studied system. As for Baas’s two types of emergence (deducible and
observational), we think both are of a philosophical nature, because there is no reason
(at least at present) to think that there are phenomena not reducible to micro-macro
relationships. Our ignorance about micro-macro deductions cannot be obviated by
declarations that such deductions do not exist.
Bedau [6, 5] denes weak emergence as follows. Given a system S and its micrody-
namic D that governs the time evolution of S, the “macrostate P of S with microdynamic
D is weakly emergent iff P can be derived from D and S’s external conditions but only
by simulation” [6, p. 378]. This denition, even if not formal, has the potential to cap-
ture the idea of macro-states being derivable from micro-specication of the system.
We try to elaborate on this idea in our work.
Ronald, Sipper, and Capcarrèrre [47] present a test of emergence consisting of three
phases:
1. Design. The goal of this phase is to model the behavior of agents. In a language
L 1 a designer describes individual agents, their environment, and their mutual
interactions.
2. Observation. The observer who is fully aware of the design describes global
behavior of the multiagent system in a language L 2 distinct from the language L 1.
3. Surprise. This phase indicates the gap between the behavior of individual agents
and the global behavior of the whole society. The causal link between them as
well as between the above-mentioned languages is inobvious to the observer and
is the source of the emergent property of the multiagent system.
This view tries to associate the moment of surprise with the emergent phenomenon.
Emergence consists in the fact that we cannot describe (predict, expect) the behavior
of the whole system from the description of its individual components. Some loosely
depicted categories of emergence phenomena based on the concept of surprise can be
found in [48]. This denition can be related to Rosen’s concept of emergence in that
the system is not reducible to the properties and interactions of the components and it
deviates from the observer’s description of it.
We believe the category of surprise obscures emergent phenomena. As a conse-
quence there is a tendency to consider emergence as a property of the system that
“cannot” be reduced to the lower level of description (i.e., properties of the agents and
their interactions). Another consequence is that one can only describe as emergent
those phenomena for which we lack a satisfactory notion of how they work.
The most profound treatment of emergence, containing many inuential ideas, can
be found in the recent monograph on the subject by Holland [31]. We are inspired by
Holland’s work on four main points:
1. A multiagent system (MAS) approach, the system being decomposable into parts
with autonomous behavior (viz. the agents). Agents are very often characterized by
rule-based behavioral descriptions.
2. Use of the reduction principle that the macro behavior of an observed system is
reducible to the interactions of its components.
3. Heavy reliance on the fact that the whole system generates richer behavior than the
sum of the behaviors of its components.
4. The inessentiality of the moment of surprise in revealing emergent behavior.
Holland builds models of MASs with inherent emergent phenomena and emphasizes the
importance of formal blocks in the explanation theory of emergence. Building blocks
represent formal pieces of models we build to understand the underlying system. They
have their own states, laws of composition to build more complex structures, laws of
dynamics, and reusability. Holland writes: “Building blocks range from mechanisms
in physics to the way we parse the environment into familiar objects; they provide a
way of extracting repeatable features from the perpetual novelty that attends systems
exhibiting emergece” [31, p. 224]. Basically, agents, their behavioral rules, and their
mutual interactions dene complex systems, and this “gives us a common way of
describing the diverse rule-governed systems that exhibit emergence” [31, p. 6].
The rest of the paper is organized as follows. In the next section we outline the
framework for the categorization of emergence, give the informal denition of the most
basic type of emergence in multiagent systems, and elaborate on what the reader should
(and should not) expect from the present work. The third section contains preliminaries
of the formal languages and grammar systems theory necessary for understanding the
denitions used. In the fourth section we present a formal denition of the basic
type of emergence and give arguments why the language-theoretic approach could be
interesting in the study of emergence. In the fth section we present some examples of
different types of emergence in multiagent systems and show how our theory can be
applied to modeling multiagent systems formally and how our theory reveals the source
and type of emergence at hand. In the sixth section we discuss how our denition
ts with other work on emergence, summarize the present work, and present our
conclusions.
In relation to the study of emergence, the previously described works suffer from one
or more of the following drawbacks:
² They treat emergence in an informal and intuitive manner. This concerns a large
volume of scientic literature where emergence is explained without reference to
any theory of emergence [8, 9, 10, 33, 40].
² The denition heavily depends on the term “surprise” [47, 48].
² The denition either is too broad and so includes phenomena that are not
emergent, or is too strict and so omits phenomena that are emergent [4].
² The categorization is not ne enough or is based on different criteria so that we are
unable to distinguish among different types of emergence or identify the source of
the emergent behavior [5, 14, 47].
² It does not refer to a unied framework for research on emergence [4, 5, 47].
² It fails to dene “sum of the behaviors of individual parts,” a crucial point in
dening emergence. We know of no attempt to dene this concept.
² Formal treatment. In the beginning, informal discussions are ne to clarify some
ideas concerning the problem. Nevertheless we ultimately need a formal theory
with well-dened meaning that can be used in any context without loss of
precision. Formal denitions are also needed to unify our vocabulary on issues
concerning emergence. Before now there has been no common understanding of
what emergence is, how to study it, or what different types of emergent
phenomena exist.
² Emphasize construction. We need to have a tool to construct models in accordance
with formal denitions of emergence. Only if we are able to build articial models
of studied systems in a commonly dened way can we verify and validate models.
The gap between the language of model construction and a language of model
explanation can be a source of misinterpretations and fallacious deductions.
² Ignore surprise. We think that judging the behavior of complex systems on the
basis of our subjective feeling of surprise is misleading and obscures better
explanations. The standpoint of an observer is different from that of a constructor
(or modeler) in that the former lacks information about the studied system. The
moment of surprise can fade away once sufcient information is provided.
1. Agents interact in a static environment. The environment has no active role in the
system and offers no feeback to agents. The behavioral rules of the agents do not
evolve.
2. The environment plays an active role in the system and directly or indirectly
inuences agents’ actions. Both agents and the environment are non-evolutionary.
3. The agents evolve in a static environment. The agents’ properties and behavioral
rules change with time.
4. The agents evolve in an active environment.
5. Both agents and environment change their behavior (new properties as well as
new behaviors come into existence).
These categories span the simplest to the most complex MASs. Emergence can have
different properties depending on the source of macro-patterns in the system. This, in
turn, implies a natural categorization of different types of emergence.
Before we dene basic emergence formally, we give some requisite notions and de-
nitions from the theory of formal languages and grammar systems.
G D .N ; T ; P; S/; (1)
0 D .N ; T ; S; P1 ; P2 ; : : : ; Pn /; (3)
x H)Pi y iff
(4)
x D x1 ux2 ; y D x1 vx2 ; x1 ; x2 2 .N [ T /¤ ; u ! v 2 Pi :
Then one can dene derivations of arbitrary length .H) ¤Pi / and, for k ¸ 1, derivations
¸k ·k
of exactly k steps .H) Dk
Pi / and of at least or at most k steps (H) Pi , H)Pi , respectively),
as well as the maximal derivation:
x H)tPi y iff
(5)
x H)¤Pi y and there is no z 2 .N [ T /¤ such that y H)Pi z :
A basic derivation step in a grammar system denes how a derivation of strings on the
tape proceeds when more than one agent operate over it. Let
F D f¤; t g [ f· k; D k; ¸ k j k ¸ 1g:
For any cooperating grammar system 0 with at most n components and f 2 F , the
language generated by 0 in the cooperative mode f is
¤ f f f
Lf .0/ D fx 2 T j S H) Pi1 x1 H) Pi2 x2 ¢ ¢ ¢ H)Pim xm D x ;
m ¸ 1; 1 · ij · n; 1 · j · m g: (6)
The derivation in a grammar system proceeds in two basic derivation modes: parallel
and sequential mode. If the agents rewrite in a parallel manner, synchronization is
needed, as in discrete devices that share common resources. The agents thus choose
the portion of the string that is to be rewritten, and then the rewriting takes place at
once. The same symbol cannot be rewritten by two or more agents at the same time.
The synchronization presents an internal clock of a grammar system as well as a conict
resolution mechanism. If the agents rewrite in a sequential manner, they do not have
to be synchronized, because at each time tick each agent gets a chance to act over the
tape without conicts.
is a set of points with coordinates that do not contain the blank (background) symbol
#2 = V . We can write
2
The set of all two-dimensional nonempty arrays over V will be denoted by V C . Any
2
subset of V C is called an array language. The arrays are words of array languages.
2
For an array A 2 V C and a nite pattern ® of symbols over V [ f#g, we say that ® is
a subpattern of A if we can superimpose ® on A in such a way that all vectors of ®
marked with symbols from V coincide with the corresponding symbols in A and each
blank symbol # in ® corresponds to a blank symbol # in A.
with the components dened as above. In a cooperating array grammar system, array
grammars rewrite the tape in a parallel manner in that they do not disturb each other,
that is, one symbol cannot be rewritten by more than one production rule of array
grammars. Formally, for a subset of array grammars GROUP D fAi ; 1 · i · n g and
2
two arrays D1 ; D2 2 V ¤ [ f#g, a direct derivation step, denoted by D1 H)GROUP D2 ,
exists if and only if there exist array productions pij 2 P i , 1 · i · n, 1 · j · li ( j th rule
of ith array grammar), pij D ®ij ! ¯ij , such that for any array symbol !1 with index
vk , 0 · k · r £ s ¡ 1, r; s 2 Z , that is a subpattern of ¯ij 1 and is not a subpattern of
®ij 1 , and for any array symbol !2 with index vm , 0 · m · r £ s ¡ 1, r; s 2 Z , that is a
subpattern of ¯ij 2 and is not a subpattern of ®ij 2 , it holds that these symbols (areas) are
disjoint (k 6D m).
The previous denition prescribes how a portion of an array tape can be rewritten
in one step by an array grammar system. In each step there is a subset of agents (array
grammars) that try to rewrite a portion of a tape according to their rewriting rules. Our
denition implies that the only condition that must be satised is that the symbol to be
rewritten (as denoted by the right-hand side of the rewriting rule) cannot be rewritten
more than once in one derivation step. This is a means of resource locking shared by
the group of agents. The choice of the agents to rewrite the tape is opportunistic in
that there is no priority among agents.
1. if ai 2 VA then ck D ai ;
2. if ai D ² then ck D bj ;
3. if bj D ² then ck D ai ;
4. if ai 2 VE and bi 2 VE then ck D ai ;
5. if ai 2 VE and bj 2 VA then ck D bj .
The denition above states that if we take n-tuples consisting of the words of the
languages the agents generate (each word is from a different language), we can su-
perimpose them in such a way that agent symbols have priority over environmental
symbols (they cannot be covered by the symbols of the environment). Any nonempty
symbol has priority over the symbol ².
If we had grammars that could represent agents moving in the environment (two-
dimensional grid tape), the individual languages would contain words containing the
agent symbols and other environmental symbols. The language generated by the su-
perimposition of agents’ languages would contain words composed of possibly all (if
they do not overlap) of the agents’ symbols plus environmental condition symbols.
The operation of superimposition seems to be articially dened. Nevertheless it is
only a slight alteration of the operation of the union of languages to include all of the
agents in the sum of the agents’ behaviors. The superimposition of agents’ languages
is equivalent to the union of languages if the generated strings are of the same length
and we use only one of the agent or environmental symbol sets.
Ai D .Vi ; Pi ; Si /; (14)
The events in the environment (derivation of words on the tape) proceed in MAS in
a parallel (or possibly sequential) manner such that the agents can rewrite the part of
the tape (environment) without disturbing each other. If there are rewriting rules for
agents that have to be applied in parallel, then they cannot rewrite the same symbol at
the same time. Observe that it is not necessary that the left and right sides of rewriting
rules applied in parallel be disjoint.
Let GROUP D fAi j 1 · i · n g. If L.MAS / D fw 2 V C j S H)GROUP w1 H) GROUP
w2 ¢ ¢ ¢ H)GROUP w g is a language generated by MAS, and Lsum is the language generated
by the superimposition of the languages fL1 ; L2 ; : : : ; Ln j 1 · i · n g, then MAS can be
characterized as having the property of basic emergence iff 9w 2 L.MAS / such that w 2=
Lsum . The denition above states that if the multiagent system as a whole can generate
a language (behavior) that cannot be generated by the superimposition (summation) of
individual agents’ languages (behaviors), we can characterize it as having an emergent
property. Note that we do not compare the union of languages produced by individual
grammars with the language of the unions of grammars. The grammar system is not a
union of grammars.
5 Examples of Emergence
In this section we present several examples that illustrate the denitions earlier given.
We give one detailed example of basic emergence occurring in cellular automata. Other
examples are modeled grammatically elsewhere, and we refer the reader to this work in
following subsections. We also present one example to show non-emergent behavior
in a MAS communicating by means of stigmergy.
5.1.1 A Glider
We concentrate on a grammar analysis of one of the most-cited patterns from the game
of life—the glider. It is a period-four pattern moving diagonally one cell per period.
The game of life will be modeled by the construct10
where VA is the set of agent symbols denoting its state (D for dead, A for alive), VE is
the environmental set containing the symbol for a free space (when there is no agent
occupying the cell), A1 ; : : : ; A16 is the set of agents’ behavioral rules, and the set
f.v0 ; D/; .v1 ; A/; .v2 ; D/; .v3 ; D/; .v4 ; D/; .v5 ; D/; .v6 ; A/; .v7 ; D/;
.v8 ; A/; .v9 ; A/; .v10 ; A/; .v11 ; D/; .v12 ; D/; .v13; D/; .v14; D/; .v15 ; D/g
9 Nice examples and how they relate to emergence can also be found in [6, 31].
10 The size of the environment (tape) can be adjusted arbitrarily.
following construct:
D A D D
D D A D
A A A D
D D D D
8
> f f f f f f f f f f f f
<
Ai D f A f ! f A f; f D f ! f D f ;
>
:
f f f f f f f f f f f f
A D D A D D D A A D A A
A A D ! A A D; D A D ! D A D;
D D D D D D A D D A D D
A D D A D D D A A D A A
A D D ! A D D; D D D ! D D D;
D D D D D D A D A A D A
D D D D D D D A A D A A
A A D ! A D D; D A D ! D D D;
D D D D D D A D A A D A
9
D D D D D D >
=
A D D ! A A D; : : : j 1 · i · 16 :
>
;
D A A D A A
The rst two rules mean no change if the agent (in the middle of the grid) is alone in
the environment. The third through sixth rules represent situations in which the agent
remains in the same state as in the previous step. The seventh and eighth rules depict
how the agent can switch from the live to the dead state. The last rule represents the
reverse process—how the agent can become alive. The important point is that each
agent rewrites only one cell at a time, which is different from each other cell, and it
checks only the eight neighboring cells (in the Moore neighborhood). A sequence of
a rewriting process in GA can look like this:
D A D D D D D D D D D D
D D A D A D A D D D A D
H) H)
A A A D D A A D A D A D
D D D D D A D D D A A D
D D D D D D D D D D A D
D A D D D D A D D D D D
H) H) H)
D D A A D D D A D A D A
D A A D D A A A D D A A
D D A A D D A A A D A A
D D D D D D D D D D D D
H) H) H)
D D D A D D A D D D D A
D A D A A D D A A D D D
A D D A A D A D A A D D
D D D A A D D A A D D A
H) H) H)
D D D D D D D D D D D D
A D A D A D D D D D D A
D A D D D A D A D A D D
A A D A A A D D D A D A
H) H) H)
D D D D A D D D A A D D
A D D D D D D D D D D D
A D D D D A D D
D A A D D D A D
H) H) H) ¢¢¢:
A A D D A A A D
D D D D D D D D
We can see that in a four-step period we get back the original pattern in a different
place on the tape.11 From the starting conguration GA can generate the language
containing the words
L.GA/
8
>
> D A D D D D D D D D D D D D D D
>
>
<D D A D A D A D D D A D D A D D
D ; ; ; ;
>
> A A A D D A A D A D A D D D A A
>
>
:
D D D D D A D D D A A D D A A D
D D D D D D A D D D A A D D A A
D D A D D D D D D D D D D D D D
; ; ; ;
D D D A D A D A D D D A D D A D
D A A A D D A A D A D A A D D A
11 In our case, some of the patterns are not discernible because of two-dimensional representation of the torus.
A D A A A D D A A D A D A A D D
D D D D D D D A A D D A A D D A
; ; ; ;
D D D A D D D D D D D D D D D D
A D D D A D A D A D D D D D D A
9
D A D D D A D A D A D D A D D D>
>
>
>
A A D A A A D D D A D A D A A D=
; ; ; :
D D D D A D D D A A D D A A D D>>
>
>
;
A D D D D D D D D D D D D D D D
These words represent the change of the environment in four periods when the agents
change state in parallel. The string pattern made of the symbol A glides diagonally
down the array grid.
Every agent (it is unimportant which state it is in) can generate only the language
containing only one word with the symbol of itself surrounded by the free space sym-
bols, if alone in the environment. The agent occupying the array cell with the 0th12
index can generate the language
8 9
>D
>
>
f f f>
>
>
>
<f >
f f f=
L.A1 / D :
>
> f f f f>>
>
> >
>
: ;
f f f f
The agent occupying the cell with the index 5 generates the language
8 9
>f
>
>
f f f>
>
>
>
<f >
D f f=
L.A6 / D :
>
> f f f f>>
>
> >
>
: ;
f f f f
If we superimpose the agents’ languages from the initial conguration, we get the
language
8 9
>
>D A D D>
>
>
> >
>
<D D A D=
Lsum D
>
>A A A D>>
>
> >
>
: ;
D D D D
that represents the sum of the agents’ behaviors. The original pattern is xed and non-
evolving if the agents do not interact with each other because they are alone in the
environment. It is obvious that the language of the whole MAS (GA) is richer than the
superimposed language of the agents. Thus we have a basic emergent property of the
game-of-life model—the glider.
12 This is not an error. The indices of the array start with 0, though the indices of the agents start with 1 for convenient identi cation
of agents.
5.1.2 Discussion
The glider example nicely illustrates how basic emergence is brought about purely by
the agent-to-agent interactions. The phenomenon depends upon the parallelism of the
agents’ actions that take part in the network-like structure. Note that we could nd
rules of interactions in the game of life that do not give rise to emergent patterns (e.g.
if the pattern does not change at all).
We want to reply to some objections that could be raised against the present analysis.
We extended the original CA by one symbol ( f ) representing the environment. It
seems that we violated the conditions in the game of life. This is because we made
a multiagent model of a CA where agents act according to their rules, whereas the
environment is passive. We made a distinction between agents and the environment
in which they act. This is necessary in order to analyze the glider grammatically.
It does not change the game-of-life principle. It just shows that parallel action (not
just any interaction) is necessary in order to produce emergent behavior. If we stick
to the original conguration where each cell is occupied by an agent, the game-of-life
principle will stay untouched. Suppose we did not introduce a new (free space) symbol
into the game of life. Let us consider a language that was the sum (superimposition)
of the languages that can be generated by only one agent active on the grid. We still
would not get the richness of the whole game-of-life language.
It is true that the denition of the game of life involves the interaction of agents.
Nevertheless, not every conguration reveals an emergent property of the whole sys-
tem. We wanted to demonstrate that emergence in the game of life depends on the
conguration of agent states, not on the rules. Our goal was to show how it is possible
to formally study the behavior of a complex system and nd out whether it exhibits
emergence. Some congurations of the game of life are stationary, with no agent ever
changing its state. The glider or any other such pattern is interesting because it seems to
be moving. But nothing is really moving. Some patterns are simply more eye-catching
than others. Many more CA rules (not congurations) would produce emergent behav-
ior. We do not know why these or other rules produce this or other “moving patterns”
in certain conguration, and we doubt that there is a general law-like answer to this
question. Our analysis shows that in the game of life some congurations are emer-
gent and some are not, and that what matters is conditions in the environment and the
parallel actions of agents.
than linearly) decreasing time relative to the number of agents. So two agents can
fulll the task in less than half the time it takes for one of the agents to do it alone.
This example need not generate the experience of “surprise” that emergent results of
agents’ interactions often produce in observers. Direct cooperation or communication
in natural as well as articial multiagent systems is one of the most apparent sources
of emergent behaviors that we can observe.
5.4 Stigmergy
Finally we give a simple example to illustrate a non-emergent behavior of a MAS. It
will be an example of stigmergic communication inspired by the reactive pheromone
communication of ants and other insects [32].14 In computer engineering, stigmergy
can be designed by dividing functions and data of a computer program into static data
structures representing the environment and methods or functions representing the
agents. The agents only change the state of the environment (data) as a reaction to their
values. They do not use any memory to store the results of their computation. Memory
in this case is represented by the environment with variables. We try to show that
if stigmergy can be simulated by traditional procedural approaches to programming,
where procedures sequentially communicate results of computing process until the
result is obtained or no function calls occur, then there is no emergence in the system.
Let
Prog D fVA ; VE ; F; i1 g
F1 D fVA ; VE ; P1 ; i1 g
or
Fk D fVA ; VE ; Pk ; ok¡1 g; 2 · k · n;
i1 H) i1 o1 H) i1 i2 H) i1 i2 o2 H) i1 i2 i3 H) i1 i2 i3 o3 H) ¢ ¢ ¢ H) i1 ¢ ¢ ¢ in on :
The behavior of each function can be represented by the language it generates. The
function F1 generates the language L.F1 / D fi1 ; i1 o1 g. The language of other functions
will be a construct
which is generated by the whole program plus some other words that arise from su-
perimposition of shorter strings over the longer ones (denoted by Lres ).15
15 This example shows that the union of languages is better suited than the superimposition of languages to the design and analysis
of non-spatial behavior. Here the union of function languages coincides with the language of the whole program.
The whole program thus cannot generate more than the sum of its functions. Stig-
mergy in MASs does not reveal basic emergence if it can be simulated by sequential
processes in a traditional program design. The following is an example of such a sys-
tem. Suppose we have the task of completing a computer from given parts and agents
with very limited capability that take and add a specied part only if they observe that
the computer is in a given phase of the completion. In this case the environmental
tape would be represented by the alphabet of computer parts in the given stage of
the completion. The agents react only to the specied string on the tape and rewrite
it in the sense that they add another part to the computer set. The task is completed
after the last agent has added its part to the computer. The agents communicate only
through the environment by changing specied parameters. The behavior of the MAS
here is nevertheless not in any sense emergent, even if it may appear impressive to the
external observer (who might even attribute cooperative behavior to the agents). The
language analysis discloses that the agents would generate the same words if they acted
over the tape simultaneously. The reason for this is that the MAS in this experiment
could be constructed as one centralized agent with parts that react to the process of
computer completion. This is a traditional model of sequential or procedural comput-
ing where components of a system (procedures) sequentially pass the results of their
computations to each other, possibly generating the desired result (behavior). So com-
munication through the environment can be the source of basic emergent phenomena
but is insufcient without other conditions being fullled (e.g., the inherent parallelism
of the interactions).
6 Concluding Remarks
In this article we have tried to design a formal framework for emergence. We specically
tried to capture the property of a MAS that exhibits behavior not exhibited by summation
of the individual agent behaviors. We formally dened the sum of the agents’ behaviors
as the set of the superimposed words the agents generate individually.
We proposed the denition of basic emergence as an alternative to existing concepts
of emergence. We decided to choose grammars and grammar systems as a model of
agents and MASs as well as the environment. Thus, we can use parallel or sequential
modes of rewriting, and every agent can be modeled as a set of rewriting rules. The
denition of basic emergence corresponds to the simplest case of a MAS in which
only agents play an active role in the environment and no evolutionary processes
occur. It is nevertheless possible to model evolving MASs with the aim of observing
other kinds of emergence. It is also possible to consider internal states of agents as
an internal mechanism of decision making with higher levels of rationality. Other
extensions (inter-agent communication, active and more-dimensional environments,
etc.) are possible.
Our idea of basic emergence accords in essence with Holland’s notion of emergence
[31]. It almost coincides with Bedau’s denition of weak emergence [5, 6]. It corre-
sponds in essence with the syntactic or combinatoric concepts of emergence of Cariani
and has the potential to capture Cariani’s concept of creative emergence [14, 13, 12].
We think it is more descriptive than the denition presented by Baas [4] in that it does
not count any property of a MAS that cannot be observed at the level of agents’ descrip-
tion as necessarily emergent. The fact that examples of basic emergence were mostly
(though not necessarily always) due to inter-agent interactions reveals that one of the
following attributes should be present in MASs that are designed to produce emergent
behavior:
The new idea in our approach is to use a unied modeling tool that can cope with
different types of emergence. We propose a unied formal framework that is based on
grammars and the languages they generate.
Still, much has to be done in the study of complex systems in relation to emergence.
We propose that research on hierarchies and architectures in multiagent systems can
shed more light on the formation of emergent structures in these systems (see the
discussion in Articial Life [29, 45, 46]). Evolution plays a crucial role in the genesis of
higher structures or components with completely new semantics.
Until now the concept of emergence was in its essence a philosophical concept in
that researchers tried to explain its meaning. There is nevertheless the potential to
use this concept to create new articial systems from the bottom up if we are able to
describe the system’s behavior on higher semantic levels. How should we design the
properties of the components of the system and their interactions? What role should
the environment play if we expect some desired behavior of the whole system? This
approach could be called emergence-based reverse engineering. It could help us to
design interesting new software or hardware as well as explain how natural systems
work.
Acknowledgments
The author is indebted to I. Trenc.anský for his fruitful comments during the discussions
that shaped this article in the beginning of the summer of 2000. He is also indebted
to the reviewers who inspired many ideas and thus substantially inuenced the nal
version of this paper. Special thanks to M. Bedau for his comments and revisions.
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