BELLS INSTITUTE OF MANAGEMENT &

TECHNOLOGY KNOWLEDGE CITY MEHLI

SHIMLA (H.P.)

A Report Submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirement for the Degree of
BACHELOR OF TECHNOLOGY
OF
CIVIL ENGINEERING
On
WATER ANALYSIS: FOR DRINKING PURPOSE IN NAHAN
TOWN


Submitted To: Submitted By:
Er. Ratna Chauhan PUNEET KUMAR
Co-ordinate & Lecture, Civil Roll No.50026
Civil Engineering Department, B.Tech 7
th
semester
B.I.M.T. Shimla Civil Engineering






CERTIFICATE




This is to certify that the project repot untitled WATER ANALYSIS FOR
DRINKING PURPOSE IN NAHAN TOWN submitted by PUNEET KUMAR
(Roll No. 50026) of B.tech. Civil VIIth semester in partial fulfillment of the
requirement for the award of the degree in B.Tech .of Bells Institute of
Management & Technology, Shimla (H.P.) is record of their own work carried
out under my supervision and guidance.








Er. Manjeet Singh Kanwar Er. Ratna Chauhan
H.O.D. Co-ordinator & lecturer, Civil
Civil Engineeing Civil Engineering Department
B.I.M.T. Shimla B.I.M.T. Shimla



EXAMINER.
CONTENTS

S.No. TOPICS

1. Acknowledgement

2. Introduction about Nahan
2.1- Environment
2.2- Population Growth

3. Water
3.3- General Introduction
3.2- Hydrologic Cycle

4. Sources of water at Nahan
4.1- Quality of groundwater
4.2- Collection & Preservation of sample

5. Impurities in groundwater & their effects

6. Water Treatment Analysis
6.1- Physical Analysis
6.2- Chemcal Analysis

7. Tests Results

8. Significance of various tests

9. Parameter & Preservative used

10. Safety Limits & their effects

11. Conclusion




ACKNOWLEDGEMENT




I owe many thanks to many great people who helped and supported me during
this project.

My deepest thanks to Lecturer Er. Ratna Chauhan the Guide of the project for
guiding and correcting various documents of mine with attention and care. She
has taken pain to go through the project and make necessary corrections as and
when needed.

I express my thanks to the Principal of Bells Institute of Management &
Technology Shimla, for her support.

My deep sense of gratitude to Er. Manjeet Singh Kanwar (H.O.D. of Civil
Department), support and guidance. Thanks and appreciation to the helpful
Students who worked under this project for their support.

I would also thank my Institution and all my faculty members without whom this
project would have been a distent reality.













A Brief Introduction about Nahan Town



Nahan town is the Headquarter of distt. Sirmour in Himachal Pradesh, the town proper is
situated at an altitude of 933 mts above mean see level .It is known for its ponds/Lake,
underground sewerage system since imperial days and moderate climate located surrounded
by rivers-markanda ji and talo rivulets runnig through and Lush green forest and amidst Ranital
garden-Chowgan ground, Chamba-wala-ground and military ground/cantonment area.

ENVIRONMENT:-

The physical environment of Nahan planning area is undergoing rapid changes. During the last 5
year or so urban development has started spreading on the steep slopes, along Khads and in
the surrounding area of Pucca Tank (Colony known as sunder Bag Colony)etc. Because of the
population the surrounding are getting under new constructions and other commercial
pursuits. Initially the area had various varities of vegetation and wild life which have now
extinct. As regards physical environment, it is felt that climate is warming up in the Distt.
Sirmour and there is less snow fall on-Shivalik mountains, causing less volume of water in the
Khads passing in and around Nahan area. Three main components of physical environment
namely mountains, rivers, vegetation and wild life are under threat. Natural resources are being
exploited. There is an indifferent attitude of development agencies towards physical
environment.








POPULATION GROWTH:-

The population of Nahan planning area increased from 21878 persons in 1991 to 26263 in 2001,
recording a decadal growth rate of 20.04%.It is anticipated that population of planning area at
rate of 20.04% and 19.96% during the decades of 2001-11 is likely to increase to 19.96% and
19.98% during 2011-21.



Growth of Population


Year Population % Growth Rate
1991 21878 20.14
2001 26263 20.14
2011 31504 19.96
2021 37800 19.98
























Water

General:-

Water is the most common or major substance on earth, covering more than 70% of the
planets surface. The total amount of earth remains constant.
The primary needs human beings are air, water and food. A man can survive without food but
he cannot survive without water. Water play vital role in making life comfortable and luxurious.
Its role is undisputable. It is the natures gift and is available in various forms. The easy
availability and abundance of water on earth decreases the value of water as a resource as
compared with other resource, water is used in tremendous quantities, and because of its great
abundance water is generally very inexpensive resource. With the increase in population our
water resources are becoming polluted at an alarming rate which decreases the availability of
fresh water. We are exploiting our water resources with great speed, which once seemed
endlessly renewable when our population was limited.


The rapid growth in population together with the extension of irrigated agriculture and
industrial development, are putting stress on the natural ecosystems. In the face of growing
problems, society has begun to realize that it can no longer subscribe to a use and discard
philosophy with any natural resource. One such resource is WATER.






HYDROLOGIC CYCLE

The never-ending exchange of water from the atmosphere to the oceans and back is known as
the hydrologic cycle. This cycle is the source of all forms of precipitation (Hail, rain, sleet
and snow) and thus of all the water. Precipitation stored in streams, lakes and soil
evaporates while water stored in plants transpires to form clouds which store the water in the
atmosphere. Currently, about 75% to 80% of conventional water supply is from lakes, rivers and
wells.


















SOURCES OF WATER SUPPLY AT NAHAN
Earlier the spring source of saber was the only source of water supply for Nahan town .Now
there is a scheme functioning for the town .Additional water is coming from tube wells dug at
village Khairi near Kala-Amb.Total water supply per day to the town is 8,32,888 gallons .
Water is supplied for 4 hours daily .There are 4065 Nos.private water connections and 130 Nos
water stand posts in the planning area. Out of total families 90% depends on private water
connections , 8% on public taps and 2% on other sources like spring , hand pumps etc.

Quality of ground water :-

Where available and of good quality, ground water is usually the most acceptable source for
drinking water supply. Due to the natural filtering of aquifer materials, and long underground
retention times , groundwater typically has very little pathogenic contamination , and requires
little or no disinfection .In contrast , surface water is often heavily polluted with fecal material
as a result of poor sanitation and hygiene practices. Surface water is also more susceptible to
chemical contamination from industrial or agricultural runoff, such as heavy metals, pesticides ,
or nitrate. However, groundwater quality should not be taken for granted . In very shallow
aquifers, bacterial contamination is possible , and even likely if the wellhead is poorly protected
.In addition to arsenic , other inorganic constituents in groundwater can cause health or
aesthetic problems , notably iron , manganese , nitrate , chloride , and fluoride.

Collection and preservation of sample:-

To analyse various parameters samples are collected under different conditions , the
collection, handling and preservation of sample is most important factor related to sampling .
The main objective of sampling is to collect , transport it carefully to laboratory to analyse
without effecting its quality , in other words we can say that the sample that the we brought to
the laboratory must represents the materials being sampled.

The presentation of samples is very important because preservative used must be quantitative
so that this will not affect the characteristic of sample .Various preservatives are recommended
should not affect other constituent.

It is advisable to analyse the parameters as soon as possible because as soon as the sample
analysed the results will be more satisfactory. Most of the parameters such as dissolved
oxygen, chemical oxygen demand , free CO2, temperature , pH etc changes immediately
therefore it is advised to analyse it on spot , if not possible preserve it in suitable preservative
prior to analysis .No single method of preservation is satisfactory, so the preservative should be
chosen according to determination that is to be made.





LOCATION FROM WHER SAMPLE COLLECTED:-

Khari (Near Trilokpur): 22km from Nahan.

a) Tube well no. 1
b) Tube well no. 2
c) Tube well no. 3
d) Tube well no. 4








(Tube well at Khari near trilokpur)










Impurities in Groundwater And Their Effects:-

Aluminum
Aluminum, the most abundant metal on Earth, is found in soil, in water and in air. Its chemical and
physical properties make it ideal for a wide variety of uses. For example, aluminum and its compounds
are often used in food as additives, in drugs (e.g., antacids), in consumer products (e.g., cooking utensils,
anti-perspirant and aluminum foil) and in the treatment of drinkingwater (e.g., coagulants).Because
aluminum is so pervasive in the environment, to the point of being unavoidable, researchers have long
been studying its effects on humans. This research has revealed a link between aluminum intake and
neurological dementia in kidney dialysis patients (dialysis encephalopathy). In recentyears, the public
and the media have become concerned about other possible adverse effects of aluminum on human
health, including its role in Alzheimer's disease, Parkinson's disease and amyotrophic lateral sclerosis
(Lou Gehrig's disease). In addition, questions have been raised about the potential risks to infants who
drink baby formula containing aluminum

Arsenic
Most arsenic enters water supplies either from natural deposits in the earth or from industrial
and agricultural pollution. Arsenic is a natural element of the earth's crust. It is used in industry
and agriculture, and for other purposes. It also is a byproduct ofcopper smelting, mining and
coal burning. U.S. industries release thousands of poundsof arsenic into the environment every
year. According to a 1999 study by the National Academy of Sciences, arsenic in drinking water
causes bladder, lung and skin cancer, and may cause kidney and liver cancer. The study also
found that arsenic harms the central and peripheral nervous systems, as well as heart and blood
vessels, and causes serious skin problems. It also may cause birth defects and reproductive
problems.

Barium
Barium is a lustrous, machinable metal which exists in nature only in ores containing mixtures
of elements. It is used in making a wide variety of electronic components, in metal alloys,
bleaches, dyes, fireworks, ceramics and glass. In particular, it is used inwell drilling operations
where it is directly released into the ground. Short-term: EPAhas found barium to potentially
cause the following health effects when people are exposed to it at levels above 2 ppm for
relatively short periods of time: gastro-intestinal disturbances and muscular weakness. Long-
term: Barium has the potentialto cause high blood pressure from a lifetime exposure at levels
above the MCL.




Boron
Boron is a naturally occurring element. In the environment, boron is combined with oxygen and
other elements in compounds called borates. Borates are widely found in nature, and are
present in oceans, sedimentary rocks, coal, shale and some soils. There are several commercially
important borates, including borax, and boric acid, and have many industrial uses in glass making, leather
preservation, in welding and fertilizers . Children and infants on which boron
compounds are used for medication can become acutely ill with nausea, vomiting, diarrhea, circulatory
collapse, skin rash and confusion. Fatal poisonings often involve kidney failure.


Cadmium
Cadmium is released into the environment from mining and metal processing operations, burning fuels,
making and using phosphate fertilizers, and disposing of metal products. Cadmium is not mined, but it is
a by-product of the smelting of other metals such as zinc, lead, and copper. Cadmium is used in nickel -
cadmium rechargeable batteries and for metal plating. It also is used in some paints, plastics, and metal
solders.
Cadmium can enter the body from smoking tobacco, eating food and drinking water containing cadmium,
and inhaling it from the air.
If you eat food or drink water that contains large amounts of cadmium, stomach irritation, vomiting, and
diarrhea may result. Smallamounts of cadmium taken in over many years may cause kidney damage and
fragile bones.


Chlorine
The experimental use of chlorine began in the 1890's to combat water-borne diseases such as cholera and
typhoid. It quickly gained wide acceptance because of low cost and high efficiency in killing just about
everything hazardous in the water. Chlorine allowed population centers to spring up and thrive without
any epidemic outbreaks.
The problem with chlorine is that it is a known poison and the safety of drinking this poison over the long
term (i.e. your lifetime) is highly uncertain. Also, chlori ne reacts with water-borne decaying organic
matter like leaves, bark, sediment, etc. to create a family of chemicals called trihalomethanes and other
highly toxic substances.

Copper
Copper rarely occurs naturally in water. Most copper contamination in drinking water happens in the
water delivery system, as a result of corrosion of the copper pipes or fittings. Copper piping and fittings
are widely used in household plumbing. Generally, naturally soft water is more corrosive than hard water
because it is more acidic and has low TDS. At high levels, copper in drinking water may cause symptoms
easily mistaken as flu or other illnesses.



Fluoride
Waters with high fluoride content are found mostly in calcium-deficient waters in many
basement aquifers, such as granite and gneiss, in geothermal waters and in some sedimentary
basins. Fluorides in water can be detrimental or beneficial. It all depends on the concentration.
Surface water supplies are normally low in fluorides (less than 0.5 ppm). Some have no fluoride
at all.Well waters may contain excessive amounts of fluoride. There are some wells which
contain the recommended amount (1 mg/L) for drinking water. Exposure to drinking water
levels above 4 mg/L for many years may result in cases of crippling skeletal fluorosis, which is a
serious bone disorder.

Lead
Lead rarely occurs naturally in water. Most lead contamination takes place at some point in the
water delivery system. Lead pipes and lead solder in the distribution system are the main
sources of lead pollution.
Exposure to low levels of lead over an extended period of time can have severe health effects.
Too much lead can damage your brain, kidneys, nervous system, and red blood cells. Those at
the greatest risk, even with short-term exposure, are young children and pregnant women.

Magnesium
Magnesium is present in all natural waters and enters the groundwater the same way as calcium
by contact with rock formations. Magnesium is associated with calcium and is also a major
contributor to hardness. As well, magnesium may contribute to undesirable tastes in your water
if the concentration is high. When present in water with sulfates, magnesium may have a
laxative effect or cause gastrointestinal irritation.

Manganese
Manganese is a mineral that naturally occurs in rocks and soil and is a normal constituent of the
human diet. It exists in well water as a groundwater mineral, but may also be present due to
underground pollution sources. You may suspect that manganese is in your water if the water is
discolored (brownish-red), causes staining of plumbing fixtures or clothing or has an off-taste or
odor.







Sodium
Sodium is a naturally occurring mineral which is found in water sources. While sodium is not
regulated as a contaminant in drinking water, it may have an effect on the consumer's health. In
general, the sodium contributed to an individual's diet from drinking water is a small part of
overall dietary intake. The American Heart Association's recommended standard for daily
sodium intake.

Zinc
Although zinc occurs naturally, most zinc finds its way into the environment because of human
activities. Mining, smelting metals (like zinc, lead and cadmium) and steel production, as well as
burning coal and certain wastes can release zinc into the environment. Zinc is frequently used as
a protection to galvanize steel. When high levels of zinc are present in soils, such as at a
hazardous waste site, the metal can seep into the groundwater. Zinc is an essential nutrient
needed by the body for growth, development of bones, metabolism and wound-healing. Too little
zinc in the diet also can cause adverse health effects such as loss of appetite, decreased sense of
taste and smell,lowered ability to fight off infections, slow growth, slowwound-healing and skin
sores.













WATER TREATMENT ANALYSIS:-

Physical Analysis:-
1. pH
2. Colour
3. Turbidity
4. Odour
5. Temperature


Chemical Analysis:-
1. B.O.D.
2. C.O.D.
3. Hardness
4. Nitrite
5. Nitrate
6. Chloride
7. Alkalinity
8. Fluoridity
9. Iron






PHYSICAL ANALYSIS :-

1. pH Testing
pH is defined as the negative logarithm of the hydrogen ion concentration. pH is a convenient way
of expressing a very small number. The pH scale ranges from 0 to 14 with 7 being neutral. pH
values of less than 7 are considered acid, or acidic, while values greater than 7 are considered basic
or alkaline.
pH greatly affects biological activity. Extremes of pH may injure or kill many bacteria and even
cause a halt to all biological activity. Most bacteria perform best at pHs between 6.5 to 8.0.
pH also affects digester performance, sludge dewatering, chemical treatment, and disinfection
processes.
In the laboratory, pH is determined using a pH meter. The meter is standardized by using 2 buffer
solutions approximately 4 units apart which will bracket the pH of the sample. Buffers are
specially prepared solutions which resist any pH change. They are available commercially at
practically any pH value either as a liquid ready to use or as a dry powder needing dilution with
distilled water.
To buffers are used to standardize a pH meter to be certain the meter is working correctly. In
measuring pH, only a grab sample should be used and the analysis must be performed
immediately. If at all possible, the analysis should be done on site.


Result:-
Sample from Khairi (Trilokpdr) = 7.1
Sample from Nahar Sawar = 7.8
Acceptable Limits :- 7.0 - 8.5







pH of various samples :-

Samples pH
Tape water 7
Sea water Varies from 7.5 - 8.4
Wall water Varies from 6.5 -8.5
Distilled water 5.8


2. COLOUR
The method is useful in the field by comparing the colour of sample with a comparator. When
viewed by transmitted light through a depth of several feet, pure water exhibits a light blue
colour which may be altered by the presence of organic matter to greenish blue, green,
greenish yellow, yellow or brown. Colour is removed to make water suitable for general and
industrial applications. Coloured industrial wastewater may require colour removal before
discharge into water sources. The visual comparison method is applicable to nearly all samples
of potable water. Pollution by certain industrial wastes may produce unusual colours that
cannot be matched. In such a case, an instrumental method is useful. Colour expressed in terms
of Pt/Co standard unit.



Result:-
Sample from Khairi = Normal water colour
Sample from Nahar Sawar = Normal water colour

3. Turbidity

Principle

Turbidity can be measured by its effect on the scattering light, which is termed as Nephelometry.
Turbidimeter can be used for sample with moderate turbidity and nepelometer for sample with low
turbidity. Higher the intensity of scattered lights higher the turbidity.
Turbidity is an expression of the optical property that causes light to be scattered and absorbed
rather than transmitted in straight lines through the sample. The standard method for the
determination of turbidity has been based on the Jackson candle turbidity meter. However, the
lowest turbidity value that can be measured directly on this instrument is 25 units. An indirect
method is necessary to estimate the turbidity in the range of 0-5 units; the turbidities of treated
water generally fall in this range. Most commercial turbidimeters available for measuring low
turbidities give comparatively good indicators of the intensity of light scattered in one particular
direction, predominantly at right angle to the incident light. These nephelometers are relatively
unaffected by small changes in design parameters and are therefore specified as the standard
instrument for measurement lowturbidities. Results from nephelometric measurements are
expressed as nepholometric turbidity units (NTU).

Result:-
Sample from Khairi = clear
Sample from nahar sawar = clear
Acceptable limits 2.5 NTU




4. Taste and Odour
Guideline

The taste and odour of drinking water should not be offensive to most consumers
General Description

Taste and odour are two of the primary criteria consumers use to judge the quality and
acceptability of drinking water. Peoples sense of taste and smell tends to vary, and so the
acceptability of the same water can vary from person to person and from day to day for the
same person. Similarly, one individual within a group may be more or less sensitive to a
particular substance than the group as a whole. Whilst taste and odour present in water does
not generally have a health impact, the presence of tastes and odours may raise consumer
concern with regard to water quality.
Sources of Taste and Odour

Taste and odour in drinking water can result from naturally occurring inorganic chemicals; from
biological activity, either in the source, treatment process or distribution system; as abyproduct
of water treatment processes; or from chemical contamination at any point from source to tap.
Inorganic compounds are generally present in water in substantially higher concentrationsthan
organic compounds. Taste thresholds for some commonly occurring inorganic ions are about
0.1 mg/L for manganese, 0.3 mg/L for iron, 3 mg/L for copper, 3 mg/L for zinc, 250 mg/L for
chloride, and 250 500 mg/L for sulphate. Most of these ions have health guidelines at
concentrations higher than their taste thresholds (except copper at 2 mg/L). In most cases the
customer would reject the water for aesthetic reasons before it would be of health concern.
Contamination of source water from spills, discharges or leaks of organic compounds can result
in unpleasant taste and odours. Diesel fuel, for example, has a taste and odour threshold of
0.0005 mg/L. Methyl tert-butyl ether (MTBE) is the most commonly used fuel oxygenate added
to reduce atmospheric concentrations of carbon monoxide and other aromatics. MTBE has
frequently been detected in samples of shallow groundwaters, particularly in the USA. It affects
the taste/odour of water at concentrations below 0.030 mg/L (Young et al 1996).
One of the most common odours in water is described as earthy, musty or woody.
Compounds most often linked to these odours are geosmin and 2 methyl isoborneol (MIB),
which have similar low odour threshold concentrations of 0.00001 mg/L (10 ng/L) (Young et al
1996). Cyanobacteria that produce these compounds include taxa representing the genera
Anabaena, Aphanizomenon, Planktothrix, Oscillatoria and Phormidium in either planktonic and
benthic habitats. Actinomycetes grow preferably in terrestrial habitats such as exposed

sediments and vegetative debris, and are considered to enter aquatic habitats mainly in run-off
from the shoreline.
Production of odorous compounds has been reported for most of the major algal classes and
other odours produced by particular algae have been described as sweet, aromatic, cucumber,
flowery, geranium, nasturtium, violets, fishy, peaty, grassy, mouldy, and vegetable. These
odours originate from a variety of odorous compounds produced by the algae including
aldehydes, ketones, alkenes, alcohols, terpenes, sulphides, amines, hydrocarbons, fatty acids,
esters, carbonyl and aromatics. Cell concentrations as low as 500 cells/mL for some
cyanobacteria and for a range of other algae are sufficient to taint a water supply.
Disinfection chemicals can contribute taste or odour to water. The odour threshold for free
chlorine varies with pH, but is generally considered to be between 0.1 and 0.4 mg/L, whilst
monochloramine and dichloramine odour thresholds are considered to be 0.5 mg/L and
0.15 mg/L respectively. A study by Piriou et al (2004) has determined taste thresholds of
0.05 mg/L for free chlorine, 0.1 mg/L for monochloramine and 0.2 mg/L for chlorine dioxide
using trained French panellists with flavour profile analysis. Untrained panellists were around 2-
4 times less sensitive and the US consumer panel was 5-10 times less sensitive than the French
consumer panel. This result can be linked to the different chlorination practices in the two
countries (residuals are around 0.1-0.2 mg/L in France compared with 1.0-3.0 mg/L in the USA).
A number of organic compounds produced as byproducts of disinfection, particularly
chlorination, can cause tastes and odours. Some chlorinated phenols, for example, have an
antiseptic smell and a very low taste and odour threshold, varying from 0.002 to 0.0001 mg/L,
whilst some brominated phenols have a threshold as low as 0.0000005 mg/L (0.5 ng/L) (Mackey
et al 2004).
A range of chloroanisoles can result in earthy/musty odours (Young et al 1996). For example
2,4,6-trichloroanisole (TCA) is produced from the action of biofilms in distribution systems on
the disinfection byproduct 2,4,6 trichlorophenol. TCA is detected at lower concentrations
(typically <0.000001 mg/L [<1 ng/L]) than MIB or geosmin, but it is less frequently responsible
for odour incidents.
Dimethyl di- and tri-sulphides (DMDS and DMTS) are responsible for septic/swampy odours.
They have odour threshold concentrations at low ng/L concentrations. It has been suggested
that these com.
Result:-
Sample from khairi = Normal & Tasteless
Sample from nahar sawar = Normal & Tasteles


5. TEMPERATURE
Temperature of a waterway is significant because it affects the amount of dissolved oxygen
in the water. The amount of oxygen that will dissolve in water increases as temperature
decreases. Water at OoC will hold up to 14.6 mg of oxygen per litre, while at 30oC it will hold
only up to 7.6 mg/L.
Temperature also affects the rate of photosynthesis of plants, the metabolic rate of aquatic
animals, rates of development, timing and success of reproduction, mobility, migration
patterns and the sensitivity of organisms to toxins, parasites and disease. Life cycles of
aquatic organisms are often related to changes in temperature.
Temperature ranges for plants and animals can be affected by manmade structures such as
dams and weirs and releases of water from them.

Result:
Sample of Khairi = 38 f
Sample of nahar sawar = 36 f










Chemical analysis:-
1. BO.D.
Introduction:
The Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD) is an empirical standardized laboratory test which
measures oxygen requirement for aerobic oxidation of decomposable organic matter and
certain inorganic materials in water, polluted waters and wastewater under controlled
conditions of temperature and incubation period. The quantity of oxygen required for above
oxidation processes is a measure of the test. The test is applied for fresh water sources (rivers,
lakes), wastewater (domestic, industrial), polluted receiving water bodies, marine water
(estuaries, coastal water) and also for finding out the level of pollution, assimilative capacity of
water body and also performance of waste treatment plants.

2. C.O.D.
Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD) test determines the oxygen requirement equivalent of organic
matter that is susceptible to oxidation with the help of a strong chemical oxidant. It is an
important, rapidly measured parameters as a means of measuring organic strength for streams
and polluted water bodies. The test can be related empirically to BOD, organic carbon or
organic matter in samples from a specific source taking into account its limitations. The test is
useful in studying performance evaluation of wastewater treatment plants and monitoring
relatively polluted water bodies. COD determination has advantage over BOD determination.
COD results can be obtained in 3-4 hrs as compared to 3-5days required for BOD test. Further,
the test is relatively easy, precise, and is unaffected by interferences as in the BOD test. The
intrinsic limitation of the test lies in its inability to differentiate between the biologically
oxidisable and biologically inert material and to find out the system rate constant of aerobic
biological stabilization.






3. Hardness
Introduction
Water hardness is a traditional measure of the capacity of water to precipitate soap. Hardness
of water is not a specific constituent but is a variable and complex mixture of cations and
anions. It is caused by dissolved polyvalent metallic ions. In fresh water, the principal hardness
causing ions are calcium and magnesium which precipitate soap. Other polyvalent cations also
may precipitate soap, but often are in complex form, frequently with organic constituents, and
their role in water hardness may be minimal and difficult to define. Total hardness is defined as
the sum of the calcium and magnesium concentration, both expressed as CaCO3, in mg/L. The
degree of hardness of drinking water has been classified in terms of the equivalent CaCO3
concentration as follows:
Soft 0-60 mg/L
Medium 60-120mg/L
Hard 120-180mg/L
Very hard >180mg/L
Although hardness is caused by cation, it may also be discussed in terms of carbonate
(temporary) and non-carbonate (permanent) hardness. Carbonate hardness refers to the
amount of carbonates and bicarbonates in solution that can be removed or precipitated by
boiling. This type of hardness is responsible for the deposition of scale in hot water pipes and
kettles. When total hardness is numerically greater then that of total alkalinity expressed as
CaCO3, the amount of hardness equivalent to alkalinity is called carbonate hardness1. When
the hardness is numerically equal to less than total alkalinity, all hardness is carbonate
hardness. The amount of hardness in excess of total alkalinity expressed as CaCO3 is non-
carbonate hardness. Non-carbonate hardness is caused by the association of the hardness-
causing cation with sulphate, chloride or nitrate and is referred to as permanent hardness.
This type of hardness cannot be removed by boiling. Public acceptability of the degree may vary
considerably from community depending on local conditions, and the association. The taste
threshold for magnesium is less than that for cation. A EDTA titration method.




Principle
Hardness is determined by the EDTA method in alkaline condition; EDTA and its sodium salts
From a soluble chelated complex with certain metal ions. Calcium and Magnesium ions develop
wine red colour with Eriochrome black T in aqueous solution at pH 10.0 0.1. When EDTA is
added as a titrant, Calcium and Magnesium divalent ions get complexed resulting in sharp
change from wine red to blue which indicates end-point of the titration. Magnesium ion must
be present to yield satisfactory point of the titration. Hence, a small amount of
complexometically neutral magnesium salt of EDTA is added to the buffer. The sharpness of the
end point increases with increasing pH. However, the specified pH of 10.0 0.1 is a satisfactory
compromise. At a higher pH i.e. at about 12.0 Mg++ ions precipitate and only Ca++ ions remain
in solution. At this pH murexide (ammonium purpurat) GUIDE MANUAL: WATER AND
WASTEWATER ANALYSIS indicator forms a pink colour with Ca++. When EDTA is added Ca++ gets
complexed resulting in a change from pink to purple which indicates end point of the reaction. To
minimise the tendency towards CaCO3- precipitation limit the duration of titration period to 5 minutes.
Apparatus
a. Conical flasks 100mL
b. Burette
c. Pipette
d. Spatula
Procedure
Total hardness
a. Take 25 or 50mL well mixed sample in porcelain dish or conical flask.
b. Add 1-2mL buffer solution followed by 1mL inhibitor.
c. Add a pinch of Eriochrome black T and titrate with standard EDTA (0.01M) till wine red
colour changes to blue, note down the volume of EDTA required (A).
d. Run a reagent blank. Note the volume of EDTA (B).
e. Calculate volume of EDTA required by sample, C = (A-B).
f. For natural waters of low hardness, take a larger sample volume, i.e. 100-1000mL for titration

and add proportionately larger amounts of buffer, inhibitor and indicator. Add standard EDTA
titrant slowly from a micro burette and run a blank using redistilled, deionised water of the
same volume as sample. Apply blank correction for computing the results.

Result:-
Sample for Khairi = 280 mg/l
Sample for Nahar Sawar = 260 mg/l
Acceptable limitg:- 200 mg/l
4. Nitrogen (Nitrite) (NO2-)
Introduction:
Nitrite in water is either due to oxidation of ammonium compounds or due to reduction of
nitrate. As an intermediate stage in the nitrogen cycle, it is unstable. A usual concentration in
natural water is in the range of some tenths of mg/L. Higher concentrations are present in
industrial wastes, sewage and in biologically purified effluents and in polluted streams. In
chlorinated supplies, levels of nitrite are often less than the limit of detection, i.e. 0.005mg/L
NO2-N but high levels may occur in unchlorinated water. Very high nitrite levels are usually
associated with water of unsatisfactory microbiological activity.


Results:-
Sample for Khairi = 4.6 mg/l
Sample for Nahar Sawar = 2.5 mg/l
Acceptable limit:- 10.2 mg/l

5. Nitrogen (Nitrate) (NO3-)
Introduction:
Determination of nitrate (NO3-) is difficult because of the relatively complex procedures
required, the high probability that interfering constituents will be present and the limited
concentration ranges of the various techniques. Nitrate is the most highly oxidised form of
nitrogen compounds commonly present in natural waters. Significant sources of nitrate are
chemical fertilizers, decayed vegetable and animal matter, domestic effluents, sewage sludge
disposal to land, industrial discharge, leachates from refuse dumps and atmospheric washout.
Depending on the situation, these sources can contaminate streams, rivers, lakes and ground
water. Unpolluted natural water contains minute amounts of nitrate. Excessive concentration in
drinking water is considered hazardous for infants because of its reduction to nitrite in
intestinal track causing methemoglobinaemia. In surface water, nitrate is a nutrient taken up by
plants and converted into cell protein. The growth stimulation of plants, especially of algae may
cause objectionable eutrophication.


Test of nitrate
6.Chloride (Cl-)
Procedure
a. Take 50mL well mixed sample adjusted to pH 7.0-8.0and add 1.0 mL K2Cr2O7.
b. Titrate with standard AgNO3 solution till AgCrO4 starts precipitating as pale red precipitate
c. Standardise AgNO3 against standard NaCl
d. For better accuracy titrate distilled water (50mL) in the same way to establish reagent blank.
A blank of 0.2 to 0.3mL is usual.


Result:-
Sample for Khairi = 172 mg/l
Sample for Nahar Sawar = 120 mg/l
Acceptable limit:- 200 mg/l
7.Fluoride (F-):-
Apparatus and equipment
a. Distillation apparatus
b. Colorimetric for use at 570nm
c. Nessler tubes cap. 100mL.
d. PipetteReagents and standards
a. Sulphuric acid: H2SO4, Conc.
b. Silver sulphate: Ag2SO4, crystals.
c. SPANDS solution: dissolve 958 mg SPANDS in distilled water and dilute to 500mL.This solution
is stable for atleast 1 year if protected from direct sunlight.
d. Zirconyl acid reagent: dissolve 133mg ZrOCl2.8H2O in 25mL water. Add 350mL conc. HCl and
dilute to 500mL.
e. Acid Zirconyl-SPANDS reagent: Mix equal volume of c andd to produce a single reagent.
Protect from direct light. This combined reagent is suitable for atleast 2 years.
f. Reference solution: add 10mL SPANDS solution to 100mL distilled water. Dilute 7mL conc. HCl
to 10mL and add to dilute SPANDS solution. Use this solution for setting zero of
spectrophotometer. It is stable for 1 year. Alternatively use a prepared standard of 0mg F-/L as
a reference.
g. Sodium arsenite solution: dissolve 5.0g NaAsO2 and dilute to 1000mL. (Caution: Toxic-avoid
ingestion)
h. Stock fluoride solution: dissolve 221mg anhydrous NaF and dilute to 1000mL. 1mL = 100g F.

i. Standard fluoride solution: dilute stock solution 10 times with distilled water to obtain 1 mL =.


Result:-
Sample from Khairi = Nill
Sample for Nahar Sawar = Nill
Acceptable limit:- 1 mg/l
8. Alkalinity:-
Alkalinity of sample can be estimated by titrating with standard sulphuric acid (0.02N) at room
temperature using phenolphthalein and methyl orange indicator. Titration to decolourisation of
phenolphthalein indicator will indicate complete neutralization of OH- and of CO3--, while
sharp change from yellow to orange of methyl orange indicator will indicate total alkalinity
(complete neutralisation of OH-, CO3--, HCO3-).
Apparatus
a. Beakers: The size and form will depend upon the electrode and the size of the sample to be
used for determination of alkalinity.
b. Pipettes (volumetric)
c. Flasks (volumetric): 1000mL, 200mL, 100ml
Procedure
a. Take 25 or 50mL sample in a conical flask and add 2-3 drops of phenolphthalein indicator.
b. If pink colour develops titrate with 0.02N H2SO4 till disappears or pH is 8.3. Note the volume
of H2SO4 required.

c. Add 2-3 drops of methyl orange to the same flask, and continue titration till yellow colour
changes to orange. Note the volumes of H2SO4 required.
d. In case pink colour does not appear after addition of phenolphthalein continue as above.
e. Alternatively, perform potentiometric titration to preselected pH using appropriate volume
of sample and titration assembly. Titrate to the end point pH without recording intermediate
pH.
9. Iron (Fe):-
Scope and equipment
Iron occurs in the minerals as hematite, taconite and pyrite. It is widely used in steel and other
alloys. Elevated iron levels in water can cause stains in plumbing, laundry and cooking utensils
and can impart objectionable taste and colour to foods. The United Nations FAO recommended
level for irrigation water is 5mg/L. The US EPA secondary drinking water standard MCL is
0.3mg/L. The BIS standard desirable limit is 0.3mg/L.
Methods for analysis:
A. Inductively coupled plasma (ICP) method/AAS
B. Phenanthroline method
A. Inductively coupled plasma method
B. Phenanthroline method
Principle: Iron is brought into solution, reduced to the ferrous state by boiling with acid and
hydroxylamine, and treated with 1, 10-phenanthroline at pH 3.2 to 3.3. Three molecules of
Phenanthroline chelate each atom of ferrous iron to form an orange-red complex. The coloured
solution obeys Beers law; its intensity is independent of pH from 3 to 9. A pH between 2.9 and
3.5 insures rapid colour development in the presence of an excess of Phenanthroline. Colour
standards are stable for at least 6 months. Interference: Among the interfering substances are
strong oxidising agents, cyanide, nitrite, and phosphates (polyphosphates more so than
orthophosphate), chromium, zinc in concentrations exceeding 10 times that of iron, cobalt and
copper in excess of 5mg/L, and nickel in excess of 2mg/L. Bismuth, cadmium, mercury,
molybdate, and silver precipitate Phenanthroline. The initial boiling with acid converts
polyphosphates to orthophosphate and removes cyanide and nitrite that otherwise would
interfere. Adding excess hydroxylamine eliminates errors caused by excessive concentrations of
strong oxidising reagents. In the presence of interfering metal ions, use a larger excess of

Phenanthroline to replace that complexed by the interfering metals. Where excessive
concentrations of interfering metal ions are present, the extraction method may be used. If
noticeable amounts of colour or organic matter are present, it may be necessary to evaporate
the sample, gently ash residue, and redissolve in acid. Ashing may be carried out in silica,
porcelain crucibles that have been boiled for several hours in 1+1 HCl. The presence of
excessive amounts of organic matter may necessitate digestion before use of the extraction
procedure.
Minimum detectable concentration: Dissolved or total concentrations of iron as low as 10g/L
can be
determined with a spectrophotometer using cells with a 5 cm or longer light path. Carry a blank
through the entire procedure to allow for correction.

Result:-
Sample for Khairi = Nill
Sample for Nahar sawar = Nill
Acceptable:- 1 mg/l




RESULTS OF VARIOUS TESTS
S.NO. TEST RESULT ACCEPTABLE
LIMITS


Khairi Nahar Sawar

1.
pH
7.1 7.8 7.0-8.5
2.
Colour
Normal Normal -
3.
Turbidity
Clear Clear 2.5 N.T.U.
4.
Odour
Normal Normal -
5.
Taste
Tasteless Tasteless -
6.
Hardness
280 mg/l 260 mg/l 200 mg/l
7.
Nitrite
4.6 mg/l 2.5 mg/l 10.2 mg/l
8.
Nitrate
- 1.0 mg/l -
9.
Chloride
172 mg/l 120 mg/l 200 mg/l
10.
Alkalinity
166 mg/l 230 mg/l 600 mg/l
11.
Fluoride
- - 1.0 mg/l
12.
Iron
- - 1.0 mg/l
13.
B.O.D.
2.5 mg/l 2.8 mg/l 2-5.8 mg/l
14.
C.O.D.
4.7 mg/l 6.9 mg/l 5.7-9.6 mg/l



SIGNIFICANCE OF VARIOUS TESTS
S.N.
TEST SIGNIFICANCE
1.




Temperature




Temperature Temperature can exert great control over aquatic communities. If the
overall water body temperature of a system is altered, an aquatic community shift can
be expected.
In water above 30oC, a suppression of all benthic organisms can be expected. Also,
different plankton groups will flourish under different temperatures. For example,
diatoms dominate at 20 - 25 degrees C, green algae dominate at 30 35 degrees C, and
cyano-bacteria dominate above 35 degrees C.
2.

pH value

pH is an indicator of the existence of biological life as most of them thrive in a quite
narrow and critical pH range.
3.

Colour

Colour is vital as most water users, be it domestic or industrial, usually prefer
colourless water. Determination of colour can help in estimated costs related to
discolouration of the water.
4. Hardness
Absolutely soft waters are tasteless (e.g. distilled water). On the other hand, hardness
up to 600 mg/l can be relished if got acclimatized to.
Moderately hard water is preferred to soft water for drinking and irrigation
purpose.




5.













Turbidity













Turbidity may be due to organic and/or inorganic constituents. Organic particulates
may harbour microorganisms. Thus, turbid conditions may increase the possibility for
waterborne disease. Nonetheless, inorganic constituents have no notable health
effects. The series of turbidity-induced changes that can occur in a water body may
change the composition of an aquatic community. First, turbidity due to a large volume
of suspended sediment will reduce light penetration, thereby suppressing
photosynthetic activity of phytoplankton, algae, and macrophytes, especially those
farther from the surface. If turbidity is largely due to algae, light will not penetrate
very far into the water, and primary production will be limited to the uppermost layers
of water. Cyanobacteria (blue-green algae) are favoured in this situation because they
possess flotation mechanisms. Overall, excess turbidity leads to fewer photosynthetic
organisms available to serve as food sources for many invertebrates. As a result,
overall invertebrate numbers may also decline, which may then lead to a fish
population decline. If turbidity is largely due to organic particles, dissolved oxygen
depletion may occur in the water body. The excess nutrients available will encourage
microbial breakdown, a process that requires dissolved oxygen. In addition, excess
nutrients may result in algal growth. Although photosynthetic by day, algae respire at
night, using valuable dissolved oxygen. Fish kills often result from extensive oxygen
depletion. Salinity High salinity may interfere with the growth of aquatic vegetation.
Salt may decrease the osmotic pressure, causing water to flow out of the plant to
achieve equilibrium. Less water can be absorbed by the plant, causing stunted growth
and reduced yields. High salt concentrations may cause leaf tip and marginal leaf burn,
bleaching, or defoliation. As per Conductivity, salinity (NaCl content, g/kg) can be used
to check for possible saline intrusion in future.
6.

BOD

BOD is a measure of organic pollution to both waste and surface water. High BOD is an
indication of poor water quality. For this tree plantation project, any discharge of
waste into the waterways would affect the water quality and thus users downstream.

7.







Chemical
Oxygen
Demand,
COD





COD is an indicator of organics in the water, usually used in conjunction with BOD.
High organic inputs trigger deoxygenation. If excess organics are introduced to the
system, there is potential for complete depletion of dissolved oxygen. Without oxygen,
the entire aquatic community is threatened. The only organisms present will be air-
breathing insects and anaerobic bacteria. If all oxygen is depleted, aerobic
decomposition ceases and further organic breakdown is accomplished anaerobically.
Anaerobic microbes obtain energy from oxygen bound to other molecules such as
sulphate compounds. Thus, anoxic conditions result in the mobilization of many
otherwise insoluble compounds.
In areas of high organics there is frequently evidence of rapid sewage fungus
colonization. Sewage fungus appears as slimy or fluffy cotton wool-like growths of
micro-organisms which may include filamentous bacteria, fungi, and protozoa such as
Sphaerotilus natans, Leptomitus lacteus, and Carchesium polypinuym, respectively.
The various effects of the sewage fungus masses include silt and detritus entrapment,
the smothering of aquatic macrophytes, and a decrease in water flow velocities. An
accumulation of sediment allows a shift in the aquatic system structure as colonization
by silt-loving organisms occur. In addition, masses of sewage fungus may break off and
float away, causing localized areas of dissolved oxygen demand elsewhere in the water
body. Organic levels decrease with distance away from the source.
In a standing water body such as a lake, currents are generally not powerful enough to
transport large amounts of organics. In a moving water body, the saprotrophic
organisms (organisms feeding on decaying organic matter) break down the organics
during transportation away from the source. Hence, there is a decline in the oxygen
demand and an increase of dissolved oxygen in the water. Community structure will
gradually return to ambient with distance downstream from the source.
8. Nitrate
Nitrogen
The growth of macrophytes and phytoplankton is stimulated principally by nutrients
such as nitrates. Many bodies of freshwater are currently experiencing influxes of
nitrogen and phosphorus from outside sources. The increasing concentration of
available phosphorus allows plants to assimilate more nitrogen before the phosphorus
is depleted. Thus, if sufficient phosphorus is available, high concentrations of nitrates
will lead to phytoplankton (algae) and macrophyte (aquatic plant) production. This is
mostly due to the usage of fertilisers




PARAMETER AND PRESERVATIVE USED
S.N. Parameters Type of
container
(ml)
Minimum
Sample
size (ml)
Preservation Technique Maximum storage
time
1. pH Plastic, Glass 50 Analyse on site 0.5 hrs
2. Alkalinity Plastic, Glass 200 Refrigerate 24 hrs
3. Chloride Plastic, Glass 50 None -
4. Hardness Plastic, Glass 100 Add H2SO4 -pH<2 6 Months
5. Nitrate Plastic, Glass 1000 Analyse Immediately or
Refrigerated
48 hrs
6. Nitrite Plastic, Glass 100 Analyse immediately or
refrigerated
6 hrs
7. Ammonia Plastic, Glass 500 Analyse immediately
orhH2SO4
24 hrs
8. Turbidity Plastic, Glass 100 Analyse within 24 hrs, store
it in Dark /Refrigerate
24 hrs
9. Colour Plastic, Glass 500 Refrigerate 48 hrs
10. Odour Glass 1000 Analyse as soon as possible,
refrigerate
6 hrs
11. B.O.D. Plastic, Glass 1000 Analyse immediately or
refrigerate/add H2SO4 -
pH<2
24 hrs
12. C.O.D. Plastic, Glass 100 Analyse immediately or add
H2SO4 pH<2
24 hrs
13. Phosphate Glass 100 For dissolved phosphate
filter immediately,
refrigerate
48 hrs

SEFETY LIMITS AND THEIR EFFECTS

PARAMETERS BIS GUIDELINE
VALUE (maximum
allowable)
GENERAL & HEALTH EFFECTS
pH 6.5-8.5 Affects mucous membrane, Bitter taste,
Corrosion, affects aquatic life.
Alkalinity 600mg/l Boiled rice turns yellowish
Hardness 600mg/l Poor lathering with soap deterioration
of the quality of clthes, scale forming,
skin irrigation, boiled meat & food
become poor in quality.
Fluoride 1.5 Dental and skeletal fluoresce, non-
skeletl manifestations.
Chloride 1000 Taste affected, corrosive
Nitrate 100 Blue baby
disease(methermoglobineamia) algal
growth
Iron 1.0 Poor and sometimes bitter taste,
colour and turbidity, staining of clothes
material, iron bacteria causing slime
Nitrite 0.2 Forms nitrosamines witch are
carcinogenic
Ammonia 0.2 Idicates pollution, growth of algae
Phosphate 0.2 Algal growth
Turbidity 10 Light penetration decreases
Residual Chloride 0.2 Poor and sometimes bitter taste

Conclusion
As a conclusion of aforesaid analysis it has found that the
quality of water which is being supplied to Nahan town is good.
All the test results of Physical as well as chemical Analysis is
under acceptable limit except Hardness. Hardness of water is
quite high as compare to potable drinking water. Hence it is
required to remove the hardness of the water by giving it a
proper treatment such as removal of calcium and magnesium
from water can turn hard water in to soft water. The two most
common processes to remove calcium and magnesium from the
water are (1) reverse osmosis filtration, and (2) ion exchange.
Reverse osmosis filtration units can handle only small volumes
of water and are usually installed at the kitchen skin. Ion
exchange units can treat large volumes of water and are typically
installed to treat either all of water entering the residence or just
the hot water supply.








References:-
. WATER SUPPLY & WASTE WATER ENGG. Public Health
Engg. By M.L.OHRI & L.R.SIDHANA.
. CLIFFORD, D. 1986 Removing dissolved inorganic contaminants from
water. Environmental Science and Technology, 20, 1072-1080.
. water and waste water analysis lab manual By R.K.BUTANI Daya
Publications.



WEBOGRAPHY:-

. http:/www.pjoes.com /water-chemical-analysis
. http:/www.slu.se./en/faculties/../geochemical../water-chemical-analysis
. http:/mppcb.nic.in
. http:/www.ask.com/CHEMICAL+ANALYSIS+Lab