SWIR Workshop Manual

Copyright
NO PART OF THIS DOCUMENT MAY BE REPRODUCED OR TRANSMITTED IN ANY FORM OR BY ANY MEANS, ELECTRONIC OR
MECHANICAL, FOR ANY PURPOSE, WITHOUT THE EXPRESS WRITTEN PERMISSION OF
AUSSPEC INTERNATIONAL LTD.

2010 AUSSPEC INTERNATIONAL LTD. ALL RIGHTS RESERVED

Disclaimer: Whilst every care has been taken in the production of this manual AusSpec International
Ltd. accepts no liability express or implied, by statute, common law or otherwise for the accuracy of the
information contained herein. AusSpec International Ltd also reserves the right to change at any time its
interpretation of data, analytical approaches and data analysis techniques.

Table of Contents

i
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Disclaimer: ............................................................................................................................................... i
SESSION 1: INTRODUCTION TO SPECTRAL GEOLOGY .................................................................... 0
INTRODUCTION ..................................................................................................................................... 0
FIELD SPECTROMETERS ......................................................................................................................... 0
AUTOMATED MEASUREMENT: CORE LOGGING AND HYLOGGING ............................................................ 0
SHORT WAVELENGTH INFRARED (SWIR) SPECTRAL REGION .................................................................. 1
SWIR INFRARED SPECTROMETRY ......................................................................................................... 1
PATTERN RECOGNITION ........................................................................................................................ 2
EXERCISE 1: PATTERN RECOGNITION ....................................................................................................... 3
ABSORPTION FEATURES RELEVANT TO THE SWIR ................................................................................. 4
SUITABLE MINERAL GROUPS FOR SWIR ANALYSIS ............................................................................... 4
UNSUITABLE MINERAL GROUPS FOR SWIR ANALYSIS ........................................................................... 4
ABSORPTION FEATURES RELEVANT TO THE VISIBLE-NEAR INFRARED (VIS-NIR) ..................................... 5
THE WAVELENGTHS OF THE MAIN ABSORPTIONS IN THE SWIR .............................................................. 7
EXERCISE 2: SPECTRAL ABSORPTION BANDS .............................................................................................. 7
INFORMATION IN THE REFLECTANCE HULL ............................................................................................ 9
REMOVING THE REFLECTANCE HULL ..................................................................................................... 9
SESSION 2: A STRUCTURED APPROACH TO SPECTRAL ANALYSIS ............................................. 11
INTRODUCTION ................................................................................................................................... 11
A STRUCTURED APPROACH TO SPECTRAL INTERPRETATION ................................................................. 11
EXERCISE 3: SPECTRAL INTERPRETATION ............................................................................................... 12
SPECTRAL VARIATIONS WITHIN MINERAL GROUPS .............................................................................. 13
Introduction ........................................................................................................................................... 13
Influence of Crystallinity ........................................................................................................................ 13
Influence of Composition ........................................................................................................................ 13
Crystallinity and its Effect on the Spectral Responses of Kaolinites ......................................................... 14
Crystallinity and its Effect on the Spectral Responses of illite .................................................................. 15
Composition and its Effect on the Spectral Responses of Sericites ........................................................... 16
Composition and its Effect on the Spectral Responses of Chlorites .......................................................... 17
Influence of Octahedral Cation on the Spectra of Smectites ..................................................................... 19
Composition and its Effect on the Spectral Responses of Carbonates....................................................... 20
Other minerals to display compositional variations include: .................................................................. 22
SPECTRAL MIXTURES .......................................................................................................................... 23
Introduction ........................................................................................................................................... 23
Non-Linear Mixing ................................................................................................................................. 23
What to Expect in Mixed Spectra ........................................................................................................... 24
How to Interpret Simple Mixtures ........................................................................................................... 24
Problematic Minerals in Mixtures .......................................................................................................... 25
EXERCI SE 4: MI XED MI NERALS, CRYSTALLI NI TY AND COMPOSI TI ONAL VARI ATI ONS. ............................. 26
EXERCISE 4(CONT): SPECTRA FROM A SERIES OF SAMPLES FROM A SIMULATED DRILL HOLE ....................... 27

Table of Contents

ii
SESSION 3: SAMPLE MEASUREMENT ISSUES ................................................................................... 29
INTRODUCTION ................................................................................................................................... 29
SOIL SAMPLES .................................................................................................................................... 29
THIN SECTIONS ................................................................................................................................... 30
OUTCROP/SOIL ROCK CHIPS ................................................................................................................ 30
RAB/RC DRILL CUTTINGS .................................................................................................................. 31
DRILL CORE ....................................................................................................................................... 31
GEOCHEMICAL PULP SAMPLES ............................................................................................................ 32
INFLUENCE OF WATER ........................................................................................................................ 33
Recognising the Presence of Water ......................................................................................................... 33
Wet Samples........................................................................................................................................... 33
Drying Wet Samples ............................................................................................................................... 33
NOISE IN SPECTRA .............................................................................................................................. 34
Recognising Noise .................................................................................................................................. 34
Overcoming Noise .................................................................................................................................. 35
OTHER MEASUREMENT AND SAMPLE ARTEFACTS.................................................................................. 35
ARTEFACT FEATURES .......................................................................................................................... 35
PARTICLE SIZE EFFECTS ...................................................................................................................... 36
Powders versus Rocks ............................................................................................................................ 36
Significance of Particle Size Effects ........................................................................................................ 36
SESSION 4: DATA ANALYSIS SOFTWARE TSG PRO (THE SPECTRAL GEOLOGIST) ................. 37
INTRODUCTION ................................................................................................................................... 37
GETTING STARTED .............................................................................................................................. 37
THE SUMMARY SCREEN ...................................................................................................................... 37
Overview or Spatial Plots ....................................................................................................................... 37
SPECTRUM SCREEN ............................................................................................................................. 38
STACK SCREEN ................................................................................................................................... 38
LOG SCREEN ....................................................................................................................................... 38
The Pop Up Context Menus .................................................................................................................... 39
Spectral Items and Scalar Items .............................................................................................................. 39
CREATING NEW SCALAR DATA ........................................................................................................... 39
Importing Scalar Data Exercise (optional) ............................................................................................. 39
SCATTER SCREEN ............................................................................................................................... 40
FLOATER WINDOW .............................................................................................................................. 40
SESSION 5: APPROACHES TO SPECTRAL ANALYSIS ...................................................................... 41
INTRODUCTION ................................................................................................................................... 41
MANUAL INTERPRETATION ................................................................................................................. 41
AUTOMATIC MINERAL IDENTIFICATION ............................................................................................... 41
The Spectral Assistant ............................................................................................................................ 42
User defined Spectral Libraries and Custom Libraries ............................................................................ 44
SPECTRAL PARAMETERS ..................................................................................................................... 46
What are Spectral Parameters ................................................................................................................ 46
Calculating Spectral Parameters (using TSG)......................................................................................... 46
Exercise 7 Calculating Spectral Parameters: .......................................................................................... 49
Commonly Used Spectral Parameters ..................................................................................................... 50
SESSION 6: CASE STUDIES AND CLIENT SPECIFIC EXERCISES ................................................... 56
USEFUL REFERENCES ............................................................................................................................ 57
Session 1: Introduction to Spectral Geology
0
SESSION 1: INTRODUCTION TO SPECTRAL GEOLOGY

Introduction
Spectral analysis is a means of obtaining rapid and cost effective data on sample mineralogy and on
mineral characteristics. As measurement is fast and sample preparation minimal, very large volumes of
data covering large numbers of samples can be obtained in a short time. These data can then be used
for a number of applications in exploration and mining, such as:
- Delineating alteration systems;
- Understanding alteration-mineralisation relationships;
- Target generation;
- Tackling grade control problems;
- Identifying overburden/bedrock boundaries.
Over recent years, spectral analysis has been effectively applied to mineral exploration and
characterisation of alteration suites worldwide and in a wide range of geological settings.
Field Spectrometers
The PIMA and ASD spectrometers (Terraspec, Labspec and Fieldspec) are a generation of field-portable
instruments that are ideally suited to field-based alteration mapping. The important characteristics of
field spectrometers include:
- Laboratory quality spectral data of minerals, permitting the determination of fine spectral details,
such as crystallinity variations and elemental substitution.
- An internal light source in most cases, no restrictions on location or time of day;
- Each measurement requires no sample preparation (although samples need to be dry);
- Spectra are acquired in ~3-60 seconds, allowing the rapid collection of a large number of analyses in
a short time frame;
- Instant display of spectra on PC/palmtop screen;
- Measurements can be made of all types of samples including, diamond drill core, RC and RAB chips,
outcrop and soil samples and selective measurements may be made of in situ veins, breccia
fragments and small-scale alteration zoning (provided that samples are dry).

Automated measurement: Core logging and HyLogging
In cases where the volume of samples is very large, for example when many kilometres of core are
needed to be analysed, automated measurement is more suitable than hand held. One of the options
for automated analysis is to use a HyLogging system.
The HyLogging system feeds core in core trays under the spectrometer using an automated table and a
step and measure system. The output data are therefore systematic readings of the core at millimetre
spacing, allowing very detailed down hole mineralogy to be analysed. In addition, high resolution
photography of the core is also collected along with the spectral readings. All the photography is tied to
the spectral data, so that the exact piece of core can be viewed alongside the corresponding spectral
data.

1

An added advantage of the HyLogging system is that it makes systematic and objective readings of the
core. In hand held readings, in contrast, the selection of the locations to measure are controlled by an
operator and this still leaves open the possibility of some subtle but potentially significant intersections
being missed.

Short Wavelength Infrared (SWIR) spectral region
The spectrometers discussed above measure the spectra of rocks and minerals in the short wavelength
infrared (SWIR), from 1300-2500nm. They all measure the reflected radiation from the surface of a sample.
The ASD and HyLogging spectrometers also measure in the visible-near infrared (vis-NIR) wavelengths.
A new generation of PIMAs will be available by 2009 which will also measure the full visible-NIR-SWIR
range.
The figure below illustrates the vis-NIR-SWIR wavelength range relative to the visible and Mid-Infrared
(MIR) wavelengths.
As most common alteration minerals have their absorption features in the SWIR, this spectral region will
be discussed in most detail in this manual. The visible-NIR absorptions will be discussed also, where
necessary.

SWIR Infrared Spectrometry
SWIR infrared spectrometry is a useful technique for mineral identification because many minerals have
characteristic spectral signatures or spectra. This is because a mineral spectrum is dependent on
various crystallographic factors unique to each mineral species.
When a sample is illuminated by the light source from the spectrometer, certain wavelengths of light
are absorbed by the minerals in the sample, as a result of sub-molecular vibrations. This vibration is the
result of bending and stretching of molecular bonds in the minerals.
Although the molecular vibrations have primary (or, more correctly, fundamental) absorption features
in the Mid-Infrared, the absorptions that we see in the SWIR are related to harmonics of these
fundamental vibrations.
These absorptions are represented in the reflectance spectrum as minima below the baseline of the
spectrum.

PIMA and ASD
ASD HyLog (+ new
PIMA)
2

Pattern Recognition
A mineral spectrum can be thought of as that minerals signature. This is because, for most minerals,
their absorption features together form a distinctive pattern characteristic of a particular mineral group.
With practice, these signatures can be recognised by simple pattern recognition, which allow different
minerals to be identified.
3
Exercise 1: Pattern recognition
Below are plots of 13 'unknown' spectra. Compare these signatures to the 7 library spectra (A-G) and
label the unknowns with the letter of the matching library spectrum.

4

Absorption Features Relevant to the SWIR
The majority of the absorption features in the SWIR are related to the bending and stretching of the
bonds in:
- Hydroxyl (OH);
- Water (H
2
O);
- Carbonate (CO
3
);

- Ammonia (NH
4
).
It is the hydroxyl anion that produces the majority of the diagnostic absorptions in the SWIR mineral
spectra, because its crystallographic position and environment varies between most minerals. The OH
vibrations also form combinations with what are called lattice vibrations and absorptions related to the
vibrations between:
- AlOH;

- FeOH;
- MgOH.
The carbonate anion produces characteristic SWIR absorption features in carbonate spectra.
In contrast to OH and CO
3
, the absorption features associated with water and ammonia often do not
differ between minerals, and therefore are not always diagnostic.

Suitable Mineral Groups for SWIR Analysis
The molecules OH, water, AlOH, FeOH, MgOH, CO
3
and NH
4
are found as major components in:
Phyllosilicates (e.g. clays, chlorite and serpentine minerals);
Hydroxylated silicates (e.g. epidotes and amphiboles);
Sulphates (e.g. alunite, jarosite and gypsum);
Carbonates (e.g. calcite, dolomite, ankerite and magnesite);
Ammonium-bearing minerals (e.g. buddingtonite, NH
4
-illites).
It is the minerals in these groups that can be detected in the SWIR spectra.

Unsuitable Mineral Groups for SWIR Analysis
These are minerals that do not have structural OH, water and CO
3
do not display any diagnostic
absorption features in the SWIR wavelength region. These minerals include quartz and feldspar. The
spectra of samples dominated by these other minerals can, however, display absorptions associated
with non-diagnostic secondary components. For example:
- Broad water bands, associated with fluid inclusions;
- Clay absorptions, due to weathering/alteration of felspathic components in the sample.
5
Absorption Features Relevant to the Visible-near infrared (vis-NIR)
Whereas the absorptions in the SWIR are associated with molecular bonds, those observed in the
visible-NIR are associated with sub-atomic transitions.
The majority of the absorption features commonly observed in the vis-NIR are related to the electronic
transitions in iron (both ferric (Fe3
+
) and ferrous (Fe2
+
).
In general, most iron bearing minerals will have ferric and/or ferrous absorption features in the vis-NIR.
Other commonly observed transition elements in minerals that also give rise to features in the vis-NIR
include copper and manganese.

In summary, minerals with diagnostic absorption features in the vis-NIR include:
Iron oxides, goethite, hematite: ferric features
Pyroxenes (opx and cpx), olivines: ferrous features
Hydroxylated silicates with Fe, such as chlorite, biotite, epidote: ferric and ferrous features;
Sulphates, jarosite: ferric iron;
Iron carbonates: ferrous iron, with intensity dependent on iron content of carbonate. Leads to
the Fe
2+
slope seen in the SWIR;
Cu-oxides and carbonates;
Mn carbonates and silicates;
Visible wavelengths can also include features associated with rare earth elements

He
~860nm
Go
~930nm
Hematite and goethite ferric
absorption features
Red
Peak
Intense
charge
transfer
6

Pyroxene ferrous absorptions
OPX

CPX

Fe Carbonate ferrous absorptions
(illite+Fe carbonate assemblage)
CPX

7

The Wavelengths of the Main Absorptions in the SWIR
The absorption features of OH, water, AlOH, FeOH, MgOH and CO
3
commonly occur in characteristic
wavelength bands.
These are:
- OH ~1400nm (also ~1550nm, ~1750-1850nm in some minerals)
- Water ~1400nm and ~1900nm
- Al-OH ~2160-2220nm
- Fe-OH ~2230-2295nm
- Mg-OH ~2300-2360nm
- CO
3
~2300-2350nm (and also at 1870nm, 1990nm and 2155nm)

The wavelength positions of these absorptions can also give valuable information on the composition of
the mineral, particularly those of the AlOH, FeOH, MgOH and CO
3
absorptions (see Spectral Band Figure
on the next page).

These absorption features are significant because in noisy or weak spectra they allow identification of at
least the mineral group/composition (e.g as an MgOH mineral, or AlOH clay).

Exercise 2: Spectral absorption bands
Allocate the spectra from Exercise 1 to their compositional groups using the Spectral Band Figure (see
next page).

8

1300 1400 1500 1600 1700 1800 1900 2000 2100 2200 2300 2400 2500
Wavelength (nanometres)
Water and OH
(Water = single broad
absorption +/- shoulders)
(OH = can be multiple
sharp absorptions of
varying intensities)
OH
(eg sulphates
+kaolinite
clays
+ diaspore)
Water
(Single broad
asymmetric
absorption
+/-shoulders)
AlOH
FeOH
CO3
MgOH
(if deepest)
and/or

(Otherwise check
in AlOH band as
it may be a 2ndy
AlOH feature)
1
3
5
0
1
5
5
0
1
7
2
0
1
8
6
0
1
8
8
0
2
0
4
0
2
1
6
0
2
2
2
0
2
2
3
0
2
2
9
6
2
3
0
6
2
3
6
5
Note: If the deepest absorption
is in the AlOH waveband,
absorptions at these wavelengths
will include SECONDARY
AlOH absorptions of that mineral.
9

Information in the Reflectance Hull
The raw spectral data are termed reflectance spectra. In addition to displaying absorption features, the
reflectance spectra are influenced by absorptions out of the SWIR range. These are commonly due to:
- Ferrous (Fe
2+
) iron absorptions around 1000nm;
- Strong water and carbonate absorptions around 2700nm.

The influence of these out-of-range absorptions extend into the SWIR wavelength range and affect the
overall background shape (or continuum) of the spectrum. This background curvature of the reflectance
spectrum is known as the reflectance hull.
Significantly, the influence of ferrous iron on the reflectance spectrum provides an added dimension of
spectral information. This allows Fe
2+
iron-bearing minerals to be distinguished from non-iron-bearing
equivalents in cases where these minerals are otherwise spectrally identical (e.g. actinolite and
tremolite).

Removing the Reflectance Hull
Although the reflectance hull contains useful information, the curvature tends to distort the spectral
absorption features in the SWIR. This can make determination of the wavelength positions of the longer
wavelength absorptions difficult, particularly those on the steepest parts of the reflectance spectrum.
It is advisable to process the spectra to remove the reflectance hull and to enhance the spectral
absorption features in the SWIR. This enhancement is achieved by applying a base-line correction to the
spectral data.
The correction commonly used with the SWIR spectral data is:
- Hull quotient, in which the hull and reflectance spectra are ratioed
The result of this processing is a "hull quotient spectrum.
The features in the SWIR part of the spectrum are best viewed using the hull quotient corrected spectra.
However, the features in the visible-NIR part of the spectrum are often best viewed as reflectance
spectra, as they are broad and the hull quotient correction can typically distort their wavelengths. In
particular the steep absorption slope in the iron oxide spectra, which can provide useful information on
the iron oxide intensity, will be removed by this process.

10
The figure below illustrates the method of hull quotient correction.

class:biotite/chlorite mineral:Fe2+
Wavelength in nm
R
e
f
l
e
c
t
a
n
c
e
600 900 1200 1500 1800 2100 2400
0
. 2
A
B
Hull Correction = A/B
1300
2500
Hull
Line
Raw Reflectance
Hull Quotient
350
Hull Quotient Correction
Session 2: A Structured Approach to Spectral Analysis
11

SESSION 2:
A STRUCTURED APPROACH TO SPECTRAL ANALYSIS
Introduction
Although the spectral signatures or patterns of minerals are characteristic, it is cumbersome to identify
an unknown spectrum by comparison with spectra in a large spectral library. It is useful therefore to
have a methodology to follow.
Interpretation of SWIR mineral spectra is based on the following important points:
- Most minerals have a characteristic spectrum between 1300-2500nm;
- Most minerals have major diagnostic absorption features between 2050-2450nm;
- Most minerals can be grouped spectrally according to the wavelength position of the deepest
absorption feature between 2050-2450nm.

A Structured Approach to Spectral Interpretation
The following steps provide a method for easy spectral interpretation, using the GMEX spectral library
provided in the course. These steps are summarised in the figure on the next page.

1. Obtain the best spectrum of your sample (hull corrected and smoothed if necessary) and get the
best display of the spectrum on paper or on the PC screen.
2. Look at the 2050-2450nm spectral region.
3. Identify the deepest absorption in the 2050-2450nm spectral region and note its wavelength
position.
4. Look this wavelength up in the spectral search index (on the CD) and identify which spectral group
the spectrum belongs to.
5. Go to that spectral group in the spectral library.
6. Looking at the 2050-2450nm spectral region, take into account other absorption features and
compare the unknown spectrum with each of the spectra of this spectral group.
7. Take into account other absorption features between 1300-2050nm and cross check your
identification to confirm similarities with the library spectrum, and to make a final distinction
between spectrally similar minerals.

Most spectra will be identified after these steps have been carried out. However, if it is still not possible
to make a full identification then you may be looking at a mixed spectrum, comprising overlapping
absorption features of different minerals.

12

Exercise 3: Spectral interpretation
Interpret the spectra from Exercises 1 and 2 using the search index in the GMEX Spectral Library and the
structured approach to spectral interpretation.

13
Spectral Variations within Mineral Groups
Introduction
Subtle spectral variations, such as wavelength shifts and variations in the shapes of the absorption
features, may be observed within the spectra from a mineral group. These may be attributed to:
- Crystallinity variations;
- Compositional variations;

Influence of Crystallinity
Crystallinity variations, in mineral groups such as the sericites and kaolinites, are typically represented
by subtle variations in the shapes of the absorption features.
- Poorly crystalline minerals, for example, often display relatively broad absorption features with
poorly developed secondary absorption features.
- In contrast, highly crystalline minerals typically have well-developed absorption features, which are
often sharp and well-defined.

Influence of Composition
Compositional variations in mineral groups such as the sericites, chlorites and carbonates, are typically
represented by shifts in the wavelength positions of diagnostic absorption features, with the overall
characteristic spectral signature of the mineral remaining generally unchanged.

14
Crystallinity and its Effect on the Spectral Responses of Kaolinites

Examples of kaolinite crystallinity applications:
Delineating zonation in regolith profiles,
Distinction of weathered versus altered kaolinites,
Zoning in an alteration system.

Kaolinite crystallinity variations in weathered profiles: note change in the shape and wavelength of the 2160nm
secondary kaolinite diagnostic absorption. This absorption gets weaker with decreasing crystallinity, eventually
appearing as a shoulder in the most poorly crystalline kaolinites.

NOTE: TSG Plotting: colour mapping/scaling for kaolinite crystallinity (slope measurement) min=0.98, max =1.1,
this will colour the low crystallinity in dark blue and high crystallinity in red.
15
Crystallinity and its Effect on the Spectral Responses of illite

Examples of sericite crystallinity applications:
Mapping clay alteration in epithermal systems.
Distinguishing secondary and primary micas.

Changes in crystallinity are mostly observed in the changing relative depths of the water and AlOH absorptions. Illites
typically have mixed layers of smectite-white mica, as crystallinity increases the smectite layers decrease and this is paralleled
by the decrease in the depth of the water absorption.
NOTE: TSG Plotting: colour mapping/scaling for white mica (illite) crystallinity: min=0.8, max =2.2, this will colour the low
crystallinity in dark blue and high crystallinity in red.

Water band
AlOH band
16

Composition and its Effect on the Spectral Responses of Sericites
White mica (illite, sericite etc) composition can be determined using the wavelengths of the diagnostic AlOH white mica
absorption. This occurs at different wavelengths depending on the white mica octahedral Al content.
White mica AlOH wavelength
Paragonite (high Al, including paragonitic illite) 2180-2190nm
Muscovite (normal potassic including illite) 2200-2210nm
Phengite (low Al, Mg-Fe mica, including phengitic illite) 2216-2228nm
NOTE: TSG Plotting, colour mapping/scaling for white mica composition: min=2200, max =2216nm, this will colour the
paragonitic mica in dark blue and phengitic mica in red, and muscovitic compositions mostly in green.

1300 1400 1500 1600 1700 1800 1900 2000 2100 2200 2300 2400 2500
Paragonitic
Phengitic
Muscovitic
Examples of sericite composition
applications:
Distinguishing secondary and
primary micas
Mapping proximity to
mineralisation.
High Al
Low Al
Mg-Fe
substitution
AlOH wavelength shift
17

Composition and its Effect on the Spectral Responses of Chlorites
Chlorite composition can be determined using the wavelengths of the FeOH and MgOH absorptions of chlorite. These occur
at different wavelengths depending on the chlorite Mg:Fe ratio. Note biotite also shows similar variations.

Chlorite FeOH wavelength MgOH wavelength
Mg Chlorite 2240-2249nm 2320-2329nm
Int Chlorite 2250-2256nm 2330-2348nm
Fe Chlorite 2257-2265nm 2349-2360nm

NOTE: TSG Plotting, colour mapping/scaling for chlorite composition: min=2249, max =2256, this will colour the Mg chlorite
in dark blue and Fe chlorite in red.

Examples of chlorite composition
applications: Mapping proximity to
mineralisation in VMS and other
systems. Distinguishing secondary
and primary chlorites
18

Important NOTE: the chlorite MgOH can be affected by the presence of carbonate which overlaps the chlorite MgOH
absorption. It is therefore usually more reliable to use the FeOH absorption for determination of chlorite composition.
R
2
= 0.8619
2242
2244
2246
2248
2250
2252
2254
2256
2258
2260
2262
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1
Mg Number
W
a
v
e
l
e
n
g
t
h

(
n
m
)

R
2
= 0.85
2320
2325
2330
2335
2340
2345
2350
2355
2360
2365
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1
Mg Number
W
a
v
e
l
e
n
g
t
h

(
n
m
)
Fe-rich Mg-rich

19

Influence of Octahedral Cation on the Spectra of Smectites

Example of smectite composition applications: Delineating lithologies in deeply weathered terrain.

20

Composition and its Effect on the Spectral Responses of Carbonates

Example of carbonate composition applications: Zoning in alteration systems.
Industrial minerals: differentiating different carbonates.

21

Dolomite
Siderite
Ankerite
Calcite
Reflectance spectrum of
Siderite (Spectrum 2)
Reflectance spectrum of
Ankerite (Spectrum 3)
Mn-Carbonate
(+ Sericite)
1
2
3
4
6
7
5

(2360nm)
Note: Siderite has variable
wavelengths because of variable
substitution i.e. by Mg and/or Mn
22

Other minerals to display compositional variations include:

Biotite: similar wavelength variations to those observed in chlorite, Mg biotites have low values for their
FeOH (~<2249nm) and MgOH (<2330nm) absorptions, normal and Fe biotites have longer wavelength
values (~>2250nm and 2340-65nm).
This distinction can be important in identification of different phases of biotite i.e. background/regional
from alteration/potassic.

Alunite: The longer wavelength alunite OH absorption changes in wavelength depending on whether
the alunite is potassic or sodic.
This distinction can be important in identification of different phases of alunite and possibly distinguish
supergene from primary alteration alunite.
K Alunite has the diagnostic absorption <1480nm
Na Alunite has the diagnostic absorption >1490nm.

Na Alunite
K Alunite
23

Spectral Mixtures
Introduction
The way that the spectral responses of minerals mix is complex. Considered simply, spectral mixing can
be viewed as a linear process. For example,
Mixed Spectrum = X% Mineral 1 + Y% Mineral 2 + Z% Mineral 3

In this simple scenario the intensities of the spectral absorption features could be considered to reflect
the proportions of each mineral in the mixture.
Unfortunately very few mineral mixtures approximate linear mixing. This is because the spectral
response of a mineral mixture is influenced by various non-linear factors, which include:
- varying absorption coefficients between different minerals.
- multiple scattering within the volume of the mixed minerals;

Non-Linear Mixing
In non-linear mixing, the intensity of the absorption features often do not correspond directly to the
proportion of a particular mineral in the mixture. For example,
- clays will always dominate the spectrum in mixtures of carbonates and clays,
- carbonates are typically spectrally dominated by other spectrally absorbing minerals (e.g. chlorite
and sericite),
- talc will typically dominate in a mixed spectrum.

In addition, minerals that do not absorb in the SWIR (quartz and feldspar) will always be misrepresented
in the SWIR spectra. For example,
- clays will always dominate the spectra of mixtures of feldspar and clays, even if present in only
minor proportions.

Relative absorption strengths of some common minerals (empirical):

Carbonate ----- chlorite smectite kaolinite/white mica pyrophyllite talc
source
detector
Multiple scattering
30-100
microns
24

What to Expect in Mixed Spectra
Typically in mixed spectra, overlap of the spectral absorptions of more than one mineral usually
produces a spectrum which is often dominated by one mineral, but which displays the spectral
characteristics of other components.
The characteristics of a mixed spectrum include:
- Additional absorption features along with those of the spectrally dominant mineral;
- Additional shoulders or inflexions on the dominant mineral spectrum;
- Increased depth of absorptions, relative to the normal depths of the features in the dominant
mineral spectrum;
- Broadening of absorption features;
- Wavelength shifts in absorption features.

How to Interpret Simple Mixtures
One of the easiest ways to identify the components of a mixed spectrum is to consider the spectral
responses of a suite of samples from the same region.
These responses should represent mixtures of varying proportions of the mineral components in these
samples. Given that some of the spectra will be dominated by one or other of the mineral components,
this allows the interpretation of these end-member components in a mixed spectrum.
This type of interpretation is best achieved by comparing the suite of spectra on a stack plot.

Starting with a suite of samples from the same region, the following steps may be followed to interpret
the spectral mixtures in the suite:
1. Identify the spectrally dominant mineral, using the same procedure as applied for pure minerals.
2. By comparison with the library spectrum, identify the wavelength positions of any additional
absorption features and/or approximate positions of inflexions,
3. Note absorptions that appear deeper relative to the other absorptions, when compared to the
relative depths represented in the library spectrum.
4. Refer to the other end-member spectra, in samples above or below your unknown, to identify
the minerals that may be causing these additional features.
5. Search the spectral library for minerals that display absorptions at these wavelengths.

25

Problematic Minerals in Mixtures
Opaque minerals, such as magnetite and sulphides, have an adverse effect on the spectrum of a sample
if:
- Finely disseminated in the sample;
- Present in proportions >5-10%.

The effect on the spectrum is to:
- Significantly lower the reflectance;
- Weaken the spectral absorption features of other minerals in the sample.

Carbonaceous material in rocks such as black shales will have a similar effect on their spectral responses
as that caused by finely disseminated opaque minerals.

26

Exercise 4: Mixed minerals, crystallinity and compositional variations.
On the next page you have been provided with a series of spectra from samples from a simulated drill
hole that intersects a number of alteration zones.

1. Identify the main mineral zones that are evident down hole and identify the dominant mineral in
each zone.
............................................................................................................................. ....................
................................................................................................................................ .................

2. Identify which spectra are mixed spectra, and what the components are in the mixtures.
.................................................................................................................................................
............................................................................................................................. ....................

3. Which mineral zone displays variation in mineral crystallinity and for what minerals?
............................................................................................................................. ....................
.................................................................................................................................................

4. Which minerals display variations in composition within any of the mineral zones?
........................................................................................................................................
27
Exercise 4(cont): Spectra from a series of samples from a simulated drill hole

Session 3: Sample Measurement Issues
29
SESSION 3: SAMPLE MEASUREMENT ISSUES
Introduction
The type of sample used for analysis can influence the quality of spectral data acquired and also how
the data are interpreted. The following notes provide information on the data characteristics,
advantages and problems associated with common sample types.
There are some basic rules that should be followed when analysing any sample.
1 Ensure that the sample is dry.
2 Ensure that the surface of the sample is clean i.e. not dusty or coated with dirt or lichen or
dry vegetation.
2 Never measure through plastic (bags or containers). Always direct on sample surface or
through a thin (<=1mm) Petri dish.
3 Do not measure sample surfaces that have been coated with clear lacquers or impregnated
with resin.
4 Ensure the spectrometers sample window is clean before each measurement.
5 If measuring through a Petri dish ensure that the glass is not scratched, this can occur after
measuring a large number of samples (~700 depending on the mineralogy of the pulp samples).
The dishes need to be replaced if too scratched, or the spectra will be degraded.

The following notes discuss the advantages and disadvantages of spectral analysis of different sample
types.
Soil Samples
ADVANTAGES
In regions where little or no bedrock is exposed soil samples can provide valuable spectral
information that can be used to map lithology and alteration.
Spectral data from soil samples can be helpful in interpreting associated geochemical data sets.
Spectral analysis of soil samples is often a very cost effective and rapid method of producing surface
mineral/alteration maps.

DISADVANTAGES & TIPS
Spectra from soil samples often contain higher noise signals and weaker mineral signatures than
other sample types (e.g. rock chip samples).
In areas where the bedrock has been subjected to strong or intense weathering, soil samples can
contain few if any unweathered minerals and can be dominated by kaolinites or smectites.
Mineral crystallinities and possibly compositions may be changed from their bedrock equivalents
even where only shallow soil profiles have been developed. Smectite contents are generally higher
than in equivalent bedrock samples. These changes are all related to near surface weathering.
Surface soils often contain biogenic material that produces its own spectral signatures. These can
cause problems in interpreting the data. In areas of recent fire burn soil samples may also contain
burnt biogenic material (carbon/charcoal) which may significantly reduce the quality of spectral
data.

30

Thin Sections
ADVANTAGES
Spectral analysis may provide useful information not available from petrographic studies alone (i.e.
on mineral composition and crystallinity).

Thin sections themselves are not suitable for spectral analysis because they are too thin and (more
importantly) the resins and glues used to make them produce their own distinctive absorption
features which results in very complex spectra. The best spectra can be obtained from the thin
section off cuts.
Spectral absorption features associated with glue and resins on the sample surface or impregnated
through the sample may be present when analysing offcuts or stubs.
Some rock saws use kerosene or similar hydrocarbon based cutting fluids. These fluids can produce
absorption features if present in the sample.
Polished sections are often not suitable for spectral analysis due to their high sulphide content.

Outcrop/soil Rock Chips
ADVANTAGES
Rock chip samples generally produce strong spectral signatures compared with soils.
Rock chip samples are usually a cost effective and rapid way of producing mineral/alteration maps
from their spectral data.

Rock chip samples may not be able to provide adequate spatial coverage across the project area
and so in this sense soil samples have a clear advantage.
As with all near surface samples, rock chip samples will have suffered some degree of weathering.
Rock chip samples are inhomogeneous (unlike geochemical pulps) and so more than one
measurement may be required to characterise the sample/location.

31

RAB/RC Drill Cuttings
ADVANTAGES
RAB/RC Drill cuttings are quite homogenous and so the spectral signature of these samples
represents an average signature for the sampled interval.
Spectral analysis results can be compared directly with the equivalent geochemical data.

The spectral response will be less responsive to subtle alteration indicators the longer/wider the
sampled interval. This is a potential problem where alteration related minerals are not pervasive
but may be restricted to veins, vein selvages or fracture surfaces. The concept of dilution applies to
spectral analysis in the same way as it does to geochemical analysis.
Samples may be wet when drilled. If possible, one way to dry the samples is to leave them open for
a few days prior to measuring them (provided that the climate is dry and not excessively humid).
Dont wait until the samples have to be measured before discovering that they need drying.
Under wet drilling conditions a significant proportion of the fines may be washed out of the sample
in certain rock types. It is sometimes useful to test this by drying and then analysing the fines
captured from expelled water.

Drill Core
ADVANTAGES
Highly specific measurements of matrix material, clasts, veins, vein selvages and fracture surfaces
are possible with this sample type.

Analysis of core often takes more time than equivalent RC samples because notes need to be
taken describing where each measurement is made and of what feature.
It is generally more difficult and time consuming to make accurate comparisons of specific core
measurements and geochemical data. This is because geochemical assays are usually carried out
over selected intervals of core.
Some contamination can occur on the surfaces of core samples associated with drilling muds or
spilt lubricating oils, hydraulic fluids or diesel fuel.
Repeat measurements are difficult unless the measurement locations are marked on the core.

32

Geochemical Pulp Samples
ADVANTAGES
Pulped samples are homogenous and so their spectral signature represents an average signature
for the sampled interval.
Pulped or crushed sample types (eg. RC/RAB cuttings and Geochemical pulp samples) can liberate
mineral species that may be preferentially developed along fractures, veins or as spotting in the
sample. This can enhance alteration signatures where these minerals are spectrally responsive (e.g.
clays, micas etc.).
Spectral analysis results can be compared directly with the equivalent geochemical data.
In core samples, the presence of water absorption features associated with fluid inclusions can
easily be confused with adsorbed water in smectites and illite/smectites. This factor can make
crystallinity and smectite proportion determinations difficult. In pulp samples however, free water
in fluid inclusions is largely removed allowing more accurate determinations of smectite proportion
and illite crystallinity to be carried out. It is rare that fluid inclusions are small enough to be
preserved in pulp samples.

Some laboratories may over grind or over heat the pulps and degrade the mineral responses, this is
not common and dependent on the laboratory.
The spectral response will be less responsive to subtle alteration indicators the wider the sampled
interval represented by the pulp sample. This is a potential problem where alteration related
minerals are not pervasive but are restricted to veins, vein selvages or fracture surfaces. The
concept of dilution applies to spectral analysis in the same way as it does to geochemical analysis.
Although producing generally brighter spectra than equivalent core or cuttings, the spectra of pulp
samples often tend to display weaker absorption features because of increased scatter at the
surface of the powder.
Where a sample contains sulphides or magnetite their liberation through crushing can cause
significant decreases in data quality.
The best sample to use is a split from the first jaw crush stage in the pulp preparation where the samples are
fine chips, before they are actually powdered.

Important
In all cases, only compare the spectral variations of similar sample types (e.g. drill core with drill core,
pulps with pulps, outcrop with outcrop, float with float and soil with soil). This will ensure consistency in
your interpretations and in the output data.

33

Influence of Water
It is important to consider the influence of water because it occurs in two forms, as:
- Free water (in wet samples);
- Bound water.

Recognising the Presence of Water
Water absorptions will occur in the spectra of:
- Wet samples;
- Samples with water-bearing fluid inclusions (e.g. in silica or carbonate);
- Minerals with structural water (e.g. smectite and gypsum).

Water has two diagnostic absorptions: one near 1400nm and the other near 1900nm.
These absorptions are typically broad and asymmetric, when compared to the sharper and more
symmetrical OH absorptions. In addition, water in wet samples has a distinctive broad rounded
minimum in the 1900nm absorption band compared with the sharper minimum of water bound within a
mineral lattice.

Wet Samples
It is recommended that all samples be dry before spectral analysis, as the water bands will tend to
swamp any diagnostic absorptions in the 1350-2000nm spectral region. This may be significant if
attempting to determine proportions of smectite in a sample, for example.
The free water bands of wet samples are easily distinguished from bound water absorptions (e.g. in
smectites) as they typically display very rounded and broad minima

Drying Wet Samples
There are several methods of drying the samples in the field or site:
- In the sun;
- Drying cabinet (~60 degrees C overnight);
- Quickly over a small gas burner;
- Microwave (
The last two options are not generally recommended as a rule because of the high temperatures that
can arise, but are useful if there is no alternative.

34

Examples of the 3 Different Types of Water Signature

Noise in Spectra
It is important to recognise noise as noise can produce artefacts which could be misinterpreted as
absorption features.
Recognising Noise
Noise can be recognised as narrow (<4nm), weak, sharp features.
Often noise can be observed between 2400-2500nm where the reflectance signal is weakest.
Noise is typically observed in dark low reflectance samples.
Another type of noise typically occurs if fluorescent lights are on during measurement. This results in
periodic noise throughout the spectrum.
Most importantly, re-measure sample and observe if noise features have disappeared or have
changed wavelengths.

35

Overcoming Noise
Use higher enhancement/integration modes, and re-measure the sample to obtain a better spectrum.
Alternatively try a different sample type, or part of sample, if available.
ASD/Terraspec spectra can often be very noisy, especially at longer wavelengths. If this is the case, then
increase the number of averages and the time taken to measure your sample. In addition, to improve
ASD spectra, warm up light source before measuring for at least an hour.
Note that some samples that contain opaques or carbonaceous material will always have noisy spectra.

Other measurement and sample artefacts
Spectral can also be influenced by
1. plastic features, recommended that samples are not measured through plastic bags
2. resin features: clean surfaces only, not impregnated.
3. oil spill: oil spill on sample surfaces or mixed into sample will cause spectral features.

Artefact features
Artefact features are additional features in a spectrum that are not related to the sample mineralogy.
The presence of these will lead to misidentification.
The most common artefact features are due to impurities such as kerogen oil (from drill rig, diesel spill
or other sources), dry vegetation or wood, resin impregnations, or plastic.
Other artefacts can be introduced into the spectrum by an unusual overall curvature to the spectrum,
which may be related to dark samples or poor illumination.

Example of kerogen/oil
spectra.

36

Particle Size Effects
It is important to consider the influence of particle size as this can influence the brightness of the
spectrum and the intensity of absorption features.
Powders versus Rocks
Mineral/rock powders typically have higher reflectance (i.e. are brighter) in the SWIR than their
equivalent solid rock samples.
In addition, the absorption features in the reflectance spectra of powders are typically weaker than in
rock spectra. This is due to a decrease in the depth of penetration of the radiation as a result of greater
surface scattering.
Significance of Particle Size Effects
The influence of particle size on spectral response can be significant when comparing drill core and pulp
spectra, soil and outcrop spectra, and weathered surfaces and fresh surfaces.
(Below are example spectra of different grain sizes from JPL data base)

Session 4: Data Analysis Software
37

SESSION 4: DATA ANALYSIS SOFTWARE TSG PRO (THE SPECTRAL
GEOLOGIST)
Introduction
The purpose of this session is to familiarise you with the routine analysis techniques that you are likely
to use when analysing spectral data. It is not intended to serve as a comprehensive description of the
functions available in TSG. A comprehensive user manual of all the TSG functions is embedded in TSG
for users who wish to look more in depth into the TSG functions.
TSG is used here as a vehicle to convey the analysis concepts discussed in the workshop.
Getting Started
In this session we will examine a range of analysis techniques using TSG and spectral data that you are
already familiar with from Exercise 4.
1) Start TSG
2) Open the file Exercise 4 TSG Pro.
The Summary Screen
When you first open a dataset TSG presents summary information on the spectral data in the form of an
Assemblage Histogram and a Feature Frequency Chart.
Overview or Spatial Plots
The Overview Plot is driven by the spectral analysis algorithm called The Spectral Assistant. The
histogram is designed to give you an overview of the mineral species or classes likely to be present in
your data set. It can be a valuable indication of the assemblages or suites of minerals (eg. phyllic,
propylitic, argillic, felsic, mafic, ultramafic, etc.) present, before launching into the detail analysis of a
large number of individual spectra.

The TSA SWIR or VNIR (vis-NIR)) results can be shown in the Overview Plot. In addition, you can use the
Level drop down list to control how the results of TSA are reported so that either specific mineral
names or general mineral classes are reported. For example dickite can be reported either as dickite
(mineral) or Kaolinite Group (class).
The spatial plot will show a plot of the TSA results as they are represented down hole and can be a quick
summary of the broad mineral trends down hole as detected by TSA.

Colours in the Overview Plot
In multicoloured display mode (the default) the colours in the Overview Plot represent the likelihood of
the mineral match being correct, these colours are assigned based on the TSA Fit Error. In these types of
spectral identification algorithms no match can be perfect and so these data should be interpreted in
terms of probabilities. The TSA fit errors are also shown as a coloured and numbered legend with the
title Error on the right hand side of the plot.

38

Spectrum Screen

This screen is used to display and examine single spectra in detail. You can also use this screen to
compare (overlay) spectra from the system library or different parts of the current data set using the
built in reference libraries for the SWIR and vis-NIR, and also the 2
nd
options. It is also possible to
overlay other TSG files that have been attached as Aux files (using the aux option and attach aux).
Spectra can be selected from the file list and displayed using any of the available spectral layers eg. Hull
Quotient, reflectance etc.
Because all of the main screens are linked, selecting a different part of the data set in the Log or Stack
Screens will immediately update the active spectrum in the Spectrum Screen. All of the information
displayed in the Log Screen that is associated with the current spectrum (eg. geochemistry, coordinate
data, spectral parameters etc.) can also be displayed in the Spectrum Screen.
With the exception of the Smooth option and the Reset button all of these on-screen controls can be
accessed from the pop-up menu and the Spectrum options under the View Menu.
The automated TSA results are shown at the bottom right of the spectrum, together with a verbal
expression of the error levels (i.e very likely, probable, possible or Im guessing here). These
qualitative expressions are based on the quantitative calculation of the errors of the fit in the TSA
results, the quantitative values can be displayed and viewed in the Log Screen.
Stack Screen
The Stack Screen is used to display numbers of stacked spectra in either line or image/colour slice
format. It allows detailed analysis of portions of the data set while still providing access to the Log
Screen data. In particular it is useful for identifying repeating patterns or blocks of similar spectra as well
as gradually changing trends through a dataset. Selecting a spectrum in the Stack Screen will update the
Spectrum Screen while zooming to a particular portion of the data set will also update the Log Screen
view.
With the exception of the 'Gap' option all of the Stack Screen on-screen controls can be accessed via the
View Menu and the pop-up menu.
Log Screen
This screen is one of the most powerful screens in TSG. It allows other data sets associated with a suite
of spectra to be integrated and analysed alongside your spectral data. The Log screen is designed to
display spectral data, geochemical data, comment fields and any other types of numerical and text fields
relevant to the data set in a format which most exploration geoscientists will probably find familiar. The
concept is based on a drill hole log but is equally effective when dealing with surface traverse or
geochemical sample grid data. It is possible to display very large amounts of data using the Log Screen.
Users can display up to 32 Log Columns and can remove or add them at will. Users can adjust their
width, move their screen position, scale and change the colours of the displays within them. Text,
spectral image logs (colour slices), bar graphs, line graphs can all be displayed in the Log Columns.
Most importantly, the information displayed in the Log Screen can be displayed for the active spectrum
in the Scatter, Spectrum and Stack Screens by using the icon or the Logs status bar option on the
pop up menu when in any of these screens.

39

The Pop Up Context Menus
The pop up menu is activated from the right mouse button. Almost all of the display, analysis and
output functions available in the different TSG Screens can be controlled using the pop up menu.

Spectral Items and Scalar Items
The Log Screen allows you to display two different types of data. These are referred to as Spectral Items
and Scalar Items.
Spectral Items relate to your spectral data. A number of layers or formats of spectral data can be
displayed including Hull Quotient, Reflectance, Normalised Hull Quotient and Normalised Reflectance
spectral data. (see the View menu or the list at the bottom of the pop up menu )
Scalar Items are numerical or text values related to the spectral data. The most commonly used types of
scalar data are assay data, coordinate data, numerical rock codes, geophysical data and spectral
parameter data (derived from the spectral data).
Creating New Scalar Data
TSG can store over 400 different scalars in a data file. These scalars may be derived from external data
sources, spectral data (spectral parameters) or arithmetic calculations involving combinations of existing
scalars.
New scalars can be derived from a number of different sources including:
1. Import scalar from .CSV (Comma Separated Value ASCII format) file or from the clipboard;
2. From the results of Arithmetic Expressions using existing scalars (often used for geochemistry and
spectral parameter ratios);
3. Construction from spectral data (i.e. spectral parameters).
Importing Scalar Data Exercise (optional)
This method of creating a new scalar dataset is usually used to import assay and coordinate data. We
will start by creating a .CSV file and entering some imaginary assay data.
1) Using the 'Export' function from either the pop up menu or the 'Edit' menu select 'to csv (scalars)'
or 'to csv (params)'. Give the new .CSV file a name and write it to the TSG data folder.
2) Using a spread sheet program (e.g. MS Excel) open this file, create a new column of imaginary assay
data, (make sure you give the new column a heading) save this file in .CSV format overwriting the
original, and then close the file (if you don't close the file TSG will be denied permission to access
it).
3) Activate the first of the blank columns in your Log Screen (left mouse button). Now select Import'
from the 'File' menu, which opens the new scalar dialogue.
4) Give the new scalar a name or leave this option blank if you want to use the data column heading
from the .CSV file as the scalar name.
5) The 'Import..' option from the 'Method' dialogue will be selected. Click the 'Next' button.
6) Select your .CSV file, the column of new data to be imported and use the option to match the
sample numbers (index) in the CSV file to you TSG spectral data. Click the 'Finish ' button.
7) Your new scalar data should now appear in the Log column that you selected.
The same procedure can be applied to import 100s or even 1000s of data points from CSV files
containing assay data, coordinate data or any other numeric data set.

40

Scatter Screen
Alongside the Log screen the Scatter Plot screen forms the heart of TSG's data analysis capabilities. The
Scatter Plot screen allows you to assign any scalar values to X or Y axes and a third scalar to the colour
scale (Z) in up to 12 simultaneously displayed graphs. Graph windows can also display frequency
histograms for any selected scalar.
Many TSG datasets are composed of a variety of data types including spectral data, geochemistry and
coordinate data. The Scatter plot screen is designed to allow you to display and analyse all of these data
types as an integrated data set. In addition, each plot window in the Scatter screen is linked so that the
selected data point/sample/spectrum in one screen is highlighted in all the other screens currently on
display.
By assigning coordinate data to X and Y axes the Scatter Plot screen can be used to display sample
spatial distribution in plan or section. This allows the spatial distribution of geochemistry and alteration
mineralogy to be simultaneously investigated. This functionality combined with the Floater also allows
the simultaneous analysis of hundreds or even thousands of spectra while at the same time allowing
you to keep track of individual sample's spectral or mineralogical characteristics.

Floater window
The floating spectrum window (or Floater) is one of TSG most useful features. It is a resizable floating
spectrum display window that allows the user to view the spectrum of the 'active' or 'selected' sample
from the Scatter, Spectrum, Log or Stack screens. This means that while examining scatter plots
containing many hundreds of samples showing geochemistry and other data you can still keep track of
the spectral characteristics of each sample. The Floater is automatically updated as your cursor moves
over and selects new data points or spectra in the Scatter, Spectrum, Log and Stack screens
The floater window also has additional functions and can be operated on in different modes other than
spectrum. These include TSA (The Spectral Assistant) mode, Aux Match mode linescan and picture
mode.
The TSA mode allows the user to observe the fit between the TSA calculated match and the
unknown spectrum.
Aux match mode allows the user to match the unknown spectrum to a user defined spectral
library (another TSG file). This user library is termed the auxiliary file, and can be attached to
the current TSG file for overlay and 1:1 comparison. The aux match mode gives the goodness of
fit between a library spectrum and an unknown spectrum.
Linescan mode allows you to view the linescan image data for the active spectrum in HyLogging
data sets which will show the exact piece of core that was measured.
Picture mode allows the user to display a .bip or .jpg image of a sample or core tray.
Both The Spectral Assistant and Aux match methods are discussed in more detail in the next section.

Session 5: Approaches to Spectral Analysis
41
SESSION 5:
APPROACHES TO SPECTRAL ANALYSIS
Introduction
There are three main approaches to spectral analysis, these are:
Manual Interpretation
Mineral identification software
o Automated
o User defined training libraries
Spectral parameters / digital mineralogy
Each approach is appropriate to different stages of an analysis process and dependent on the number of
spectra/samples in a project.
Manual Interpretation
This approach describes the method of individually interpreting each spectrum. This approach requires an
experienced operator and can recognise between 1-5 minerals in each spectrum. It is important at the early stages
of a project, and for relatively small data sets of <500 spectra, but is generally slow and therefore expensive for
large data sets. In addition, the results are often written descriptions, and subtle variations in mineral species such
as crystallinity and composition are often missed and it is difficult to track subtle variations spatially

Automatic Mineral Identification
In this approach automated algorithms are used to interpret the spectral data. These algorithms are either
dependent on an inbuilt training library (such as The Spectral Assistant) or on a user defined spectral library. A large
number of spectra can be processed very fast using this approach, and the data are output in digital form that are
easily compared with other data sets in TSG.
However, it is important to note that the method is very dependent on the quality of the training library being used
and whether the spectra in the library are representative of the spectra in a project area. As automated methods
are largely based on probabilities, the reported interpretations must be considered only to be the most likely results
but not necessarily the only, or even the correct, results. This issue is less of a problem when dealing with very large
data sets as the errors become part of a certain percentage of noise in the results, but becomes more significant
with small data sets.
There is also a danger of users becoming reliant on the automated output without cross checking the results to see
if they are happy with the output. It is vital for users to bring in geological knowledge to the results, and not treat
the data blindly.

42

The Spectral Assistant
The Spectral Assistant (TSA) is an algorithm built into TSG for automated spectral unmixing and as an aid
to mineralogical identification. TSA uses its training library either to match the spectrum against a single
mineral OR to create a simulated mixture of two minerals that most closely resembles the input
spectrum (whichever case has the lowest errors). TSA runs automatically in the background when
creating a new TSG dataset, and the results are written into the TSG file as Protected System Scalars (i.e.
they can be viewed and used in TSG but cannot be directly modified). These scalars are shown in the
figure below.

TSA has been trained using a Training Library of over 500 samples, representing 45 pure minerals and 11
different non-mineral artefact spectra. The samples have been collected from many sites around the world,
in an attempt to represent the diversity of samples of the same mineral.
However, before copying a table of TSA results straight into a final report, you should understand that the
word "Assistant" was not included in the method's name just because it has a nice ring to it. It is a reminder
that even TSA v6.1, which is a state-of-the-art automated spectral unmixing technique, is not perfect.
TSA results should be authenticated by a human - ideally an expert. At least results should be checked against
the reference spectra provided in the TSG reference libraries, to ensure consistency.

TSA Spectral Weights
A singleton (one mineral) result always has a weight of 1, meaning that the result accounts for the
matched mineral and nothing else. In this case, the single mineral is reported in TSA Mineral 1, with the
TSA Mineral 2 slot reporting NULL (as there is no 2
nd
mineral).
Amongst the best fitting mixtures of 2 minerals, the 2 weights are constrained to be positive and to sum
to 1, and so can be interpreted as relative spectral proportions.
IMPORTANT NOTE: The proportions reported by TSA should not be interpreted literally as representing
the weight or volume proportions of the components of the mixtures. This is because the fitting
procedure is based on some idealised assumptions, the most fundamental of which is that there is log-
linear mixing of pure spectra whose absorption features have standardised intensities.
In addition, it should be noted that although TSA has been trained to recognise most of the more common minerals,
these are still based on a limited class of minerals that generate spectral responses in the SWIR (in the form of
distinctive absorption features). Thus unexpected minerals and those that are not "SWIR-active", such as quartz and
feldspar, will not contribute to the estimated total bulk composition of the sample. For instance, a sample
containing 60% quartz, 20% standardised kaolinite and 20% standardised illite with a good signal-to-noise ratio is
likely to be identified by TSA as a spectral mixture of about 50% kaolinite and 50% illite.

43

TSA Error
TSA reports a goodness-of-fit (or error) measure for each match, termed the Standardised Residual Sum of Squares,
or SRSS. This value is saved as the TSA Error.
In real-world samples, it is unlikely that there will ever be a zero-error match. The samples in TSA's training library
are not perfectly "pure" - they are real-world samples themselves, which vary. Even if all of the training samples
were pure, a pure kaolinite sample, say, would probably not get a zero-error fit on account of the natural crystal
variations in what we loosely call "kaolinite", and on account of optical effects (like scattering) that are impossible
to control with a field spectrometer.
Therefore there is a range of SRSS scores over which TSA results should be taken seriously. In general, a
result with an SRSS (TSA Error) score of 1000 or less should be considered viable. However, results with
large SRSS scores, even around 2000, may still be worth a look, but not without critical scrutiny.

Possibility of Erroneous results
As indicated previously, before copying a table of TSA results straight into a final report, you should take
care to authenticate TSAs results and remember that it is wise to understand that these are the most
likely results and are possibly not the only results. Note that TSG provides the means to add your
own interpretations and comments into the sample headers, and also to build your own class scalars
that can be based on TSA results and your own interpretation.
Under some circumstances, including issues quite beyond the algorithms control, TSA can produce
erroneous results. Known causes may include any of the following:

1. The sample contains one or more minerals or mineral variants that are not in TSA's training library
(see TSA Training Library).
2. The sample's composition is too complex for TSA to deal with as the spectrum comprises a mix of
more than two minerals.
3. The sample's spectrum is too poor, either too dark, noisy or "aspectral" (featureless). (Note,
however, that TSA will flag many of these cases.)
4. The sample contains a spectrally ambiguous component. (This problem may occur in conjunction
with one or more of the above problems.) Some minerals have very similar spectral signatures -
especially minerals from the same "family".
Examples include:
a) Illite and muscovite spectra (same family) differ only in the strengths of their water features;
b) The features that distinguish epidote from chlorite (different families) may be masked if a strong
water feature is also present.
5. The sample's spectrum was not measured correctly, due to a spectrometer miscalibration.
Miscalibration of the instrument may result in a slight shifting of important absorption features.
TSA is particularly sensitive to such shifts because it is designed to discriminate between certain
minerals whose main spectral difference is a slightly different location of one important absorption
feature (e.g. Muscovite from phengite).

44

User defined Spectral Libraries and Custom Libraries
A user defined or Custom Library can be simply other TSG file attached to a current file of unknown
spectra. You can select and attach any other TSG file you wish to your current data file. In TSG Custom
Libraries are termed Auxiliary (or Aux) libraries.
The idea behind Custom or Aux libraries is that it allows the building of characterised datasets that
relate to specific projects, alteration styles or geologic environments. Other data files can also be used
as custom libraries simply to compare the mineralogical similarities between two data sets, these might
be two drill holes from the same project or they could be from new targets suspected to be similar to
known mineralisation.
The big advantage of Custom Libraries is that they can comprise spectra of mixtures of spectra and
actual examples of the spectra from a project area rather than pure mineral spectra from museum or
private collections. This is in contrast with TSA, which has a library of single mineral spectra.
For best results Custom libraries need to be created by a spectral expert, as they need to be fully
representative of the spectral variations in the project area or deposit style.

A Custom Library is usually a project specific TSG file built as a result of a detailed pilot study of the
spectral characteristics of a project area. This type of Custom Library often comprises spectra that have
been interpreted in detail and are representative of the full spectral variation in a project area. Often
such a library is a customised version of a more general library, such as the GESSL ("Geological
Environment Specific Spectral Library") library.

Deposit Specific Spectral Libraries
Only contain
spectra from
project area
Spectra are
representative of
mineral assemblages in
project area.
Mixed mineral spectra
Output of results
in company
terminology.
Deposit specific
classifications
can be used.
45

A geological environment specific spectral library (GESSL) is one that contains spectra representative of the spectral
variations specific to a particular geological setting, such as porphyry and epithermal environments.
Using Aux Files as Custom Libraries
To attach an auxiliary TSG file (Custom Library) select Attach aux from the Spectrum Screen File menu. A file
selection window will be displayed allowing you to select the TSG file you want to be attached as the
auxiliary (Custom Library) file.
Once an Aux file has been attached the spectra in this file can be compared with the spectra in your current
TSG file in a number of ways. One way is to interactively overlay the spectra for visual comparison. This
method allows you to visually compare two spectra for spectral similarities and differences. To overlay Aux
spectra click on the Aux control at the top of the spectrum screen.
However, although useful, the overlay method is slow when dealing with a large data set. A more automated
approach is to use the Aux Match function in the floater screen.
The Aux Match function allows users to automatically search and match the spectra in the Aux file that are
similar to those in their TSG file. It also allows users to compare the matching results and to save the results
of the search match as TSG scalars. The searching, comparing and saving functions available with Custom
Libraries are all accessed using the Floater window. So, the first step in using custom libraries is to open the
Floater window by clicking on the Floater Icon .
Then select Aux Match mode from the Floater Mode menu. When the Aux Match mode is enabled the Floater
window will display an Auxiliary file sample list at the left hand side. This file list will be sorted in order of the
best (top) to the worst (bottom) match with the selected or active spectrum in your dataset. The colour
scale shown with the file list gives an indication of how good the match with the spectrum is, hot colours
indicate good matches, cool colours indicate poorer matches. A colour scale is also shown on the right hand
side of the Floater Screen. To test and improve the match and output the results, users have a number of
options:
Finally to output the results of the automatic Aux Matching users need to Update Aux Matches. This option is
available in the Mode menu in the Floater screen and will cause TSG to write the best current match results
for every sample in the dataset to the CustSample and CustScore protected system scalars, based on the
current settings selected by the user.
These results can then be used as any other TSG scalar and displayed in the Log Screen, plotted in the
Scatter plot screen or used to colour scale graphics in the Spectrum or Stack screens. These scalars will not
be updated to reflect changes to the attached auxiliary TSG file or to the spectral Layer displayed in the
Floater until the Update aux matches option is again selected.
The results can also be exported to a CSV file.

Geological Environment Specific Spectral Libraries
Based on observation
that there are
similarities in
mineral assemblage
between different
project areas from
the same deposit
style
Representative mineral
assemblages of the
deposit style
i.e. epithermal
Mixed mineral spectra
Output of results
as mineral
assemblages or
alteration facies
classifications
46

Practice Exercise
Open up the demo01.tsg file. Attach custom lib.tsg and test out the search-match process. Note that the custom library
can have spectra that not only can be named according to the mineral assemblage identified in the spectrum, but also
can be named according to a geological facies, whether is refers to an alteration or a weathering facies.

Spectral Parameters
Spectral parameters provide one of the most direct methods of describing the important mineralogical
characteristic of a data set. They allow spectral data to be analysed and integrated with geochemical data and they
can be used to produce spatial plots of mineral variations or alteration within a project area. Spectral parameters
are one of the most effective ways of communicating the results of spectral analyses to colleagues unfamiliar with
spectral data (i.e. in a format that can be understood and not as squiggly lines).
Spectral Parameters represent specific numerical values or combinations of values extracted from the spectral data.
They are used to represent specific mineral characteristics that can be recognised in the spectral data. Because they
relate to highly specific spectral or mineralogical characteristics it is not unusual to use several parameters to
describe the important mineral variations in a data set.
In effect the aim of using spectral parameters is to reduce the large amount of data associated with sample spectra
to a few key values that can be used to describe important characteristics or variations within the spectral data set,
for example, mineral crystallinity, mineral composition, mineral proportion etc.

What are Spectral Parameters
Put simply Spectral Parameters are numbers that relate to certain characteristics of a specified absorption feature,
these include the:
1. Wavelength
2. Depth
3. Width
4. Area
of an absorption feature. Combinations or ratios of these values from more than one absorption feature can be
used to calculate additional parameters often used to indicate mineral crystallinity or relative proportion.
A second type of parameter can be calculated that is related to the reflectance (or Y axis value) at a given
wavelength (specified in nanometres). For this type of parameter no absorption feature need be
specified. Ratios of this type of parameter can be used as a measure of the slope or gradient of a
specified region of the spectrum. These 'slope' parameters are particularly useful for describing small
changes in the shape of spectra and often relate to subtle mineralogical changes in the sample. These
'slope' parameters are commonly used to measuring the spectral response due to the presence of Fe2+
bearing minerals (eg. Fe carbonates, actinolite). This is usually done by measuring the gradient between
about 1310nm and 1600nm in the reflectance spectrum.

Calculating Spectral Parameters (using TSG)
Open the data file SpectralParamExample.tsg. Open the Construct/Import Scalar window by selecting
the New scalar menu option. Type in a name for your spectral parameter (say AlOH wavl) then select
Construct Scalar from Spectral Profile as the method of scalar creation. Click on the Next button.
The Construct Scalar from Spectral Profile window contains 6 options or dialogues that are used to
describe the scalar (spectral parameter) to be calculated. You need to check that each of these is set to
the option required to correctly calculate the spectral parameter that you want.

47

1. Spectral layer select the
spectral layer you wish to use in the calculation. You can choose from reflectance, hull quotient,
normalised reflectance, normalised hull quotient, 1st derivative and 2nd derivative layers.
2. Spectral smoothing select what level of smoothing you want to apply to the spectra prior to
calculating the spectral parameter. Smoothing will have an effect on the values calculated, particularly if
the higher levels of smooth are used. You should check what effect the smoothing has on your data by
examining the spectra in the Spectrum Screen using various levels of smooth. You can also check this by
calculating the same parameter using different levels of smooth. You can choose smoothing levels of
None, Low, Medium and High.
3. Centre wavelength this value defines the centre of the search radius (range of wavelengths)
considered when the parameter is calculated. It is specified in nanometres.
4. Radius this value tells TSG what range (nanometres) above and below the centre wavelength should
be considered in the calculation. If the parameter is aimed at describing some characteristic (eg.
wavelength, depth, etc.) of a particular absorption feature you need to make sure that the Radius is
broad enough to cover any wavelength variations in the target absorption in your data set. However,
Radius should not be so broad as to include unwanted absorption features that may also be present in
your data.
5. Fit Wavelength When this option is selected TSG will check that an absorption feature is actually
present within the defined search radius. If no absorption feature is detected NULL will be returned for
all profile types with the exception of Mean value which does not require the presence of an
absorption feature. TSG will also calculate interpolated wavelengths for absorption features when this
option is selected. Only the Mean value profile type is unaffected by this option, all of the other profile
types will report very different values if this option is not selected. See the table under 6. Profile type
to see what effect this option has on the different profile types.
6. Profile type use this dialogue to select what type of spectral information you want the calculation to
return. The following table summarises the type of output generated from each of the profile types
under 3 different conditions, Fit Wavelength ON, Fit Wavelength OFF and Search Radius = 0.

48

Profile Type What it is Fit Wavelength
ON
Fit Wavelength
OFF
Radius = 0
Wavelength at Minimum Finds the wavelength
position of the
deepest absorption
feature in the search
radius.
Interpolated
wavelength at
absorption feature
minimum. Reports on
deepest absorption
feature found within
the search radius.
Gives values to 3
decimal places.
Wavelength at
minimum reflectance
or Y axis value within
the search radius.
Value is not
interpolated and will
be reported in whole
channel values. (ie.
2nm increments for
PIMA data )
Returns the
centre
wavelength (not
very useful)
Wavelength at maximum Finds the wavelength
position of the
strongest peak in the
search radius. Useful
for working with
derivative data.

Interpolated
wavelength at peak
feature (inverted
absorption) maximum.
Useful for reporting on
peak positions in 1
st

and 2
nd
derivative
spectral layers.
Reports on largest
peak feature found
within the search
radius.
Wavelength at
maximum reflectance
the search radius.
Value is not
interpolated and will
be reported in whole
channel values. (ie.for
PIMA data 2nm
increments)
Returns the
centre
wavelength (not
very useful)
Minimum value Finds the reflectance
value (Y-axis value)
of the deepest
absorption feature in
the search radius.

Reflectance or Y axis
value at interpolated
absorption minimum.
Reports on deepest
absorption feature
found within the
search radius.
Minimum reflectance
search radius. As
above, value of feature
minimum is not
interpolated.
Returns
reflectance or Y
axis value at the
centre
wavelength
Maximum value Finds the reflectance
value (Y-axis value)
of the strongest peak
in the search radius.
Reflectance or Y axis
value at interpolated
peak feature (inverted
absorption) maximum.
Useful for reporting on
peak heights in 1s
t
and
2
nd
derivative spectral
layers. Reports on
largest peak feature
found within the
search radius.
Maximum reflectance
search radius. As
maximum is not
interpolated.
Returns
reflectance or Y
axis value at the
centre
wavelength
Mean value Finds the averaged Y-
axis value for the
specified wavelength
region. Does not
need an absorption
minimum. Useful for
slope calculations.
Average reflectance or
Y axis value within the
search radius. This
option does not need
to find an absorption
feature within the
search radius.
Average reflectance or
Y axis value within the
search radius
Returns
reflectance or Y
axis value at the
centre
wavelength
49

Profile Type What it is Fit Wavelength
ON
Fit Wavelength
OFF
Radius = 0
Relative Absorption
Depth
Finds the depth of
deepest absorption
radius.
Relative depth from
layer maximum or hull
zero-absorption
baseline of absorption
feature to the
interpolated feature
minimum. Reports on
deepest absorption
feature found within
the search radius.
Relative depth from
the layer maximum to
the minimum
reflectance or Y axis
value within the search
radius. As above, value
of feature minimum is
not interpolated..
Meaningless as
no feature will
be identified.
Returns Layer
maximum
(reflectance or Y
axis value)
minus
reflectance or Y
axis value at
centre
wavelength
Relative Absorption
Width
Finds the width of
the deepest
absorption feature in
the search radius. It
is calculated by a
ratio of area/depth.
Relative width of the
absorption feature.
This value is not
meaningful if Fit
Wavelength is turned
off and there is no
discrete absorption
feature within the
search radius.

Meaningless as
no feature will
be identified,
returns width =
1
Relative Absorption
Area
Finds the area of the
deepest absorption
radius. The area is
defined by he
maximum
value, the search
radius and the
spectrum line.
Relative area of the
absorption, bounded
by the maximum
value, the search
radius and the
spectrum line.
Relative area of the
region, bounded by
the maximum
value, the search
radius and the
spectrum line. As
minimum is not
interpolated.

Returns Layer
maximum
(reflectance or Y
axis value)
minus
reflectance or Y
axis value at
centre
wavelength
Standard Deviation This calculates the
standard deviation of
the piece of the
spectrum defined by
the search radius.

Asymmetry Coarse measurement
of asymmetry of the
deepest absorption
radius. Reports 0 for
a skewed left
feature, 1 for a
symmetric feature
and 2 for skewed
right.
Fit-wavelength does
not apply to
asymmetry. It always
works at whole-
channel granularity.

Works off the feature
minimum found at a
whole-channel value,
and works at whole-
channel granularity.
(e.g., 2nm increments
for PIMA data )

Meaningless as
no feature will
be identified,
returns 1.

Note: if more than one feature is found within the search radius only the deepest feature will be reported on.

Exercise 7 Calculating Spectral Parameters:
In the data file SpectralParamExample.tsg you will find a series of 50 spectra. Examine these spectra
and then calculate and display at least 3 different spectral parameters that describe the significant
mineralogical changes in these samples.

50

Commonly Used Spectral Parameters
The following pages list a variety of commonly used spectral parameters which can be used to describe
various characteristics of a number of important minerals. The parameters presented here are by no
means the only ones that are appropriate for these minerals and in some cases alternative parameters
may be more effective. It is recommended that as part of an initial pilot study a number of parameters
are tested with the data in order to determine which are most effective for that particular set of
spectra. All spectral parameters are vulnerable to interference by other minerals present in the sample.
The effects that additional minerals may have on a parameter must be considered when the parameter
is interpreted.
Each spectral parameter is presented with a description of its function, the details of its calculation and
some notes on the mineral species which, when present, will cause the parameter to change in
response to factors outside of its intended function. All spectral parameters are likely to produce
spurious results when calculated using excessively noisy or dark spectral data or when calculated on
spectra where the target mineral(s) are not spectrally dominant, regardless of the other minerals
present.

NOTE 1: Unless otherwise stated all parameters should be calculated using hull corrected spectra.

Troubleshooting:
If you get a lot of NULL values for an absorption feature you know is there, then the search radius is
probably not wide enough to include the full wavelength variability of that absorption feature. It is
likely that some of the occurrences are at the edge of your search radius OR outside of it.

51

WHITE MICA (MUSCOVITE, SERICITE OR ILLITE) COMPOSITION
Calculation: Wavelength AlOH
Search radius Usually the wavelength range 2180-2228nm is good to use
Center = 2204 Radius = 24
Profile type Wavelength at minimum
Range: paragonitic white mica: 2180-2190nm, muscovitic white mica: 2200-2208, phengitic white mica:
2216-2228nm. Intermediate wavelengths usually mean either mixtures of more than one mica
phase, or could mean intermediate compositions.
Common sources of unwanted modification of the parameter:
All other AlOH minerals that may be mixed with it in a sample (eg. kaolinite, dickite,
montmorillonite).

WHITE MICA (MUSCOVITE, SERICITE OR ILLITE) CRYSTALLINITY
Calculation: Depth AlOH/depth water at ~1900nm
Search radius AlOH: Usually the wavelength range 2180-2228nm is good to use
Water: The wavelength range for the illite water absorption is usually near 1900nm,
and between 1880-1940 is usually sufficient (but check your data set)
Suggested search radius: Center = 1910 Radius = 30
Profile type Relative Absorption Depth (for both)
Range: Increases with increasing crystallinity. Specifically:
values <1 imply that the water absorption is stronger than the AlOH, and the white
mica is of low crystallinity,
values >1 imply that the AlOH absorption is deeper than the water, and the white
mica is of moderate to high crystallinity (depending on the magnitude of the
parameter).
All other AlOH minerals (eg. kaolinite, dickite, halloysite);
Smectites not interlayered with illite (especially nontronite and saponite);
Free water in the sample (ie. wet samples or fluid inclusions).

52

PROPORTIONS OF WHITE MICA (MUSCOVITE, SERICITE OR ILLITE) RELATIVE TO CHLORITE
and/or CARBONATE
Calculation: Depth AlOH/depth MgOH-Ca
Search radius AlOH: Usually the wavelength range 2180-2228nm is good to use
MgOH: The wavelength range for the MgOH absorption is usually between 2300-
2370nm.
Range: Increases with increasing sericite, values <1 imply that the MgOH-Ca mineral (chlorite,
carbonate, biotite, amphibole or talc) is dominant. Values >1 imply that the white mica is
dominant.
All other AlOH minerals (eg. kaolinite, dickite, halloysite);
All MgOH-Ca minerals that are not being considered (eg. chlorite, biotite, actinolite, talc);
Changing sericite composition;
Will not detect carbonate present in small amounts (~<10-15%).

CHLORITE COMPOSITION (FE:MG), also applicable to BIOTITE composition and show a
similar range.
Calculation: Wavelength FeOH
Search radius Usually the wavelength range 2240-2270 is good to use for FeOH.
Range: 2242-2265nm,
Chlorite: increases with decreasing Mg number of the chlorite, Mg chlorite has the range 2240-
2249nm, intermediate chlorite 2250-2256, and Fe chlorite 2257-2265nm.
Biotite: phlogopite has wavelengths <2250nm, most biotites have wavelengths >2255nm)
other minerals with an FeOH feature (eg. epidote);

53

CARBONATE COMPOSITION (MG:CA)
Calculation: Wavelength MgOH-Ca
Search radius The wavelength range for the carbonate absorption is usually between 2300-2370nm.
Range: 2300-2375nm, most carbonates have distinct wavelengths that provide compositional data. The
Mg carbonates usually have the lowest wavelengths (2300-2324nm), calcite (~2340nm),
ankerite (~2332nm), and Mn carbonates (>2360nm).
All MgOH minerals (eg. biotite, chlorite, talc);
Varying sericite proportion, which influences the secondary sericite absorption near 2340nm and
masks the carbonate.

IDENTIFICATION OF DOMINANT MINERAL GROUP
Calculation: Wavelength of the deepest absorption feature between ~2150nm & ~2370nm
Search radius For this parameter you want to include the full 2180-2370 wavelength range to test which is the
deepest absorption across these wavelengths.
Meaning: This parameter will highlight whether an AlOH, FeOH or MgOH-Ca absorption dominates the
spectrum, it is useful for picking out intervals of different lithologies (i.e. mafic versus felsic).
MgOH and carbonate minerals may produce coincident values depending on composition.

54
RELATIVE PROPORTION OF SMECTITE (ALL SMECTITES)
Calculation: Depth water/depth of deepest absorption feature between ~2150nm and ~2370nm
(increases with smectite content)
Search radius Smectite AlOH OR FeOH OR MgOH:: For this parameter you also want to include the
full 2180-2370 wavelength range to test which is the deepest absorption across these
wavelengths.
Water: The wavelength range for the smectite water absorption is usually near
1900nm, and between 1880-1940 is usually sufficient (but check your data set)
Range: Increases with increasing smectite. Specifically:
values <1 imply that the smectite is subordinate to other minerals, and values >1
imply that the smectite is more dominant.
Free water in the sample (i.e. wet samples or fluid inclusions).

KAOLINITE CRYSTALLINITY (General Formula)
Calculation: mean value at 2180nm divided by mean value at 2164nm)
Search radius This parameter uses the mean value profile type at the specific wavelengths and does not
search for an absorption feature, so does not use a search radius.
Center: 2180nm Radius = 0
Center = 2164nm Radius = 0
Profile type Mean Value (for both)
Range: Increases with kaolinite crystallinity, values >1 imply that there is a well developed 2160nm
absorption feature, and values =<1 imply that the 2160 feature is only present as a shoulder or
inflexion.
All other AlOH minerals (eg. montmorillonite, sericite(illite), dickite, halloysite and especially
pyrophyllite) which will influence the intensity of the 2160nm feature;
Specific wavelengths used in the calculation may need to be modified to suit the characteristics of
kaolinite spectra from different project areas and from different spectrometers as these may vary
slightly.

55

FE
2+
RESPONSE aka FE
2+
-SLOPE
(Measure of relative proportion of Fe
2+
bearing minerals e.g. Fe carbonate, actinolite, hornblende)
Calculation: mean value at 1650nm divided by mean value at 1350nm taken from the reflectance
spectrum (i.e. no hull correction).
Search radius This parameter uses the mean value profile type at the specific wavelengths and does not
search for an absorption feature, so does not use a search radius.
Center: 1650nm Radius = 10 (average between these wavelengths
Center = 1350nm Radius = 10 (average between these wavelengths
Profile type Mean Value (for both)
Range: Increases with increasing Fe
2+
response, with values > 1 implying that there is a slope
present.
Low reflectance samples within a sample set may not display this slope very well, and this slope will
be significantly reduced in samples with sulphides and/or magnetite.
Session 6: Case Studies and Client Specific Exercises
56
SESSION 6:
CASE STUDIES AND CLIENT SPECIFIC EXERCISES

In this section, the workshop will discuss case studies and focus on exercises specific to the participants interests and
requirements.
The case studies will be presented in PowerPoint, and the set exercises will be carried out on participants PCs using
TSG.

Useful References
57
USEFUL REFERENCES
Clark, R.N., T.V.V. King, M. Klejwa, G. Swayze, and N. Vergo, 1990a. High Spectral Resolution Reflectance Spectroscopy of
Minerals, J. Geophys Res., Vol. 95, pp12653-12680.
Crowley, J.K. and Vergo, N, 1988. Near-infrared reflectance spectra of mixtures of kaolin-group minerals: Use in clay mineral
studies, in Clays and Clay Minerals, Volume 36, 4 pp310-316.
Crowley, J.K. and Vergo, N., 1988. Visible and near-infrared (0.4- to 2.5-microns) reflectance spectra of selected mixed-layer
clays and related minerals, in Proceedings of the 6th ERIM Thematic Conference, 1988, Houston, Texas, May
16-19th, pp5970-5980.
Duke, E.F., 1994. NIR spectra of muscovite, Tchermak substitution and metamorphic reaction progress: Implications for
remote sensing, Geology, Vol.22, pp621-624.
Farmer, V.C., 1968. Infrared spectroscopy in clay mineral studies, in Clay Minerals, Volume 7, pp373-387.
Farmer, V.C., and Russell, J.D. 1964. The infrared spectra of layer silicates. Spectrochimica Acta, Vol. 20, pp1149-1173.
Fraser, S J, Camuti, K, Huntington, J F and Cuff C, 1990. A study of the superficial clay distribution at Mount Leyshon: a
comparison between XRD and spectral reflectance methods, in Proceedings of the Fifth Australasian Remote
Sensing Conference, pp 906-914.
Gaffey, S, 1986. Spectral reflectance of carbonate minerals in the visible and near infrared (0.35-2.55 microns): calcite,
aragonite and dolomite, American Mineralogist, 71:151-162.
Hermann, W., Blake, M., Doyle, M., Huston, D., Kamprad, J., Merry, N. and Pontual, S. PIMA infrared spectral analysis of
hydrothermal alteration zones associated with base metal sulfide deposits at Roseberry and Western Tharsis,
Tamania, and Highway-Reward, Queensland. Economic Geology, Submitted.
Hunt, G.R. 1977. Spectral signatures of particulate silicates in the visible and NIR. Geophysics, Vol.42, No. 3, pp510-513.
Hunt, G.R., and Salisbury, J.W., 1970. Visible and near infrared spectra of minerals and rocks. I. Silicate minerals, Mod.
Geology, Vol 1, pp283-300.
Hunt, G.R., Salisbury, J.W. and Lenhoff, C.J., 1971a. Visible and near infrared spectra of minerals and rocks. III. Oxides and
hydroxides, Mod. Geology, Vol.2, pp195-205.
Hunt, G.R., Salisbury, J.W. and Lenhoff, C.J., 1973. Visible and near infrared spectra of minerals and rocks. VI. Additional
silicates, Mod. Geology, Vol. 4, pp 85-106.
Kruse, F and Hauff, P, 1991. Illite crystallinity - case histories using x-ray diffraction and reflectance spectroscopy to define ore
host environments, in Proceedings of the Eighth ERIM Thematic Conference on Geologic Remote Sensing, pp
447-458.
McLeod, R L, Gabell, A R, Green, A A and Gardavsky, V, 1987. Chlorite infrared spectral data as proximity indicators of
volcanogenic massive sulphide mineralisation, in Proceedings of the Pacific Rim Congress, pp 321-324.
Merry, N. and Pontual, S., 1996. New techniques for alteration mineral mapping in Victoria: a case study from Fosterville gold
mine. In Hughes, M.J., Ho, S.E. and Hughes, C.E. (eds), Recent Developments in Victorian Geology and
Mineralisation. Australian Institute of Geoscientists, Bulletin 20, 91-95.
Pontual S., and Merry, N.J., Gamson, P., (2009, updated): GMEX Spectral Analysis Guides for Mineral Exploration (10
volumes). AusSpec International internal publications.
Post, J L and Noble, P N, 1993. The near infrared combination band frequencies of dioctahedral smectites, micas and
illites, Clays and Clay Minerals, 41: 639-644.

SWIR Workshop Manual

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Description:

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

SWIR Workshop Manual

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Copyright

You might also like